Violence against Muslims in independent India

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Part of a series on

Islamophobia

Issues

* Tropes
* Airport profiling
* United States
* Conspiracy theories
* Counter-jihad
* Eurabia
* Great Replacement
* Halal-related
* Love jihad
* Hijabophobia
* Netherlands
* France
* Karnataka, India
* Media
* minority Muslim
* Muslim immigration bans
* Orientalism
* Persecution
* Quran desecration

Status by country

* Australia
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* Canada
* China
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* Iceland
* India
* Indonesia
* Shia
* Israel
* Italy
* Myanmar
* Netherlands
* Norway
* Poland
* Russia [ru]
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* United Kingdom
* Conservative Party
* United States
* Stereotypes

Examples

Attacks on mosques:

* Al-Hidaya
* Al-Nurayn
* Bærum
* Babri Masjid
* Banya Bashi
* Bayonne
* Beit Lahia
* Bloomington
* Christchurch
* Corsica
* Gondar
* Hyderabad
* Ibrahim
* Kattankudy
* Kosovo
* Manili
* Malegaon
* Malmö
* Palimbang
* Quebec City
* Sweden (2014)
* Zürich
* Planned attacks
* California (2001)
* Singapore

Genocide:

* Bosnian
* Ethnic cleansing
* Srebrenica
* Chechen and Ingush / Crimean Tatars
* Circassian
* Pacification of Algeria
* Palestinian genocide accusation (Gaza genocide)
* Rohingya

Massacres, torture, expulsion:

* Abu Ghraib (2000s)
* Albanians (1912–13)
* Assam (2014)
* Ayyadieh (1191)
* Baghdad (1258)
* Big Excursion (1989)
* Bossemptélé (2014)
* Bukovica (1943)
* Beirut (1975)
* Boyo (2021)
* Cave of the Patriarchs (1994)
* Granada (1482–92)
* Gujarat (2002)
* Guangzhou (878–79)
* Harmanli (1878)
* İşkodra and Niş (1877–78)
* Japan (1937–45)
* Jerusalem (1099)
* Karantina (1976)
* Kulen Vakuf (1941)
* Kafr Qasim (1956)
* Lasithi (1897)
* Mecca (600s)
* Moriscos (1609)
* Myanmar (2015)
* Nellie (1983)
* Northern Sri Lanka (1990)
* Norway (2011)
* Paris (1961)
* Sri Lanka (2018)
* Sabra and Shatila (1982)
* Šahovići (1924)
* Sétif and Guelma (1945)
* Shadian (1975)
* Sohmor (1984)
* Spain (1500–26)
* Walisongo (2000)

Other incidents:

* Almondbury bullying incident
* Bendigo mosque protests
* Bulli Bai case / Sulli Deals
* CAA, 2019
* Cronulla 2005
* Erklärung 2018
* Flying imams incident
* Jerry Klein
* Haridwar hate speeches
* Hindutva pop
* Holy Terror
* Innocence of Muslims
* Jyllands-Posten cartoons
* Kathua rape case
* Muslim Massacre (video game)
* Quran desecrations
* 2005
* 2010
* 2011
* 2019–23
* Serbia Strong
* Persecution of Uyghurs in China
* Xinjiang internment camps
* Swiss minaret ban
* Trojan Horse affair

Media

* Document.no
* FrontPage Magazine
* Jihad Watch
* OpIndia
* Politically Incorrect
* Rebel News
* Stormfront
* WikiIslam
* Brussels Journal
* Gates of Vienna

Opposition

* Amnesty International
* CAIR
* Forum Against Islamophobia and Racism
* Human Rights Watch
* Islamophobia Watch
* Muslim American Society
* Muslims Condemn
* Southern Poverty Law Center
* Tell MAMA

* v
* t
* e

Part of a series on

Violence against Muslims
in independent India
Major incidents

* 1947 Jammu massacres
* 1948 Hyderabad massacres
* 1961 Jabalpur riots
* 1964 Calcutta riots
* 1967 Ranchi-Hatia riots
* 1969 Gujarat riots
* 1970 Bhiwandi riots
* 1980 Moradabad riots
* 1983 Nellie massacre
* 1985 Gujarat riots
* 1987 Hashimpura massacre
* 1989 Bhagalpur violence
* 1992 Bombay riots
* 1993 Pangal massacre
* 2002 Gujarat riots
* 2006 Malegaon bombings
* 2013 Muzaffarnagar riots
* 2014 Assam violence
* 2020 Delhi riots

* * *

* Freedom of religion
* Violence against Christians in India
* Violence against Muslims in independent India
* Violence against Muslims
* Religious violence in India
* Religious persecution

* v
* t
* e

Part of a series on

Discrimination

Forms

* Institutional
* Reverse
* Structural
* Statistical
* Systemic
* Taste-based

Attributes

* Age
* Caste
* Class
* Dialect
* Disability
* Economic
* Genetic
* Hair texture
* Height
* Language
* Looks
* Mental disorder
* Nationality or citizenship
* Race / Ethnicity
* Reverse
* Skin color
* Scientific racism
* Rank
* Sex
* Reverse
* Sexual orientation
* Species
* Size
* Viewpoint

Social

* Arophobia
* Anti-albinism
* Acephobia
* Adultism
* Anti-altruistic
* Anti-autism
* Anti-homelessness
* Anti-drug addicts
* Anti-intellectualism
* Anti-intersex
* Anti-left handedness
* Anti-Masonry
* Aporophobia
* Audism
* Biphobia
* Fear of children
* Clannism
* Elitism
* Ephebiphobia
* Health
* mental
* in poverty
* Fatphobia
* Gayphobia
* Gerontophobia
* Heterosexism
* HIV/AIDS stigma
* Hypergamy
* Homophobia
* In-group
* Leprosy stigma
* Lesbophobia
* Against men
* Misandry
* Misogyny
* Misogynoir
* Nepotism
* Outgroup
* Perpetual foreigner
* Pregnancy
* Sectarianism
* Supremacism
* Aryanism
* Black
* Hutu
* Chauvinism
* Han
* Female
* Human
* Nordicism
* Male
* Jewish
* Ultranationalism
* White
* Transphobia
* Non-binary
* Transmisogyny
* Trans men
* Vegaphobia
* Xenophobia

Religious

* Persecution of non-believers
* Atheism
* Blasphemy law
* Religious censorship
* In Islam
* Apostasy
* Religious police
* Jizya
* Religious persecution
* In China
* Exclusivism
* Baháʼí Faith
* Buddhism
* Christianity
* Persecution
* Catholicism
* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Coptic Christianity
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* LDS or Mormon
* Protestantism
* Tewahedo Orthodoxy
* post–Cold War era
* Falun Gong
* Hinduism
* Persecution
* Untouchability
* Islam
* Persecution
* Ahmadiyya
* Shi'ism
* Sufism
* Sunnism
* minority Muslim
* Judaism
* Persecution
* Neopaganism
* Rastafari
* Serers
* Sikhism
* Yazidism
* Zoroastrianism

Race or ethnicity

* Afghan
* African
* Fulani
* Igbo
* Serers
* Albanian
* Arab
* Armenian
* Asian
* France
* South Africa
* United States
* Assyrian
* Australian
* Austrian
* Azerbaijani
* Black people
* African Americans
* China
* South Africa
* Bengali
* Bulgarian
* Catalan
* Chechen
* Chinese
* Han people
* Colombian
* Croat
* Dutch
* English
* Estonian
* Filipino
* French
* Finnish
* Georgian
* German
* Greek
* Haitian
* Hazara
* Hungarian
* Indian
* Indigenous people
* Australia
* Canada
* United States
* Iranian
* Irish
* Italian
* Japanese
* Jewish
* Eliminationist
* New
* Religious
* Anti-Yiddish
* Zionist
* Korean
* Kurdish
* Lithuanian
* Malay
* Māori
* Mexican
* Middle Eastern
* Mongolian
* Montenegrin
* Nigerian
* Pakistani
* Palestinians
* Pashtun
* Polish
* Portuguese
* Quebec
* Romani
* Romanian
* Russian
* Scottish
* Serb
* Slavic
* Somali
* Spanish
* Taiwanese
* Tatar
* Thai
* Tibetan
* Turkish
* Ukrainian
* Uyghur
* Venezuelan
* Vietnamese
* Welsh
* White people

Manifestations

* Algorithmic bias
* Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
* SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
* Blood libel
* Bullying
* Cancel culture
* Capital punishment for homosexuality
* Carnism
* Cognitive
* Compulsory sterilization
* Corrective rape
* Counter-jihad
* Cultural genocide
* Defamation
* Democide
* Dog whistle
* Domicide
* Economic
* Education
* Academic
* In curricula
* Sexism
* Eliminationism
* Eliminationist antisemitism
* Employment
* Enemy of the people
* Environmental racism
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic conflict
* Ethnic hatred
* Ethnic joke
* Ethnocide
* Excellence
* Gender-based dress codes
* Cosmetics policy
* High heel policy
* Forced conversion
* Freak show
* Funding
* Gay bashing
* Gendercide
* Transgender genocide
* Genital modification and mutilation
* Circumcision
* Female genital mutilation
* Intersex medical interventions
* Genocide
* examples
* Glass ceiling
* Hate crime
* Disability hate crime
* Violence against LGBTQ people
* Violence against transgender people
* Hate group
* Hate speech
* Institutional
* Abuse
* Discrimination
* Racism
* Homeless dumping
* Housing
* Hypergamy
* Age disparity
* Indian rolling
* International inequality
* Kill Haole Day
* Lavender scare
* LGBTQ+
* grooming conspiracy theory
* Linguicide
* Lynching
* Media
* Minority stress
* Moral exclusion
* Mortgage
* Murder music
* Native American mascots
* Braves
* Blackhawks
* Chiefs
* Occupational
* Apartheid
* Inequality
* Injustice
* Segregation
* Opposition to immigration
* Paper genocide
* Persecution
* Pogrom
* Political
* Political repression
* Ideological repression
* Purge
* Racialization
* Religious persecution
* Religious terrorism
* Religious violence
* Religious war
* Scapegoating
* Selective enforcement
* Selective prosecution
* Sentencing disparity
* Sexual harassment
* Sex-selective abortion
* Slut-shaming
* Structural abuse
* Structural discrimination
* Structural evil
* Structural inequality
* Structural violence
* Suicide
* Untermensch
* Trans bashing
* Victimisation
* Violence against women
* White flight
* White genocide conspiracy theory
* Wife selling
* Witch hunt

Policies

* Algorithmic wage discrimination
* Age of candidacy
* Blood purity
* Blood quantum
* Breadwinner model
* Conscription and sexism
* Crime of apartheid
* Disabilities
* Catholic
* Jewish
* Disparate impact
* Fagging
* Gender pay gap
* Gender roles
* Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act
* Gerontocracy
* Gerrymandering
* Ghetto benches
* Internment
* Jewish quota
* Law for Protection of the Nation
* LGBTQ rights opposition
* MSM blood donation restrictions
* No kid zone
* Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)
* One-drop rule
* Racial quota
* Racial steering
* Redlining
* Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
* Segregation
* age
* racial
* Jim Crow laws
* Nuremberg Laws
* Segregation academy
* religious
* sexual
* in Islam
* Social exclusion
* Sodomy law
* State atheism
* State religion
* Ugly law
* Voter suppression
* White Australia policy

Countermeasures

* Affirmative action
* Anti-discrimination law
* Anti-racism
* Audit study
* Autism rights movement
* Blind audition
* Constitutional colorblindness
* Cross-sex friendship
* Cultural assimilation
* Cultural pluralism
* Diversity, equity, and inclusion
* Diversity training
* Empowerment
* Fat acceptance movement
* Feminism
* Fighting Discrimination
* Golden Rule
* Hate speech laws by country
* Human rights
* Intersex human rights
* Korenizatsiia
* LGBTQ rights
* Music in the movement against apartheid
* Nonviolence
* Racial integration
* Reappropriation
* Rock Against Sexism
* Self-determination
* Social integration
* Toleration
* Transgender rights movement
* Universal suffrage
* Women's rights

Related topics

* Allophilia
* Alterity
* Amatonormativity
* Bias
* Cisnormativity
* Civil liberties
* Criminalization of homosexuality
* Dehumanization
* Diseases of despair
* Diversity
* Multiculturalism
* Neurodiversity
* Ethnic penalty
* Figleaf
* Gender-blind
* Heteronormativity
* Historical eugenics
* Internalized oppression
* Intersectionality
* Mad pride
* Masculism
* Medical model of disability
* autism
* Net bias
* Nonperson
* Oikophobia
* Oppression
* Police brutality
* Respect
* Polyculturalism
* Power distance
* Prejudice
* Prisoner abuse
* Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
* Racism by country
* Racial color blindness
* Religious intolerance
* Second-generation gender bias
* Snobbery
* Social equity
* Social exclusion
* Social identity threat
* Social model of disability
* Social privilege
* Christian
* male
* white
* Social stigma
* Speciesism
* Stereotype
* threat
* The talk

* v
* t
* e

Since the partition of India in 1947, there have been several instances of religious violence against Muslims. These incidents often take the form of violent attacks on Muslims by Hindu nationalist mobs, forming a pattern of sporadic sectarian violence between the Hindu and Muslim communities. From 1954 to 1982, nearly 7,000 incidents occurred, resulting in the deaths of 10,000 people[1][2]

The causes of violence against Muslims are varied. The roots are thought to lie in Indian history: resentment towards the Islamic conquest of India during the Middle Ages, divisive policies implemented by the colonial government during British rule, and the partition of the Indian subcontinent into a Muslim-majority Pakistan and an Indian state with a Muslim minority. Many scholars believe that incidents of anti-Muslim violence are politically motivated and part of the electoral strategy of mainstream political parties associated with Hindu nationalism, such as the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Other scholars believe that the violence is not widespread but is instead confined to certain urban areas due to local socio-political conditions.[3]

## History

[edit]

The roots of anti-Muslim violence can be traced to events in Indian history – resentment towards the Islamic conquest of India during the Middle Ages, divisive policies established by the colonial government during the period of British rule (particularly after the suppression of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which saw Hindus and Muslims cooperate in revolt against the East India Company), and the partition of India into Muslim-majority Pakistan and an Indian state with a Muslim minority.[4][5][6]

A major factor in the rising tide of violence against Muslims is the proliferation of Hindu-nationalist parties, which work alongside or under the political umbrella of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh.[7][page needed] This is evident in Golwalkar's writings about Hitler's Nazi-Germany where he observed: "Race pride at its highest has been manifested here. Germany has also shown how well nigh impossible it is for Races and cultures, having differences going to the root, to be assimilated into one united whole, a good lesson for use in Hindusthan to learn and profit by."[8] Since former-BJP leader LK Advani took the Hindutva-ideology to the mainstream of Indian politics by way of a Ram Rath Yatra, violent attacks on Muslim minorities have increased. Scholars argue that anti-Muslim rhetoric, politics, and policies have proved beneficial for Hindutva-leaders, especially the BJP, and therefore can be said to be politically motivated.[9][10][11][12]

### Manifestation

[edit]

Violence against Muslims is frequently in the form of mob attacks on Muslims by Hindus.[13][14] These attacks are referred to as communal riots in India and are seen to be part of a pattern of sporadic sectarian violence between the majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities, and have also been connected to a rise in Islamophobia throughout the 20th century.[15] Most incidents have occurred in the northern and western states of India, whereas communalist sentiment in the south is less pronounced.[16] Among the largest incidents in post-partition India include the large-scale killing of Muslims following the Operation Polo in Hyderabad, 1969 Gujarat riots, 1984 Bhiwandi riot, 1985 Gujarat riots, 1989 Bhagalpur violence, Bombay riots, Nellie in 1983[17] and Gujarat riot in 2002 and 2013 Muzaffarnagar riots.

These patterns of violence have been well-established since partition, with dozens of studies documenting instances of mass violence against minority groups.[18] Over 10,000 people have been killed in Hindu-Muslim communal violence since 1950.[1] According to official figures, there were 6,933 instances of communal violence between 1954 and 1982 and, between 1968 and 1980, there were 530 Hindus and 1,598 Muslims killed in a total of 3,949 instances of mass violence.[19]

In 1989, there were incidents of mass violence throughout the north of India.[20] Praveen Swami believes these periodic acts of violence have "scarred India's post independence history" and have also hindered India's cause in Jammu and Kashmir with regard to the Kashmir conflict.[21]

In 2017, IndiaSpend reported that 84% of the victims of cow vigilante violence in India from 2010 to 2017 were Muslims, and almost 97% of these attacks were reported after May 2014.[22][23]

## Causes and effects

[edit]

Ahmedabad
(1969)

Nellie
(1983)

Bhagalpur
(1989)

Moradabad
(1980)

Mumbai
(1992)

Gujarat
(2002)

Bhiwandi
(1984)

Meerut
(1982,1987)

Muzaffarnagar
(2013)

Ayodhya
(1992)

class=notpageimage|

Location of incidents. City name with year

Some scholars have described incidents of anti-Muslim violence as politically motivated and organized and called them pogroms,[24] or a form of state terrorism with "organized political massacres"[25] rather than mere "riots".[26] Others argue that, although their community faces discrimination and violence, some Muslims have been highly successful,[27] that the violence is not as widespread as it appears, but is restricted to certain urban areas because of local socio-political conditions, and there are many cities where Muslims and Hindus live peacefully together with almost no instances of sectarian violence.[28][29]

### Role of political parties

[edit]

Many social scientists feel that many of the acts of violence are institutionally supported, particularly by political parties and organizations connected to the Hindu nationalist volunteer organisation, Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). In particular, scholars fault the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Shiv Sena for complicity in these incidents of violence[30][31][32][33] and of using violence against Muslims as a part of a larger electoral strategy.[30][34] For example, research by Raheel Dhattiwala and Michael Biggs has stated that killings are far higher in areas where the BJP faces stiff electoral opposition than in areas in which it is already strong.[1] In 1989, the north of India saw an increase in orchestrated attacks on Muslims, and the BJP had further success in the local and state elections.[35] The social anthropologist Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah concludes that the violence in Bhagalpur in 1989, Hashimpura in 1987 and Moradabad in 1980 were organised killings.[36] According to Ram Puniyani, the Shiv Sena were victorious in the elections due to the violence in the 1990s, and the BJP in Gujarat after the 2002 violence.[37] Gyan Prakash, however, cautions that the BJP's actions in Gujarat do not equate to the entirety of India, and it remains to be seen if the Hindutva movement has been successful in the deployment of this strategy nationwide.[38] In recent years, anti-Muslim violence in India has increased seriously due to the Hindutva ideology which envisages citizens with other religious beliefs to have second‐class status.[39][40]

### Economic and cultural factors

[edit]

Hindu nationalists use the historical subjugation of India by Muslims as an excuse for violence. They feel that, since the Partition, Indian Muslims are allied to Pakistan and are possibly radicalised and, therefore, the Hindus must take defensive steps to avoid repeat of the past wrongs and reassert their pride.[original research?][41] The higher fertility rate among Muslims has been a recurring theme in the Hindu Right's rhetoric. They claim that the higher birth rate among Muslims is part of a plan to turn the Hindus into a minority within their own country.[original research?][42]

Another reason given for these outbreaks of violence is the upward mobility of the lower castes caused by the expansion of the economy. The violence has become a substitute for class tensions. Nationalists, rather than deal with the claims from the lower class, instead view Muslims and Christians as not "fully Indian" due to their religion,[43] and portray those who carry out these attacks as "heroes" that defended the majority from "anti-nationals".[37] Muslims are viewed as suspect and their loyalty to the state is questioned because of the ill-will still prevalent after the violence during partition. According to Omar Khalidi:

> Anti-Muslim violence is planned and executed to render Muslims economically and socially crippled and, as a outcome of that economic and social backwardness, assimilating them into lower rungs of Hindu society.[44]

Cultural nationalism has also been given as a reason for instances of violence carried out by Shiv Sena which initially claimed to speak for the people of Maharashtra, but quickly turned their rhetoric to inciting violence against Muslims. The Shiv Sena were complicit in the violence in 1984 in the town of Bhiwandi, and again in the violence in Bombay in 1992 and 1993.[20] Violence has been incited by Sena in 1971 and 1986.[45][35] According to Sudipta Kaviraj, the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) are still engaged in the religious conflicts which began in the medieval times.[46]

Anti-Muslim violence creates a security risk for Hindus residing outside of India. Since the 1950s, there have been retaliatory attacks on Hindus in Pakistan and Bangladesh in response to anti-Muslim violence in India. After the 1992 violence in Bombay, Hindu temples were attacked in Britain, Dubai and Thailand.[47] This recurring violence has become a rigidly conventional pattern which has created a divide between the Muslim and Hindu communities.[48]

Jamaat-e-Islami Hind has spoken out against these communal clashes, as it believes that the violence not only impacts upon Muslims, but India as a whole, and that these riots are damaging to India's progress.[49] In Gujarat, the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act (TADA) was used in incidents pertaining to communal violence in 1992 and 1993. The majority of those arrested under the act were Muslim. Conversely, TADA was not used after the violence carried out against Muslims during the Bombay riots.[50]

### Demographics

[edit]

The BJP politicians, as well as those of other parties, argue that demographics play an essential role in Indian elections. The BJP believe that the higher the number of Muslims within a constituency, the higher are the chances of centrist parties to acquiesce to minority groups' requests, which lowers the chances of Muslims "building bridges" with their Hindu neighbours. As such, according to this argument "Muslim appeasement" is the root cause of communal violence.[51] Susanne and Lloyd Rudolph argue that the economic disparity is a reason for the aggression shown towards Muslims by Hindus. As India's economy expanded due to globalization and investment from overseas companies, the expectations of the Hindu population were not matched by the opportunities. Hindu nationalists then encouraged the perception of Muslims as the source of the Hindus' troubles.[52]

The actions of anti-Hindu and anti-India militant groups in Kashmir and Pakistan have reinforced anti-Muslim feelings in India, which has strengthened the Hindu Right. The Hindutva discourse portrays Muslims as traitors and state enemies, whose patriotism is suspected.[53] Sumit Ganguly argues that the rise in terrorism cannot only be attributed to socioeconomic factors, but also to the violence perpetrated by Hindutva forces.[54]

## Major incidents

[edit]

### 1964 Calcutta riots

[edit]

Main article: 1964 Calcutta riots

Riots between Hindus and Muslims had left over a hundred people dead, 438 people were injured. Over 7000 people were arrested. 70,000 Muslims have fled their homes and 55,000 were provided protection by the Indian army. Muslims in Kolkata became more ghettoized than ever before in the aftermath of this riot. Violence was also seen in rural West Bengal.[55]

### 1983 Nellie massacre

[edit]

Main article: Nellie massacre

On 18 February 1983 between 1,600 and 2,000 Muslims of East Bengal origin from various villages under the Nellie police station in Assam's Nagaon district (now Morigaon) were killed by their tribal and low-caste Hindu village neighbors.[56][57] The incident began in the early morning when groups of villagers burned down the homes of the victims; and with no place to hide and outnumbered the victims ran towards the direction of a CRPF camp with the perpetrators pursuing and hacking to death those who fell back.[58] As a result, those dead were mostly women (70%), followed by the elderly (20%) and men (10%).[59]

This massacre happened in the context of the Assam Movement (1979–1985) that demanded the deletion of foreigners' names from the electoral roll. The Congress-led Government of India decided to go ahead with the 1983 Assembly elections without revising the electoral roll,[60] which the movement leaders decided to boycott with widespread support from the local people.[61] The Miya people decided to support the Congress party instead in the hope that it will end the movement.[62] The AASU's call for boycott triggered widespread violence,[63] with different ethnic, religious and linguistic groups clashing against each other's in the then Nagaon district. The Muslim people of Nellie, anticipating an attack, had reported the possibility of one to the police several times before the incident; and though police officers visited Muslim villages to assure their safety, no police personnel was deputed for their protection.[64]

In the aftermath, both the Government of India and the movement leaders blamed each other for the responsibility for the massacre.[65] The government instituted the Tewary Commission, led by a retired IAS officer, in July 1983 to investigate the incident,[66] and though the report has been printed, it has not been released to the public.[67] The Movement leaders boycotted the Tewary Commission, and supported a non-official judicial inquiry commission instead, led by T U Mehta, a retired chief justice of a high court.[68] Both the commissions are seen as biased and aligned to either the government or the movement leaders' perspective, and there exists no third-party report. After the incident, hundreds of cases were filed, and hundreds of charge sheets were submitted by the police; but after the movement leaders came to power in Assam two years later in 1985 all cases concerning the 1983 election were closed and no one has been punished for the incident.[69] After the incident, both the survivors and the perpetrators went back to their villages, though not in complete harmony.[70]

### 1969 to 1985 riots

[edit]

Main articles: 1969 Gujarat riots, 1970 Bhiwandi riots, and 1985 Gujarat riots

During the 1969 Gujarat riots, it is estimated that 630 people lost their lives.[71] The 1970 Bhiwandi Riots was an instance of anti-Muslim violence which occurred between 7 and 8 May in the Indian towns of Bhiwandi, Jalgaon, and Mahad. There were large amounts of arson and vandalism of Muslim-owned properties. In 1980 in Moradabad, an estimated 2,500 people were killed.[72] The official estimate is 400 and other observers estimate between 1,500 and 2,000. Local police were directly implicated in planning the violence.[73]

### 1987 Hashimpura massacre

[edit]

Main article: Hashimpura massacre

Hashimpura massacre happened on 22 May 1987, during the Hindu-Muslim riots in Meerut city in Uttar Pradesh state, India, when 19 personnel of the Provincial Armed Constabulary (PAC) allegedly rounded up 42 Muslim youth from the Hashimpura mohalla (locality) of the city, took them in truck to the outskirts, near Murad Nagar, in Ghaziabad district, where they were shot and their bodies were dumped in water canals. A few days later dead bodies were found floating in the canals. In May 2000, 16 of the 19 accused surrendered, and were later released on bail, while 3 were already dead. The trial of the case was transferred by the Supreme Court of India in 2002 from Ghaziabad to a Sessions Court at the Tis Hazari complex in Delhi,[74][75] where it was the oldest pending case.[76] On 21 March 2015, all 16 men accused in the Hashimpura massacre case of 1987 were acquitted by Tis Hazari Court due to insufficient evidence.[77] The Court emphasized that the survivors could not recognize any of the accused PAC personnel. On 31 October 2018, the Delhi High Court convicted the 16 personnel of the PAC and sentenced them to life imprisonment, overturning the trial courts verdict.[78][79][80]

### 1989 Bhagalpur violence

[edit]

Main article: 1989 Bhagalpur violence

In 1989 in Bhagalpur, it is estimated nearly 1,000 people lost their lives in violent attacks,[71] believed to be a result of tensions raised over the Ayodhya dispute and the processions carried out by VHP activists, which were to be a show of strength and to serve as a warning to the minority communities.[81] On 24 October 1989 in the Bhagalpur district of Bihar, the violent incidents happened for over 2 months. The violence affected the Bhagalpur city and 250 villages around it. Over 1,000 people were killed, and another 50,000 were displaced as a result of the violence. It was the worst Hindu-Muslim violence in independent India at the time.[82][83]

### 1992 Bombay riots

[edit]

Main article: Bombay riots

The destruction of the Babri Mosque by Hindu nationalists led directly to the 1992 Bombay riots.[84]According to an article published in The Hindu's Frontline magazine, titled Gory Winter, "officially, 900 people were killed in mob rioting and firing by the police, 2,036 injured and thousands internally displaced."[85] BBC correspondent Toral Varia called the riots "a pre-planned pogrom," that had been in the making since 1990, and stated that the destruction of the mosque was "the final provocation".[86]

Several scholars have likewise concluded that the riots must have been pre-planned, and that Hindu rioters had been given access to information about the locations of Muslim homes and businesses from non-public sources.[87] This violence is widely reported as having been orchestrated by Shiv Sena, a Hindu nationalist group led by Bal Thackeray.[88] A high-ranking member of the special branch, V. Deshmukh, gave evidence to the commission tasked with probing the riots. He said the failures in intelligence and prevention had been due to political assurances that the mosque in Ayodhya would be protected, that the police were fully aware of the Shiv Sena's capabilities to commit acts of violence, and that they had incited hate against the minority communities.[89]

The skyline of Ahmedabad filled with smoke as buildings and shops are set on fire by rioting mobs

### 2002 Gujarat riots

[edit]

Main article: 2002 Gujarat riots

Since partition, Muslim community has been subject to and engaged in violence in Gujarat.[26] In 2002, in an incident described as an act of "fascistic state terror,"[90] Hindu extremists carried out acts of violence against the Muslim minority population.[91]

The starting point for the incident was the Godhra train burning which was allegedly done by Muslims.[92] During the incident, young girls were sexually assaulted, burned or hacked to death.[93] These instances of violence condoned by the ruling BJP,[94][95] whose refusal to intervene lead to the displacement of 200,000.[96] Death toll figures range from the official estimate of 254 Hindus and 790 to 2,000 Muslims killed.[97] Then Chief Minister Narendra Modi has also been accused of initiating and condoning the violence, as have the police and government officials who took part, as they directed the rioters and gave lists of Muslim-owned properties to the extremists.[98]

Mallika Sarabhai, who had complained over state complicity in the violence, was harassed, intimidated and falsely accused of human trafficking by the BJP.[99] Three police officers were given punitive transfers by the BJP after they had successfully put down the rioting in their wards, so as not to interfere further in preventing the violence.[100] According to Brass, the only conclusion from the evidence which is available points to a methodical pogrom, which was carried out with "exceptional brutality and was highly coordinated".[101]

In 2007, Tehelka magazine released "The Truth: Gujarat 2002," a report which implicated the state government in the violence, and claimed that what had been called a spontaneous act of revenge was, in reality, a "state-sanctioned pogrom".[102] According to Human Rights Watch, the violence in Gujarat in 2002 was pre-planned, and the police and state government participated in the violence.[103] In 2012, Modi was cleared of complicity in the violence by a Special Investigation Team appointed by the Supreme Court. The Muslim community is reported to have reacted with "anger and disbelief," and activist Teesta Setalvad has said the legal fight was not yet over, as they had the right to appeal.[104] Human Rights Watch has reported on acts of exceptional heroism by Hindus, Dalits and tribals, who tried to protect Muslims from the violence.[105]

### 2013 Muzaffarnagar riots

[edit]

Main article: 2013 Muzaffarnagar riots

In 2013 between August and September, conflicts between the two major religious communities Hindu and Muslims happened in Muzaffarnagar district of Uttar Pradesh state. These riots resulted in at least 62 deaths including 42 Muslims and 20 Hindus as well as injured 200 and left more than 50,000 displaced.

### 2020 Delhi riots

[edit]

Main article: 2020 Delhi riots

The 2020 Delhi riots, which left more than 53 dead and hundreds injured including both Hindus and Muslims,[106] were triggered by protests against a citizenship law seen by many critics as anti-Muslim and part of Prime Minister Narendra Modi's Hindu nationalist agenda.[107][108][109][110][111]

According to Thomas Blom Hansen, a Stanford University professor, across India "a lot of the violence perpetrated against Muslims these days is actually perpetrated by subsidiaries of the Hindu nationalist movement". According to Hansen, the police harassment of Muslims in Muslim neighborhoods in the run-up to the Delhi riots is "very well-documented".[112] According to Sumantra Bose, a London School of Economics professor, since Narendra Modi's reelection in May 2019, his government has "moved on to larger-scale, if still localized, state-sanctioned mob violence".[112]

According to Ashutosh Varshney, the director of the Center for Contemporary South Asia at Brown University, "on the whole, the Delhi riots ... are now beginning to look like a pogrom, à la Gujarat 2002 and Delhi 1984".[113] According to Subir Sinha, a senior lecturer at the SOAS University of London, the north and northeast areas of Delhi were a focus of "highly inflammatory speeches from top BJP ministers and politicians" in the run-up to the Delhi election. Sinha continues that "the pent-up anger of BJP supporters" who lost the election in Delhi, effectively took it out on "the Muslim residents of these relatively poor parts of the city".[114]

## In media

[edit]

* Fiza: In Search of Her Brother, an Indian Hindi film featuring Hrithik Roshan (as Amaan), Karishma Kapoor (as Fiza), and Jaya Bahchan (as Nishatbi), was released in 2000. Fiza's brother, Amaan, goes missing during the 1993 Bombay riots. In 1999, 6 years later, Fiza sets out to find her little brother.[115][116]
* Parzania, an Indian English film directed by Rahul Dholakia and released in 2007, was inspired by a true story of a 10-year old Parsi boy who disappeared after the Gulbarg Society massacre on 28 February 2002 as part of the 2002 Gujarat riots.[117] This film was not released in Gujarat due to fear of further riots, which sparked controversy.[118][119]
* Final Solution, a documentary film directed by Rakesh Sharma, was released in 2002 about the 2002 Gujarat riots.[120] The Central Board of Film Certification attempted to ban the film, but in 2004, chairman Anupam Kher, granted an uncut version to be screened.[121][122]

## See also

[edit]

* Anti-Mosque campaign in India
* Hindutva
* Hindu–Islamic relations
* Islam in India
* Persecution of Muslims
* Religious violence in India
* Hindu terrorism
* Terrorism in India

## References

[edit]

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* Smith, Glenn (2005). Asvi Warman Adam; Dewi Fortuna Anwar (eds.). Violent Internal Conflicts in Asia Pacific: Histories, Political Economies, and Policies. Yayasan Obor. ISBN 9789794615140.
* Swami, Praveen (19 October 2006). India, Pakistan and the Secret Jihad: The Covert War in Kashmir, 1947–2004. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415404594.
* Tambiah, Stanely J. (1997). Leveling Crowds: EthnoNationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520206427.
* Tilly, Charles (2006). Regimes and Repertoires. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226803500.
* "State pogroms glossed over". The Times of India. 31 December 2005.
* Townson, Duncan, ed. (1999). "Indian communal massacres (1946–1947)". Blackwell Reference. doi:10.1111/b.9780631209379.1999.x. ISBN 9780631209379.
* Varia, Toral (2 September 2007). "Mumbai riots a planned, perfected pogrom?". CNN-IBN.
* Varshney, Ashutosh (2003). Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: Hindus and Muslims in India (2nd Revised ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300100136.
* Varshney, Ashutosh (26 March 2004). "Understanding Gujarat Violence". Social Science Research Council. Archived from the original on 21 July 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
* Vickery, Jacqueline (30 December 2010). John D. H. Downing (ed.). Encyclopedia of Social Movement Media. Sage. ISBN 978-0761926887.
* Weigl, Constanze (2012). Reproductive Health Behaviour and Decision-making of Muslim Women: An Ethnographic Study in a Low-income Community in Urban North India. Lit Verlag. ISBN 978-3643107701.
* Wilkinson, Steven I. (2006). Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521536059.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Amarasingam, A.; Umar, S.; Desai, S. (2022). "Fight, Die, and If Required Kill": Hindu Nationalism, Misinformation, and Islamophobia in India". Religions. 13 (5): 380. doi:10.3390/rel13050380.

## External links

[edit]

Wikiquote has quotations related to Violence against Muslims in independent India.

* Brass, Paul R. "On the Study of Riots, Pogroms, and Genocide" (PDF). University of Washington.

* v
* t
* e

Riots in India

19th century|

* Bombay Dog Riots
* Parsi–Muslim riots
* Indian Rebellion of 1857
* 1857 Bharuch riot
* 1882 Salem
* Malabar rebellion

20th century|

* 1927 Nagpur
* Direct Action Day
* 1946 Noakhali
* 1946 Bihar
* 1957 Ramnad
* 1961 Jabalpur
* 1964 Calcutta
* 1967 Ranchi-Hatia
* 1969 Gujarat
* 1970 Bhiwandi
* 1974 Worli
* 1980 Moradabad riots
* 1983 Nellie massacre
* 1984 Bhiwandi
* 1984 anti-Sikh
* 1985 Gujarat
* 1985 Karamchedu
* 1987 Meerut
* 1990 Hyderabad
* 1992 Bombay
* 1994 Anti-Urdu

21st century|

* 2002 Gujarat
* 2006 Vadodara
* 2008 Kandhamal
* 2012 Azad Maidan
* 2013 Canning
* 2013 Muzaffarnagar
* 2015 Ballabhgarh
* 2016 Kaliachak
* 2016 Dhulagarh
* 2017 Saharanpur
* 2017 Northern India
* 2017 Baduria
* 2018 Ambalapattu
* 2019 Ponparappi
* 2020 Delhi
* 2020 Bangalore
* 2021 Kawardha
* 2021 Tripura
* 2023 Manipur
* 2025 Murshidabad

Related topics|

* Riots
* Massacres
* Religious violence
* Caste violence

* v
* t
* e

Discrimination

Forms|

* Institutional
* Reverse
* Structural
* Statistical
* Systemic
* Taste-based

Attributes|

* Age
* Caste
* Class
* Dialect
* Disability
* Economic
* Genetic
* Hair texture
* Height
* Language
* Looks
* Mental disorder
* Nationality or citizenship
* Race / Ethnicity
* Reverse
* Skin color
* Scientific racism
* Rank
* Sex
* Reverse
* Sexual orientation
* Species
* Size
* Viewpoint

Social|

* Arophobia
* Anti-albinism
* Acephobia
* Adultism
* Anti-altruistic
* Anti-autism
* Anti-homelessness
* Anti-drug addicts
* Anti-intellectualism
* Anti-intersex
* Anti-left handedness
* Anti-Masonry
* Aporophobia
* Audism
* Biphobia
* Fear of children
* Clannism
* Elitism
* Ephebiphobia
* Health
* mental
* in poverty
* Fatphobia
* Gayphobia
* Gerontophobia
* Heterosexism
* HIV/AIDS stigma
* Hypergamy
* Homophobia
* In-group
* Leprosy stigma
* Lesbophobia
* Against men
* Misandry
* Misogyny
* Misogynoir
* Nepotism
* Outgroup
* Perpetual foreigner
* Pregnancy
* Sectarianism
* Supremacism
* Aryanism
* Black
* Hutu
* Chauvinism
* Han
* Female
* Human
* Nordicism
* Male
* Jewish
* Ultranationalism
* White
* Transphobia
* Non-binary
* Transmisogyny
* Trans men
* Vegaphobia
* Xenophobia

Religious|

* Persecution of non-believers
* Atheism
* Blasphemy law
* Religious censorship
* In Islam
* Apostasy
* Religious police
* Jizya
* Religious persecution
* In China
* Exclusivism
* Baháʼí Faith
* Buddhism
* Christianity
* Persecution
* Catholicism
* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Coptic Christianity
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* LDS or Mormon
* Protestantism
* Tewahedo Orthodoxy
* post–Cold War era
* Falun Gong
* Hinduism
* Persecution
* Untouchability
* Islam
* Persecution
* Ahmadiyya
* Shi'ism
* Sufism
* Sunnism
* minority Muslim
* Judaism
* Persecution
* Neopaganism
* Rastafari
* Serers
* Sikhism
* Yazidism
* Zoroastrianism

Race / Ethnicity|

* Afghan
* African
* Fulani
* Igbo
* Serers
* Albanian
* Arab
* Armenian
* Asian
* France
* South Africa
* United States
* Assyrian
* Australian
* Austrian
* Azerbaijani
* Black people
* African Americans
* China
* South Africa
* Bengali
* Bulgarian
* Catalan
* Chechen
* Chinese
* Han people
* Colombian
* Croat
* Dutch
* English
* Estonian
* Filipino
* French
* Finnish
* Georgian
* German
* Greek
* Haitian
* Hazara
* Hungarian
* Indian
* Indigenous people
* Australia
* Canada
* United States
* Iranian
* Irish
* Italian
* Japanese
* Jewish
* Eliminationist
* New
* Religious
* Anti-Yiddish
* Zionist
* Korean
* Kurdish
* Lithuanian
* Malay
* Māori
* Mexican
* Middle Eastern
* Mongolian
* Montenegrin
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* Pakistani
* Palestinians
* Pashtun
* Polish
* Portuguese
* Quebec
* Romani
* Romanian
* Russian
* Scottish
* Serb
* Slavic
* Somali
* Spanish
* Taiwanese
* Tatar
* Thai
* Tibetan
* Turkish
* Ukrainian
* Uyghur
* Venezuelan
* Vietnamese
* Welsh
* White people

Manifestations|

* Algorithmic bias
* Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
* SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
* Blood libel
* Bullying
* Cancel culture
* Capital punishment for homosexuality
* Carnism
* Cognitive
* Compulsory sterilization
* Corrective rape
* Counter-jihad
* Cultural genocide
* Defamation
* Democide
* Dog whistle
* Domicide
* Economic
* Education
* Academic
* In curricula
* Sexism
* Eliminationism
* Eliminationist antisemitism
* Employment
* Enemy of the people
* Environmental racism
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic conflict
* Ethnic hatred
* Ethnic joke
* Ethnocide
* Excellence
* Gender-based dress codes
* Cosmetics policy
* High heel policy
* Forced conversion
* Freak show
* Funding
* Gay bashing
* Gendercide
* Transgender genocide
* Genital modification and mutilation
* Circumcision
* Female genital mutilation
* Intersex medical interventions
* Genocide
* examples
* Glass ceiling
* Hate crime
* Disability hate crime
* Violence against LGBTQ people
* Violence against transgender people
* Hate group
* Hate speech
* Institutional
* Abuse
* Discrimination
* Racism
* Homeless dumping
* Housing
* Hypergamy
* Age disparity
* Indian rolling
* International inequality
* Kill Haole Day
* Lavender scare
* LGBTQ+
* grooming conspiracy theory
* Linguicide
* Lynching
* Media
* Minority stress
* Moral exclusion
* Mortgage
* Murder music
* Native American mascots
* Braves
* Blackhawks
* Chiefs
* Occupational
* Apartheid
* Inequality
* Injustice
* Segregation
* Opposition to immigration
* Paper genocide
* Persecution
* Pogrom
* Political
* Political repression
* Ideological repression
* Purge
* Racialization
* Religious persecution
* Religious terrorism
* Religious violence
* Religious war
* Scapegoating
* Selective enforcement
* Selective prosecution
* Sentencing disparity
* Sexual harassment
* Sex-selective abortion
* Slut-shaming
* Structural abuse
* Structural discrimination
* Structural evil
* Structural inequality
* Structural violence
* Suicide
* Untermensch
* Trans bashing
* Victimisation
* Violence against women
* White flight
* White genocide conspiracy theory
* Wife selling
* Witch hunt

Discriminatory
policies|

* Algorithmic wage discrimination
* Age of candidacy
* Blood purity
* Blood quantum
* Breadwinner model
* Conscription and sexism
* Crime of apartheid
* Disabilities
* Catholic
* Jewish
* Disparate impact
* Fagging
* Gender pay gap
* Gender roles
* Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act
* Gerontocracy
* Gerrymandering
* Ghetto benches
* Internment
* Jewish quota
* Law for Protection of the Nation
* LGBTQ rights opposition
* MSM blood donation restrictions
* No kid zone
* Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)
* One-drop rule
* Racial quota
* Racial steering
* Redlining
* Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
* Segregation
* age
* racial
* Jim Crow laws
* Nuremberg Laws
* Segregation academy
* religious
* sexual
* in Islam
* Social exclusion
* Sodomy law
* State atheism
* State religion
* Ugly law
* Voter suppression
* White Australia policy

Countermeasures|

* Affirmative action
* Anti-discrimination law
* Anti-racism
* Audit study
* Autism rights movement
* Blind audition
* Constitutional colorblindness
* Cross-sex friendship
* Cultural assimilation
* Cultural pluralism
* Diversity, equity, and inclusion
* Diversity training
* Empowerment
* Fat acceptance movement
* Feminism
* Fighting Discrimination
* Golden Rule
* Hate speech laws by country
* Human rights
* Intersex human rights
* Korenizatsiia
* LGBTQ rights
* Music in the movement against apartheid
* Nonviolence
* Racial integration
* Reappropriation
* Rock Against Sexism
* Self-determination
* Social integration
* Toleration
* Transgender rights movement
* Universal suffrage
* Women's rights

Related topics|

* Allophilia
* Alterity
* Amatonormativity
* Bias
* Cisnormativity
* Civil liberties
* Criminalization of homosexuality
* Dehumanization
* Diseases of despair
* Diversity
* Multiculturalism
* Neurodiversity
* Ethnic penalty
* Figleaf
* Gender-blind
* Heteronormativity
* Historical eugenics
* Internalized oppression
* Intersectionality
* Mad pride
* Masculism
* Medical model of disability
* autism
* Net bias
* Nonperson
* Oikophobia
* Oppression
* Police brutality
* Respect
* Polyculturalism
* Power distance
* Prejudice
* Prisoner abuse
* Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
* Racism by country
* Racial color blindness
* Religious intolerance
* Second-generation gender bias
* Snobbery
* Social equity
* Social exclusion
* Social identity threat
* Social model of disability
* Social privilege
* Christian
* male
* white
* Social stigma
* Speciesism
* Stereotype
* threat
* The talk

* Category
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

Religious persecution and discrimination

By group|

* Persecution of non-believers
* Atheism
* Blasphemy law
* Religious censorship
* In Islam
* Apostasy
* Religious police
* Jizya
* Religious persecution
* In China
* Exclusivism
* Baháʼí Faith
* Buddhism
* Christianity
* Persecution
* Catholicism
* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Coptic Christianity
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* LDS or Mormon
* Protestantism
* Tewahedo Orthodoxy
* post–Cold War era
* Falun Gong
* Hinduism
* Persecution
* Untouchability
* Islam
* Persecution
* Ahmadiyya
* Shi'ism
* Sufism
* Sunnism
* minority Muslim
* Judaism
* Persecution
* Neopaganism
* Rastafari
* Serers
* Sikhism
* Yazidism
* Zoroastrianism

Methods|

* Censorship
* Blasphemy law
* Blood libel
* Communal violence
* Cultural genocide
* Deprogramming
* Desecration
* Domicide
* Discrimination
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic conflict
* Extrajudicial killing
* Extrajudicial punishment
* Exclusivism
* Forced conversion
* Forced displacement
* Hate crime
* Iconoclasm
* Intolerance
* Pogrom
* Police
* Political violence
* Population cleansing
* Population transfer
* Sectarian violence
* Social cleansing
* Segregation
* State atheism
* State religion
* Terrorism
* Violence
* War

Events|

* Persecution of Canaanite Pagans (1210 BC-1200 BC)
* Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire (64–313)
* Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire (c. 324–c. 491)
* Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent (c.550–c. 1200)
* Yellow Turban Rebellion (c.184–c. 205)
* Battle of Tours (732)
* Rhineland massacres (1096)
* Jerusalem massacre (1099)
* Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent (643–1526)
* Inquisition (1184–1908)
* Massacre at Ayyadieh (1191)
* Northern Crusades (12th–16th cent.)
* Crusades against Christians (13th–15th cent.)
* Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain (1500–1526)
* European wars of religion (1522–1712)
* Ottoman–Habsburg wars (1526–1791)
* Goa Inquisition (1561–1812)
* French Wars of Religion (1562–1598)
* Expulsion of the Moriscos (1609–1614)
* Test Acts (1673–1829)
* Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction (1683–1922)
* Christianization of the Sámi people (1700s)
* French Revolutionary dechristianisation (1789–1801)
* Utah War (1857–1858)
* 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war (1860)
* Circassian genocide (1864)
* Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
* Adana massacre (1909)
* Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913)
* Greek genocide (1913–1922)
* Pontic Greek genocide
* Assyrian genocide (1914–1924)
* Armenian genocide (1915–1923)
* Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc (1917–1990)
* Soviet persecution (1922–1991)
* 1917–1921
* 1921–1928
* 1928–1941
* 1958–1964
* 1970–1987
* legislation
* Šahovići massacre (1924)
* White Terror (Spain) (1936–1975)
* Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses (1933)
* The Holocaust (1939–1945)
* Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945)
* Communist Polish persecution (1945–1989)
* Communist Romanian persecution (1945–1989)
* Noakhali riots (1946)
* Direct Action Day (1946)
* 1946 Bihar riots (1946)
* Rawalpindi massacres (1947)
* Persecution of Hindus in Pakistan (1947–ongoing)
* Violence against Muslims in India (1947–ongoing)
* Violence against Hindus in independent India (1947–ongoing)
* 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight (1948)
* Jewish exodus from the Muslim world (1948–1980)
* Antireligious campaigns in China (1949–ongoing)
* Persecution of Tibetans (1950–ongoing)
* Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950)
* Religious violence in Nigeria (1953–ongoing)
* Istanbul pogrom (1955)
* Buddhist crisis (1963)
* Huế Phật Đản shootings (1963)
* Thích Quảng Đức (1963)
* Xá Lợi Pagoda raids (1963)
* Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)
* Four Olds (1966)
* Famen Temple (1966)
* Bangladesh genocide (1971)
* Persecution of Hindus in Bangladesh (1971–ongoing)
* Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990)
* Cambodian genocide (1975–1979)
* 1984 anti-Sikh riots (1984)
* Revival Process (1984–1989)
* 1989 expulsion of Turks from Bulgaria (1989)
* Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus (1990)
* Yugoslav Wars (1991–2001)
* Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War (1992–1996)
* Bosnian genocide (1995)
* War crimes in the Kosovo War (1999)
* Walisongo school massacre (2000)
* Kosheh massacres (2000)
* September 11 attacks (2001)
* 2002 Gujarat riots (2002)
* South Thailand insurgency (2004–ongoing)
* Boko Haram insurgency (2009–ongoing)
* Maspero demonstrations (2011)
* Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh (2013–2016)
* Yazidi genocide (2014–2017)
* Genocide of Christians by ISIL (2014–ongoing)
* Iraqi Turkmen genocide (2014–2017)
* Persecution of Uyghurs in China (2014–ongoing)
* Rohingya genocide (2016–ongoing)
* Christchurch mosque shootings (2019)
* 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings (2019)
* 2020 Delhi riots (2020)
* 2024 Istanbul church shooting
* Crocus City Hall attack (2024)

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