Wamesa language

Austronesian language of West Papua, Indonesia

Wamesa

Wandamen
Native to| Indonesia
Region| Cenderawasih Bay
Ethnicity| Wamesa

Native speakers

| (5,000 cited 1993)[1]

Language family

Austronesian

* Malayo-Polynesian
* Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian
* Eastern Malayo-Polynesian
* South Halmahera–West New Guinea
* Yapen
* Central–Western
* Wamesa

Dialects|

* Windesi, Bintuni, Wandamen

Language codes
ISO 639-3| `wad`
Glottolog| `wand1267`

Wamesa

Show map of Western New Guinea

Wamesa

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Coordinates: 2°16′S 134°00′E﻿ / ﻿2.26°S 134.00°E﻿ / -2.26; 134.00

Wamesa is an Austronesian language of Indonesian New Guinea, spoken across the neck of the Doberai Peninsula or Bird's Head. There are currently 5,000–8,000 speakers.[citation needed] While it was historically used as a lingua franca, it is currently considered an under-documented, endangered language. This means that fewer and fewer children have an active command of Wamesa. Instead, Papuan Malay has become increasingly dominant in the area.

## Name[edit]

The language is often called Wandamen in the literature; however, several speakers of the Windesi dialect have stated that Wandamen and Wondama refer to a dialect spoken around the Wondama Bay, studied by early missionaries and linguists from SIL. They affirm that the language as a whole is called Wamesa, the dialects of which are Windesi, Bintuni, and Wandamen.[2] While Wamesa is spoken in West Papua, Wamesa is not a Papuan language but rather a South Halmahera–West New Guinea (SHWNG) language.

## Distribution[edit]

Locations:[3]

* Teluk Bintuni Regency
* Teluk Wondama Regency
* Windesi District: Windesi, Wamesa Tengah, Sombokoro, Wamesa Timur (Yopmeos), and Sandey villages
* Sougb Jaya District: Kaprus village

## Phonology[edit]

### Vowels[edit]

There are five contrastive vowels in Wamesa, as is typical of Austronesian languages.[2] These vowels are shown in the tables below.

Wamesa vowel phonemes[2] | Front | Central | Back

|
|
|

High | i |  | u
Mid | e |  | o
Low |  | a |
(Near) Minimal pairs for Wamesa vowel phonemes[2] Wamesa

Word

| English

Gloss

|

ra | go
re | eye
ri | type of traditional dance
ron | ironwood tree
ru | head

Five diphthongs appear in Wamesa: /au/, /ai/, /ei/, /oi/, and /ui/. Two-vowel and three-vowel clusters are also common in Wamesa. Almost all VV-clusters contain at least one high vowel, and no two non-high vowels may be adjacent in larger clusters.

3-Vowel

Cluster

| Wamesa

Word(s)

| English

Gloss

|
|

iau | niau | cat
ioi | nioi | knife
iai | ai kiai dire | toenail
iou | ariou | flower
iui | βiui | 3sg-write

### Consonants[edit]

There are 14 consonants in Wamesa, three of which are marginal (shown in parentheses in the table below).

Wamesa Consonants[2] | Bilabial | Coronal | Velar

|
|
|

Nasal | m | n | ŋ
Plosive | p b | t d | k (g)
Fricative | β | s |
Affricate |  | (d͡ʒ)  |
Tap/Trill |  | r/ɾ |
Lateral |  | (l)  |

Labial, coronal and velar places of articulation are contrastive in Wamesa. Coronal plosives sound relatively dental and may therefore be referred to as alveolar or alveo-dental until palatography can be executed to corroborate this.[2][4] Lateral /l/ and affricate /d͡ʒ/ appear only in loanwords, while all other sounds occur in native Wamesa words. The voiced velar fricative /g/ is a marginal phoneme because it only appears following /ŋ/.

The coronal tap and trill are in free variation, though the trill tends to occur more in word-initial or word-final position and in careful speech.

Place and manner contrasts as described above are supported by the minimal and near-minimal pairs found in the following table. Where possible, Wamesa words have been selected to show native (non-loan) phonemes in the environment /C[labial]a_a/.

(Near) Minimal Pairs for Wamesa Consonant Phonemes[2] Phoneme  | Wamesa (IPA)  | English Gloss

|
|

p  | mapar | valley
b  | baba | big
t  | βata | good, true
d  | padamara | lamp
k  | makarabat | eel
g  | maŋgar | yell
m  | mamara | clear
n  | manau | already
ŋ  | waŋgar | rat
β  | βaβa | under
s  | masabu | broken, cracked
r  | marapa rau | paddy oat leaf

### Phonotactics[edit]

Velar plosive [g] only appears following [ŋ], and [ŋ] can only appear without a following [g] if it is stem-initial.

#### Glide Phonotactics[edit]

There are no underlying glides in Wamesa; [j] and [w] are allophones of the vowel phonemes /i/ and /u/. This phonetic alternation is obligatory, permitted, or prohibited, depending upon the environment.

Vowel surfaces as Glide  | Env. 1  | Env. 2  | Env. 3

|
|
|

Obligatorily  | #_V  | V_V  |
Optionally  | C_V  | V_C  | V_#
Never  | C_C  | #_C  | C_#

High vowels must become glides word-initially preceding a vowel or intervocalically. They may optionally become glides when adjacent to a single vowel. Finally, high vowels never become glides between two consonants, depriving the syllable of a nucleus. Nor do glides appear word-initially preceding a consonant or word-finally following a consonant, in which case the syllable structure would be at odds with the Sonority Sequencing Principle.

Flow Chart of Consonant Cluster Phonotactics

#### Consonant cluster reduction[edit]

Complex onsets and codas are not permitted in Wamesa, and consonant clusters across syllable boundaries are usually reduced, such that /C1C2/ surfaces as [C2]. However, there are three exceptions to this; clusters of homorganic nasals and voiced plosives are permitted to surface, as are consonant-glide clusters that form through the morphophonological processes described above. Additionally, an underlying cluster of a consonant followed by /β/ /r/ or /k/ does not reduce but surfaces as a nasal followed by a homorganic voiced plosive, both of which derive their place features from underlying /C2/.

Data from related languages of the Yapen and Biakic groups suggests that historically, /β/ /r/ and /k/ were *b *d and *g in Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian. In this case, these phones would have formed a natural class of voiced plosives to which phonological rules could uniformly apply.[2]

### Stress[edit]

Wamesa is a bounded language with a three-syllable, right-aligned stress window, meaning that stress alternates and primary stress falls on the final, penultimate, or antepenultimate syllable of the Pword. However, the distribution is not even; in a random sampling test of 105 audio clips, 66 tokens had primary stress on the penultimate syllable. With the addition of enclitics, primary stress sometimes shifts towards the end of the word to stay within the stress window, but since Wamesa prefers its metrical feet to be trochees, stress usually jumps from the head of one foot to the next, rather than jumping single syllables.

Note that stress in Wamesa is not predictable, meaning there is no rule for where primary stress will occur. Therefore, stress is specified in the underlying form of words. However, as mentioned earlier, stress shift may occur in certain words in order to create a better phonological structure (i.e. create alternation while avoiding clash and lapse).

Secondary stresses are apparent in words of more than two syllables and, in cases of shifting stress, can be added at the beginnings of words to reduce lapses (several adjacent syllables without any stress). In the example below, the addition of the enclitic determiner =pai causes primary stress to shift to the right by two syllables (a single foot), and a secondary stress is added to the left in order to fill the lapse.

ma.rá.ri.a

child

ma.rà.ri.á=pai

child=DET

ma.rá.ri.a → ma.rà.ri.á=pai

child {} child=DET

'the child'

However, secondary stress always precedes primary stress and clitics are never able to carry stress in Wamesa. These two factors mean that the addition of multiple enclitics sometimes causes large lapses at the ends of words. For example, the construction below has a five-syllable lapse at the end.

ma.né.ta=pa-ta.ta=ma

friend=DET-1PL.INCL=FOC

ma.né.ta=pa-ta.ta=ma

friend=DET-1PL.INCL=FOC

'we friends'

This would appear to be a violation of the three-syllable stress window, but the fact that clitics never carry stress indicates that they may combine with their hosts at the level of the Pphrase rather than at Pword, where the stress window is relevant. Additionally, lapse is evaluated at the level of the Pword, meaning that stress in the following word never shifts to compensate. That is to say, stress in a word following the above construction would never shift leftwards for the purpose of reducing the lapse between words. This is in contrast to clash, (adjacent stressed syllables) which is evaluated at the level of the phonological phrase. Thus, to avoid clash, stress can shift within a word to compensate for the presence of a stressed syllable across a word boundary. For example, the word ka.tú 'small' typically has a stressed final syllable. However, when followed by yá.na 'there' as in the phrase below, stress within ka.tú shifts to avoid two adjacent stressed syllables.

ma.rá.ri.a ka.tú yá.na

'child'

ma.rá.ri.a ká.tu yá.na

'small there'

{ma.rá.ri.a ka.tú yá.na} → {ma.rá.ri.a ká.tu yá.na}

'child' {} {'small there'}

'small child there'

In summary, lapse avoidance can only occur at the level of Pword, while clash avoidance is relevant at the level of Pphrase.[2]

## Orthography[edit]

In much of the literature on Wamesa an orthography is used which is based on the orthographic system of Indonesian. This orthography diverges from IPA notation in the following cases:

* /β/ is notated ⟨v⟩
* /d͡ʒ/ is notated ⟨j⟩
* /j/ is notated ⟨y⟩
* /ŋ/ is notated ⟨ng⟩ – clusters of /ŋg/ therefore appear as ⟨ngg⟩

## Syntax[edit]

Wamesa includes the following parts of speech: noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective, determiner, preposition, complementizer, conjunction, numeral, interrogative, imperative, locative, demonstrative, particle, interjection, and adposition.

### Word order[edit]

Wamesa is a subject–verb–object (SVO) language. Wamesa has NADQ (noun, adjective, demonstrative, quantifier) order, which is rare in the world's languages.[5]

When a sentence involves an applicative, the word order is as follows: (subject) instrument verb (object), with the items in parentheses as optional.

#### Adjectives[edit]

Adjectives always follow nouns. Unlike verbs, they cannot take the applicative prefix.

#### Verbs[edit]

With regard to verbs, phrases must adhere to the following rules:

1. Subject agreement (person and number) must be marked on each verb and only on verbs.
2. If direction is involved in the sentence, it must be marked on the verb.
3. If there is an essive, it must attach to the verb that is describing a trait of the subject.
4. The applicative must attach to the verb, not the instrument.

#### Adverbs[edit]

There are only two manner adverbs in Wamesa: saira 'quickly' and nanaria 'slowly.' Reduplication is used for emphasis: (e.g. sasaira 'very quickly').

#### Prepositions[edit]

Prepositions are non-stackable, meaning they must not appear directly next to a location word nor another preposition. Additionally, they require an NP (noun phrase) complement.

### Serial verb construction[edit]

Wamesa does not have an infinitive construction, but it does have serial verb constructions (SVCs). This means that a sequence of multiple verbs may be used to describe a single event. SVCs in Wamesa include the following serializations: same subject, switch subject, multiple object, ambient, and conjoined participant.[6]

### Passive construction[edit]

Wamesa does not have a true passive since subject agreement is always marked on the verb. However, when the subject is omitted and the object is moved to the beginning of the sentence and topicalized, a sort of passive construction results.

### Possession[edit]

Wamesa distinguishes between alienable and inalienable nouns. Inalienable nouns in Wamesa include human body parts and kinship terms, while alienable nouns in Wamesa include 'name', 'shadow', and everything else. Inalienable nouns in Wamesa can also be used with the alienable possessive construction, but alienable nouns can only be used with the alienable construction. In the dual and plural constructions of possessed nouns, the possessed root gets a prefix that agrees with the possessor in person, number, and animacy.

### Question formation[edit]

Wamesa primarily has WH-in-situ, which means that the WH word does not move to the beginning of a sentence in question form and it instead takes the original place of the thing in question. In contrast, English primarily has WH-raising. That said, Wamesa has WH-raising with otopi 'why'. Basic polar (yes–no) questions are created by inserting te after a sentence that would otherwise be a declarative sentence. Tag questions are formed by inserting ei after the original sentence.

## Morphology[edit]

### Nominal morphology[edit]

A noun phrase (NP) in Wamesa may contain the following: noun, determiner, adjective, number, gender, class (human or nonhuman), relative clause, and quantifier. However, Wamesa does not have case, specificity, and tense. The marker for number goes on the determiner, not the noun. Number cannot be marked twice: it must either be marked explicitly on the determiner or implicitly with a quantifier. When constructing a sentence, there is a wide range of agreement options for human nouns but not for nonhuman nouns.

### Affixes and clitics[edit]

Wamesa has an applicative (it), causative (on), and essive (ve-). Additional affixes include markers for plural (-si), singular (-i), and third-person plural human (-sia). Wamesa's clitics include the topicalizer =ma, focus =ya, =ye, =e; and the proximal (=ne), default/medial (=pa), and distal (=wa) definite determiners. Note that Wamesa clitics are only phonological and not syntactic.

Certain verbs involve the use of the supplemental morpheme -i. For example, the verb maso 'sit' requires a location, which can either be explicitly stated or represented by the morpheme -i.

Imasoi

1sg-sit-location

Imasoi

1sg-sit-location

'I sit'

When the verb sera 'see' involves an object, it can either be explicitly stated or represented by the morpheme -i.

Yau

iserai.

1sg-see-object

Yau iserai.

I 1sg-see-object

'I see (something).'

#### Subject agreement[edit]

*The information presented below uses orthography rather than IPA.

Subject Agreement Chart  | Prefix  | ase 'to swim'  | pera 'to cut'  | ra 'to go'

|
|
|
|

Singular
1sg  | /i-/ | y-ase | i-pera | i-ra
2sg  | /bu-/ | bu-ase | p⟨u⟩uera | r⟨u⟩a
3sg  | /di-/ | di-ase | p⟨i⟩era | r⟨i⟩a
Dual
1du incl  | /tur-/ | tur-ase | tu-pera | tun-da
1du excl  | /amur-/ | amur-ase | amu-pera | amun-da
2du  | /mur-/ | mur-ase | mu-pera | mun-da
3du  | /sur-/ | sur-ase | su-pera | sun-da
Plural
1pl incl  | /tat-/ | tat-ase | ta-pera | tan-da
1pl excl  | /amat-/ | amat-ase | ama-pera | aman-da
2pl  | /met-/ | met-ase | me-pera | men-da
3pl hum  | /set-/ | set-ase | se-pera | sen-da
3pl NH  | /si-/ | si-ase | si-pera | si-ra

Note that with 2sg and 3sg, the agreement is infixed.

Usually, infixation is used to improve syllable structure by making a word CVCV (consonant vowel alternation). However, in the case of Wamesa, perceptual metathesis results in the opposite effect.

#### Negation[edit]

The clitic =va is used to indicate negation, but when it is attached at the end of a sentence, the result is structurally ambiguous, as the clitic may be negating any one of the words in the sentence.

#### Applicative[edit]

The applicative it- may function as instrumental or intensifier. Additionally, the applicative prefix in Wamesa can also give aspectual meaning, which is unusual for applicatives. Regarding the use of the applicative as an instrumental, the instrument must not be human nor a human body part, and the applicative verb must agree with the subject, not the instrument. Aspectual information includes the indication that an action is either sudden or completed.

#### Essive[edit]

The essive ve- functions as a verbalizer, ordinal, relativizer, or indicator of inherent properties, depending on the context in which it appears.

#### Locatives[edit]

Wamesa has a number of locatives, including ones that act like nouns syntactically. Clitics include =ra ('to.there'), =ma ('to.here'), =wa ('down'), and =re ('in progress').

Direction depends on geography and the "salient area" rather than cardinal directions. Direction is specified with regard to land, sea, and elevation.

* Ira ma re 'I'm going to shore'

* Ira ra ye 'I'm going over there (uphill/inland)'

* ma 'to here'

* ra 'to there'

## Lexicon[edit]

Wamesa includes a number of loanwords and influences, particularly from Indonesian and Dutch.

### Pronouns[edit]

Pronoun Chart  | Wamesa  | English

|
|

1sg  | yao | 'I'
2sg  | au | 'you'
3sg  | andi | 'she/he/it'

### Determiners[edit]

Determiners can indicate distance, and their meaning is context dependent. The meaning can either be literal or metaphorical. For example, figurative distance can indicate salience or importance.

### Kinship system[edit]

Wamesa's kinship system is an elaboration of the Iroquois kinship system.[7] However, as a result of Indonesian influence, over time, Wamesa has lost and collapsed distinctions such as mother's vs. father's side, sex, and parallel vs. cross-cousins. Wamesa does distinguish based on age (e.g. if a cousin is older or younger).

### Numerals[edit]

Wamesa uses a quinary decimal system with bases 5, 10, and 20. Atomic numerals include 1–5, 10, 20, and 100 (siaran). Wamesa's number system is both additive and multiplicative. For example, sinitue siri '20 and 1' is 21. Sinitu muandu '20 2' is 40. The word for 20 is also the word for person, likely because a person has 10 fingers and 10 toes.

Numeral Chart  1  | siri | 11  | surai siri | 21  | sinitue siri |  |

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

2  | muandu | 12  | surai muandu |  |  |  |
3  | toru | 13  | surai toru |  |  |  |
4  | at | 14  | surai at |  |  |  |
5  | rim | 15  | surai rim |  |  |  |
6  | rime siri | 16  | surai rime siri |  |  |  |
7  | rime muandu | 17  | surai rime muandu |  |  |  |
8  | rime toru | 18  | surai rime toru |  |  |  |
9  | rime at | 19  | surai rime at |  |  |  |
10  | sura | 20  | sinitu ~ utin | 30  | sinitue sura | 40  | sinitu muandu

## Ethics of fieldwork in the Wamesa community[edit]

In general, Wamesa community members are very proud of their language and view it as a gift to be shared with everyone. Thus, they promote research, encourage the publication and sharing of results, and request that the linguistic data be freely accessible. Additionally, community members believe that the spreading of knowledge of the Wamesa language can bring them social prestige and spiritual benefits. While monetary compensation may be desired or accepted by some members of the community, gift-giving may often be more culturally appropriate and significant.[8]

## References[edit]

1. ^ Wamesa at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
2. ^ a b c d e f g h i Gasser, Emily A. (2014). Windesi Wamesa Morphophonology (PhD thesis). Yale University.
3. ^ Ronsumbre, Adolof (2020). Ensiklopedia Suku Bangsa di Provinsi Papua Barat. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kepel Press. ISBN 978-602-356-318-0.
4. ^ Gasser, Emily (2015). Wamesa Talking Dictionary, pilot version. Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages. http://www.talkingdictionary.org/wamesa
5. ^ Cinque, Guglielmo (2005). "Deriving Greenberg's Universal 20 and Its Exceptions". Linguistic Inquiry. 36 (3): 315–332. doi:10.1162/0024389054396917. hdl:10278/30426. S2CID 12613830.
6. ^ Senft, Gunter (2004). "What Do We Really Know about Serial Verb Constructions in Austronesian and Papuan Languages?". In Bril, I.; Ozanne-Rivierre, F. (eds.). Complex Predicates in Oceanic Languages. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 49–64.
7. ^ Flaming, Rachel. Wandamen Kinship Terminology. Reprinted in: Merrifield, William R.; Gregerson, Marilyn; Ajamiseba, Daniel C., Editors. Gods, Heroes, Kinsmen: Ethnographic Studies from Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Jayapura and Dallas: Cenderawasih University and the International Museum of Cultures; 1983: 244-253.
8. ^ Gasser, Emily (2017). "The Right to Say Yes: Language Documentation in West Papua". Australian Journal of Linguistics. 37 (4): 502–526. doi:10.1080/07268602.2017.1350131. S2CID 148821732.

## External links[edit]

* Wamesa Talking Dictionary (multilingual in English and Bahasa Indonesia)
* Student Projects, 2016 and 2017

* v
* t
* e

Halmahera–Cenderawasih languages

Cenderawasih|

| Biakic|

* Biak
* Dusner
* Meoswar
* Roon

|

Yapen|

* Ambai
* Ansus
* Busami
* Kurudu
* Munggui
* Marau
* Pom
* Papuma
* Serui-Laut
* Wabo
* Wandamen
* Woi

Southwest|

* Iresim
* Yaur
* Yeretuar

Halmahera Sea|

| South|

* Buli
* Gane
* Gebe
* Maba
* Patani
* Sawai
* Taba

|

Other|

* Ambel
* As
* Biga
* Maden
* Matbat
* Ma'ya

Other|

* Arguni
* Bedoanas
* Erokwanas
* Irarutu
* Kuri
* Mor
* Tandia
* Waropen

* v
* t
* e

Austronesian languages

Formosan languages

| Rukaic|

* Rukai

|

Tsouic|

* Tsou
* Kanakanavu
* Saaroa

Northern|

| Atayalic|

* Atayal
* Seediq

|

Northwest
Formosan|

* Saisiyat
* Pazeh †
* Kulon †
* Thao
* Babuza
* Favorlang †
* Papora-Hoanya †

East|

| Kavalanic|

* Basay †
* Kavalan
* Luilang †

|

Ami|

* Amis
* Sakizaya

Siraiyac|

* Siraya †
* Taivoan †

Southern ?|

* Puyuma
* Paiwan
* Bunun

Malayo–Polynesian

Western branches of Malayo–Polynesian

| Philippine
(linkage) ?|

| Batanic (Bashiic)|

* Itbayat
* Ivatan
* Yami

|

Northern Luzon|

* Arta
* Dicamay Agta †
* Ilocano

Cagayan Valley|

* Atta
* Cagayan Agta
* Ga'dang
* Gaddang
* Ibanag
* Isnag
* Itawis
* Yogad

Meso-Cordilleran|

* Northern Alta
* Southern Alta

Central Cordilleran|

* Balangao
* Bontoc
* Ifugao
* Isinai
* Itneg
* Kalinga
* Kankanaey
* Tuwali

Southern Cordilleran|

* Bugkalot
* Ibaloi
* Iwaak
* Kalanguya
* Karao
* Pangasinan

Central Luzon|

* Kapampangan
* Hatang Kayi (Remontado)

Sambalic|

* Abellen
* Ambala
* Mag-antsi
* Bolinao
* Botolan
* Mag-indi
* Mariveleño
* Sambal

Northern Mindoro|

* Alangan
* Iraya
* Tadyawan

Greater Central
Philippine|

| Southern Mindoro|

* Buhid
* Hanunoo
* Tawbuid

|

Central Philippine|

| Tagalogic|

* Filipino
* Kasiguranin
* Tagalog
* Old Tagalog †
* Batangueño

|

Bikol|

* Albay Bikol
* Central Bikol
* Isarog Agta
* Mount Iraya Agta
* Mount Iriga Agta
* Pandan Bikol
* Rinconada

Bisayan|

* Akeanon
* Asi
* Bantayanon
* Baybay
* Butuanon
* Caluyanon
* Capiznon
* Cebuano
* Boholano
* Old Cebuano †
* Cuyonon
* Hiligaynon
* Kabalian
* Karay-a
* Karolanos
* Magahat
* Masbateño
* Northern Sorsogon
* Onhan
* Porohanon
* Ratagnon
* Romblomanon
* Southern Sorsogon
* Sulod
* Surigaonon
* Tausug
* Waray

Mansakan|

* Davawenyo
* Kalagan
* Kamayo
* Mamanwa
* Mandaya
* Mansaka

(unclassified)|

* Ata †

Palawanic|

* Aborlan Tagbanwa
* Batak
* Central Tagbanwa
* Palawano
* Taaw't Bato

Subanen|

* Western Subanon

Danao|

* Iranun
* Maguindanao
* Maranao

Manobo|

* Agusan
* Ata Manobo
* Binukid
* Cotabato Manobo
* Higaonon
* Ilianen
* Kagayanen
* Kamigin
* Matigsalug
* Obo
* Sarangani
* Tagabawa
* Western Bukidnon

Gorontalo–Mongondow|

* Bintauna
* Bolango
* Buol
* Gorontalo
* Kaidipang
* Lolak
* Mongondow
* Ponosakan
* Suwawa

Kalamian|

* Agutaynen
* Calamian Tagbanwa

Bilic|

* Blaan
* Tboli
* Teduray

Sangiric|

* Bantik
* Ratahan
* Sangirese
* Talaud

Minahasan|

* Tombulu
* Tondano
* Tonsawang
* Tonsea
* Tontemboan

Other branches|

* Ati
* Klata
* Umiray Dumaget

Manide–Alabat|

* Inagta Alabat
* Manide

Greater Barito *|

| Barito|

* Malagasy
* Bushi
* Deyah
* Malang
* Witu
* Ma'anyan
* Paku
* Lawangan
* Kohin
* Dohoi
* Siang
* Bakumpai
* Ngaju
* Ampanang
* Tunjung

Sama–Bajaw|

* Abaknon
* Bajaw
* Mapun
* Pangutaran Sama
* Sama
* West Coast Bajaw
* Yakan

Basap *

Greater
North Borneo *|

| North Borneo *|

| Northeast Sabah *|

* Ida'an
* Bonggi
* Molbog ?

|

Southwest Sabah *|

| Greater
Dusunic *|

| Bisaya–Lotud|

* Brunei Bisaya
* Lotud

|

Dusunic|

* Kadazandusun
* Central Dusun
* Coastal Kadazan
* Kuijau
* Eastern Kadazan
* Kota Marudu Talantang
* Rungus / Momogun
* Klias River Kadazan

Paitanic|

* Tombonuwo
* Kinabatangan
* Abai Sungai
* Serudung

Greater
Murutic *|

* Tatana ?
* Papar

Murutic|

* Tagol
* Timugon
* Keningau
* Selungai
* Sembakung
* Baukan
* Okolod
* Paluan
* Ganaʼ
* Kalabakan
* Nonukan Tidong
* Sesayap Tidong

North Sarawak *|

* Kenyah / Bakung
* Sebob
* Tutoh
* Umaʼ Lasan
* Wahau Kenyah
* Penan ?
* Kelabit
* Lengilu
* Lundayeh
* Sa'ban
* Tring
* Berawan
* Belait
* Kiput
* Narom
* Tutong
* Bintulu

Central Sarawak|

* Kajaman
* Lahanan
* Sekapan
* Daro-Matu
* Kanowit–Tanjong
* Melanau
* Bukitan
* Punan Batu
* Sian
* Ukit
* Burusu
* Bah-Biau Punan
* Sajau
* Punan Merap
* Bukat
* Seru †
* Lelak †

Kayanic|

* Kayan
* Bahau
* Modang
* Segai
* Hovongan
* Aoheng
* Aput
* Punan
* Krio Dayak
* Murik

Land Dayak|

* Bakatiʼ
* Sara
* Laraʼ
* Bukar–Sadong
* Biatah
* Tringgus
* Jagoi
* Jangkang
* Kembayan
* Semandang
* Ribun
* Benyaduʼ
* Sanggau

Malayo–Chamic *|

| Aceh–Chamic|

* Acehnese
* Cham dialects
* Chru
* Haroi
* Jarai
* Rade
* Roglai
* Tsat

|

Iban–Malayan|

| Ibanic|

* Iban
* Keninjal ?
* Mualang
* Remun
* Seberuang

|

* Malay
* Malaysian
* Indonesian
* Minangkabau
* Brunei/Kedayan Malay
* Bamayo
* Banjar
* Berau Malay
* Bangka Malay
* Bengkulu
* Col
* Duanoʼ
* Haji
* Jambi Malay
* Jakun
* Kedah Malay
* Kendayan / Selako ?
* Kutai Malay
* Kaur
* Kerinci
* Kelantan-Pattani Malay
* Kubu
* Orang Laut
* Lubu
* Musi
* Negeri Sembilan Malay
* Orang Kanaq
* Orang Seletar
* Pahang Malay
* Pekal
* Perak Malay
* Pontianak Malay
* Reman Malay
* Sarawak Malay
* Temuan
* Terengganu Malay
* Urak Lawoi'

Sundanese|

* Sundanese
* Old Sundanese †
* Baduy
* Bantenese
* Cirebonese

Rejang ?|

* Rejang

Moklenic ?|

* Moken
* Moklen

Sumatran *|

| Northwest Sumatra
–Barrier Islands|

* Enggano ?
* Gayo
* Mentawai
* Nias
* Sikule
* Simeulue

Batak|

* Alas
* Angkola
* Dairi
* Karo
* Simalungun
* Toba
* Mandailing

* Nasal ?

Lampungic|

* Lampung
* Lampung Nyo
* Lampung Api
* Komering

Javanese|

* Javanese
* Kawi / Old Javanese †
* Banyumasan
* Osing
* Tenggerese

Madurese|

* Madurese
* Kangean

Bali–Sasak
–Sumbawa|

* Balinese
* Sasak
* Sumbawa

Celebic|

| Bungku–Tolaki|

* Bahonsuai
* Bungku
* Kodeoha
* Kulisusu
* Moronene
* Mori Bawah
* Mori Atas
* Padoe
* Rahambuu
* Tolaki
* Tomadino
* Waru
* Wawonii

|

Muna–Buton|

* Bonerate
* Busoa
* Cia-Cia
* Kaimbulawa
* Kumbewaha
* Lasalimu
* Liabuku
* Muna
* Pancana
* Tukang Besi

Saluan–Banggai|

* Andio
* Balantak
* Banggai
* Batui
* Bobongko
* Saluan

Tomini–Tolitoli *|

* Balaesang
* Boano ?
* Dampelas
* Dondo
* Lauje
* Pendau
* Taje
* Tajio
* Tomini
* Totoli ?

Kaili–Wolio *|

| Kaili–Pamona|

* Kaili
* Mbelala
* Moma
* Pamona
* Rampi
* Sarudu
* Sedoa
* Topoiyo
* Uma

Wotu–Wolio|

* Kalao
* Kamaru
* Laiyolo
* Ledo Kaili *
* Wolio
* Wotu

South Sulawesi|

| Bugis|

* Buginese
* Campalagian
* Embaloh ?
* Taman

|

Makassaric|

* Makassarese
* Bentong
* Coastal Konjo
* Highland Konjo
* Selayar

Seko–Badaic *|

| Seko|

* Budong-Budong
* Panasuan
* Seko Padang
* Seko Tengah

|

Badaic *|

* Bada
* Behoa
* Napu

Northern|

* Mamuju
* Mandar

Massenrempulu|

* Duri
* Enrekang
* Maiwa
* Malimpung

Pitu Ulunna Salu|

* Aralle-Tabulahan
* Bambam
* Dakka
* Pannei
* Ulumandaʼ

Toraja|

* Kalumpang
* Mamasa
* Pattae'
* Lawa
* Talondoʼ ?
* Toraja-Saʼdan

* Lemolang

Isolates|

* Chamorro
* Palauan

Central Malayo-Polynesian languages

| Bima|

* Bima

|

Sumba–Flores|

| Sumba–Hawu|

| Savu|

* Hawu
* Dhao

|

Sumba|

* Kambera
* Mamboru
* Anakalangu
* Wanukaka
* Pondok
* Baliledo
* Wejewa
* Lamboya
* Kodi
* Gaura

Western Flores|

* Komodo
* Manggarai
* Riung
* Rembong
* Rajong
* Kepoʼ
* Wae Rana
* Palu'e
* Ende
* Lio
* Nagé-Kéo
* Ngadha
* Rongga
* Soʼa

Flores–Lembata|

* Sika
* Kedang

Lamaholot|

* Lamaholot
* Alorese
* Lamatuka
* Lewo Eleng
* Levuka
* South Lembata
* Lamalera
* Lewotobi
* Adonara
* Ile Ape
* Mingar

Selaru|

* Selaru
* Seluwasan

Kei–Tanimbar ?|

* Kei
* Fordata
* Yamdena
* Onin
* Sekar
* Uruangnirin

Aru|

* Barakai
* Batuley
* Dobel
* Karey
* Koba
* Kola
* Lola
* Lorang
* Manombai
* Mariri
* Tarangan
* Ujir

Timoric *|

* Helong
* Tetum
* Uab Meto
* Amarasi

Central Timor *|

* Kemak
* Tukudede
* Mambai
* Bekais

Wetar–Galoli ?|

* Wetar
* Galoli

Kawaimina|

* Kairui
* Waimoa
* Midiki
* Naueti ?
* Habun ?

Luangic–Kisaric ?|

* Romang
* Kisar
* Leti
* Luang
* Makuva

Rote–Meto *|

* Bilba
* Dengka
* Lole
* Ringgou
* Dela-Oenale
* Termanu
* Tii

Babar|

* Idalaka
* West Damar
* Dawera-Daweloor
* North Babar
* Dai
* Masela
* Serili
* Southeast Babar
* Emplawas
* Imroing
* Telaʼa

Southwest Maluku|

* East Damar
* Teun
* Nila
* Serua

Kowiai ?|

* Kowiai

Central Maluku *|

* Teor-Kur

West|

* Ambelau
* Buru
* Lisela
* Hukumina †
* Moksela †
* Sula
* Mangole
* Taliabo

East|

* Banda
* Bati
* Geser
* Watubela
* Bobot
* Masiwang
* Hoti †
* Benggoi
* Salas
* Liana

Nunusaku|

* Kayeli †
* Nuaulu
* Huaulu
* Manusela
* Wemale
* Yalahatan

Piru Bay ?|

* Asilulu
* Luhu
* Manipa
* Wakasihu
* Boano
* Sepa-Teluti
* Paulohi
* Kaibobo
* Hitu
* Tulehu
* Laha
* Seit-Kaitetu
* Kamarian †
* Haruku
* Amahai
* Nusa Laut
* Saparua
* Latu

Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages

| SHWNG|

* Tandia †
* Mor
* Waropen
* Warembori ?
* Yoke ?

Halmahera Sea|

| Ambel–Biga|

* Ambel
* Biga

|

Maya–Matbat|

* Ma'ya
* Matbat

Maden|

* Maden
* Fiawat

As|

* As

South Halmahera|

* Gane
* Taba
* Buli
* Maba
* Patani
* Sawai
* Gebe

Cenderawasih|

| Biakic|

* Biak
* Dusner †
* Meoswar
* Roon

|

Yapen|

* Ambai
* Ansus
* Marau
* Wamesa
* Wooi
* Munggui
* Papuma
* Pom
* Serui-Laut
* Kurudu
* Wabo

Southwest|

* Yaur
* Yerisiam
* Umar

Oceanic|

| Admiralty|

* Yapese ?

Eastern|

* Manus
* Baluan-Pam
* Lenkau
* Lou
* Nauna
* Penchal

Western|

* Northern Kaniet †
* Southern Kaniet †
* Seimat
* Wuvulu
* Aua

Saint Matthias|

* Mussau-Emira
* Tenis

Temotu|

| Utupua|

* Amba
* Asumboa
* Tanimbili

|

Vanikoro|

* Teanu
* Lovono
* Tanema

Reefs–Santa Cruz|

* Äiwoo
* Engdewu / Nanggu
* Natügu / Santa Cruz
* Nalögo
* Noipx

Southeast
Solomonic|

| Gela–Guadalcanal|

* Bugotu
* Gela
* Lengo
* Birao
* Ghari
* Malango
* Talise

|

Malaita–
San Cristobal|

* Longgu
* Sa'a
* Arosi
* Fagani
* Bauro
* Kahua
* Owa
* Marau Wawa ? †
* Toʼabaita
* Baelelea
* Baeggu
* Fataleka
* Lau
* Kwara'ae
* Wala
* Gula'alaa
* Kwaio
* Dori'o
* ꞋAreꞌare
* Oroha

Western
Oceanic|

| Meso–
Melanesian|

| Willaumez|

* Bola
* Bulu
* Meramera
* Nakanai

|

Bali-Vitu|

* Bali
* Vitu

New Ireland–
Northwest
Solomonic|

| Tungag–Nalik|

* Kara
* Laxudumau
* Nalik
* Tiang
* Tigak
* Tungag

|

Tabar|

* Lihir
* Madara
* Notsi

Madak|

* Barok
* Lavatbura–Lamusong
* Madak

St. George|

* Bilur
* Fanamaket
* Guramalum †
* Kandas
* Konomala
* Label
* Lungalunga
* Niwer Mil
* Patpatar
* Ramoaaina
* Siar
* Sursurunga
* Tangga
* Tolai

Northwest
Solomonic|

* Babatana
* Bannoni
* Blablanga
* Cheke Holo
* Gao
* Ghanongga
* Hahon
* Hakö
* Halia
* Hoava
* Kazukuru †
* Kokota
* Kusaghe
* Laghu †
* Lungga
* Marovo
* Mono-Alu
* Nduke
* Nehan
* Papapana
* Petats
* Piva
* Ririo
* Roviana
* Saposa
* Simbo
* Solos
* Teop
* Tinputz
* Torau
* Ughele
* Uruava †
* Vaghua
* Vangunu
* Varisi
* Zabana
* Zazao

* Tomoip

North
New Guinea|

| Sarmi–
Jayapura ?|

* Anus
* Bonggo
* Kayupulau
* Liki
* Masimasi
* Ormu
* Podena
* Kaptiau
* Sobei
* Tarpia
* Tobati
* Wakde
* Yamna

|

Schouten|

* Arop-Sissano
* Sera
* Sissano
* Ulau-Suain
* Tumleo
* Yakamul
* Kaiep
* Kairiru
* Terebu
* Biem
* Kis
* Manam
* Medebur
* Sepa
* Wogeo

Huon Gulf|

* Bukawa
* Kela
* Yabem
* Aribwatsa †
* Aribwaung
* Adzera
* Dangal
* Duwet
* Labu
* Maralango
* Mari
* Musom
* Nafi
* Silisili
* Wampar
* Wampur
* Hote
* Iwal
* Kapin
* Kumalu
* Mangga Buang
* Mapos Buang
* Mumeng
* Piu
* Vehes
* Yamap
* Numbami

Ngero–Vitiaz|

* Bariai
* Gitua
* Kove
* Lusi
* Malalamai
* Mutu
* Awad Bing
* Bilibil
* Gedaged
* Marik
* Matukar
* Mindiri
* Takia
* Wab
* Lamogai
* Mouk-Aria
* Aigon
* Karore
* Kaulong †
* Miu
* Sengseng
* Aiklep
* Akolet
* Apalik
* Avau
* Bebeli
* Gimi
* Lesing-Gelimi
* Mangseng
* Solong
* Lote
* Mamusi
* Mengen
* Arop-Lukep
* Karnai
* Malasanga
* Mur Pano
* Mato
* Ronji
* Amara
* Maleu
* Mbula
* Sio
* Tami

Papuan Tip|

| Nuclear|

* ʼAuhelawa
* Buhutu
* Bwanabwana
* Oya'oya
* Saliba
* Suau
* Unubahe
* Wagawaga
* Bwaidoka
* Diodio
* Iamalele
* Iduna
* Koluwawa
* Maiadomu
* Bunama
* Boselewa
* Dobu
* Duau
* Galeya
* Molima
* Mwatebu
* Sewa Bay
* Dawawa
* Kakabai
* Are
* Arifama-Miniafia
* Doga
* Gapapaiwa
* Ghayavi
* Kaninuwa
* Ubir
* Gweda
* Haigwai
* Maiwala
* Minaveha
* Taupota
* Tawala
* Yakaikeke
* Anuki
* Gumawana

|

Kilivila–Misima|

* Budibud
* Kilivila
* Misima
* Muyuw

Nimoa–Sudest|

* Nimoa
* Sudest

Southern
Oceanic|

| North
Vanuatu|

| Torres–Banks|

* Dorig
* Hiw
* Koro
* Lakon
* Lehali
* Lemerig
* Lo-Toga
* Löyöp
* Mota
* Mwerlap
* Mwesen
* Mwotlap
* Nume
* Olrat
* Vera’a
* Volow
* Vurës

|

Maewo–Ambae–
North Pentecost|

* Baetora
* Duidui
* Northeast Ambae
* Raga
* Sun̄wadaga
* Sun̄wadia

South Pentecost|

* Apma
* Sa
* Ske
* Sowa †

Espiritu Santo|

* Akei
* Aore †
* Araki
* Cape Cumberland
* Nokuku
* Kiai
* M̈av̈ea
* Merei-Tiale
* Mores
* Sakao
* Shark Bay
* Tamambo
* Tangoa
* Tasiriki
* Tolomako
* Tutuba
* Wusi

Nuclear
Southern
Oceanic|

| Central
Vanuatu|

* North Efate
* Nafsan
* Efatese
* Eton
* Lelepa
* Makura
* Daakaka
* Dalkalaen
* Lonwolwol
* Paamese
* Port Vato
* Southeast Ambrym

| Epi|

* Baki
* Bierebo
* Bieria
* Lamen
* Lewo
* Maii

|

Malakula|

* Aulua
* Avava
* Aveteian
* Axamb
* Big Nambas
* Botovro
* Burmbar
* Bwenelang
* Larëvat
* Lendamboi
* Litzlitz
* Malfaxal
* Malua Bay
* Maskelynes
* Nahavaq
* Nasarian
* Nasvang
* Nāti
* Navwien
* Nese
* Neve'ei
* Neverver
* Ninde
* Nisvai
* Nitita
* Port Sandwich
* Rerep
* Sörsörian
* Tape
* Tirax
* Unua
* Northeast Malakula
* Vao
* Vivti
* Rutan
* Alovas
* Najit
* Njav

South Vanuatu|

| Erromango|

* Erromanga / Sie
* Sorung †
* Ura
* Utaha / Ifo †

|

Tanna|

* Kwamera / South Tanna
* Lenakel / West Tanna
* North Tanna
* Southwest Tanna
* Whitesands / East Tanna

* Aneityum

Loyalties–
New Caledonia|

| Loyalty Islands|

* Drehu
* Iaai
* Nengone

|

New Caledonian|

| Southern|

* Ajië
* Arhâ
* Arhö
* Ndrumbea
* Neku
* Numèè
* Orowe
* Tîrî
* Xârâcùù
* Xârâgurè
* Zire †

|

Northern|

* Bwatoo
* Caac
* Cèmuhî
* Fwâi
* Haeke
* Haveke
* Hmwaveke
* Jawe
* Kumak
* Nemi
* Nyâlayu
* Paicî
* Pije
* Pwaamei
* Pwapwâ
* Vamale
* Waamwang †
* Yuanga

Micronesian|

* Nauruan

Nuclear
Micronesian|

* Gilbertese
* Kosraean
* Marshallese

Chuukic–
Pohnpeic|

| Chuukic|

* Carolinian
* Chuukese
* Mapia †
* Mortlockese
* Namonuito
* Pááfang
* Puluwatese
* Satawalese
* Sonsorol
* Tanapag
* Tobian
* Ulithian
* Woleaian

|

Pohnpeic|

* Mokilese
* Ngatikese
* Pingelapese
* Pohnpeian

Central
Pacific|

| West|

* Namosi-Naitasiri-Serua
* Rotuman
* Western Fijian

|

East|

* Fijian
* Gone Dau
* Lauan
* Lomaiviti

Polynesian|

| Nuclear
Polynesian|

* Kapingamarangi
* Nuguria
* Nukumanu
* Nukuoro
* Ontong Java
* Sikaiana
* Takuu
* Tuvaluan

Samoic|

* Niuatoputapu †
* Samoan
* Tokelauan

Eastern|

* Austral
* Cook Islands Māori
* Hawaiian
* Mangareva
* Māori
* Moriori †
* Marquesan
* Penrhyn
* Rakahanga-Manihiki
* Rapa
* Rapa Nui
* Tahitian
* Tuamotuan

Futunic|

* Anuta
* Emae
* Futuna-Aniwa / West Futunan
* Futunan / East Futunan
* Mele-Fila
* Pukapukan
* Rennellese
* Tikopia
* Wallisian / East Uvean
* West Uvean

Tongic|

* Niuafoʻou ?
* Niuean
* Tongan

* * indicates proposed status
* ? indicates classification dispute
* † indicates extinct status

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Indonesia

Western languages

| Malayo-Sumbawan|

* Indonesian
* Slang
* Acehnese
* Balinese
* Bamayo
* Banjarese
* Boyanese
* Duano'
* Haji
* Iban
* Kangean
* Kendayan
* Keninjal
* Kubu
* Lubu
* Loncong
* Madurese
* Malay
* Anambas-Natuna
* Bangka
* Bengkulu
* Berau
* Col/Lembak
* Jambi
* Kaur
* Jaring Halus
* Kerinci
* Kutai
* Palembang-Musi
* Pekal
* Pontianak
* Riau
* Minangkabau
* Mualang
* Sasak
* Seberuang
* Sumbawan
* Sundanese
* Baduy
* Bantenese

|

Javanese|

* Javanese
* Banyumasan
* Osing
* Tenggerese
* Kawi

Celebic|

* Andio
* Bada
* Bahonsuai
* Balaesang
* Balantak
* Banggai
* Batui
* Behoa
* Boano
* Bobongko
* Bonerate
* Bungku
* Busoa
* Cia-Cia
* Dampelas
* Dondo
* Kalao
* Kaili
* Kaimbulawa
* Kamaru
* Kodeoha
* Kulisusu
* Kumbewaha
* Lasalimu
* Laiyolo
* Lauje
* Liabuku
* Mbelala
* Moronene
* Mori Bawah
* Mori Atas
* Moma
* Muna
* Napu
* Padoe
* Pancana
* Pendau
* Rahambuu
* Rampi
* Saluan
* Sarudu
* Sedoa
* Pamona
* Taje
* Tajio
* Tukang Besi
* Tolaki
* Tomadino
* Topoiyo
* Tomini
* Totoli
* Uma
* Waru
* Wawonii
* Wolio
* Wotu

Lampungic|

* Komering
* Lampung

Northwest Sumatra–
Barrier Islands|

* Batak
* Alas
* Batak Angkola
* Batak Dairi
* Batak Karo
* Batak Mandailing
* Batak Simalungun
* Batak Toba
* Enggano
* Gayo
* Mentawai
* Nias
* Simeulue
* Sikule

South Sulawesi|

* Aralle-Tabulahan
* Bambam
* Bentong
* Budong-Budong
* Buginese
* Campalagian
* Coastal Konjo
* Dakka
* Duri
* Embaloh
* Enrekang
* Highland Konjo
* Kalumpang
* Lemolang
* Maiwa
* Makassarese
* Malimpung
* Mamasa
* Mamuju
* Mandar
* Panasuan
* Pannei
* Selayar
* Seko Padang
* Seko Tengah
* Tae’
* Talondo’
* Taman
* Toraja-Sa’dan
* Ulumanda’

Barito|

* Ampanang
* Bakumpai
* Bajaw
* Deyah
* Kohin
* Lawangan
* Ma'anyan
* Malang
* Ngaju
* Ot Danum
* Sama
* Ot Siang
* Tunjung
* Witu
* Pakau

Kayan–Murik|

* Aoheng
* Aput
* Bahau
* Hovongan
* Kayan
* Krio
* Modang
* Punan Merah
* Segai

Land Dayak|

* Bakati’
* Biatah
* Bukar Sadong
* Jangkang
* Kembayan
* Laraʼ
* Nyadu’
* Rejangese
* Ribun
* Sanggau
* Sara
* Semandang
* Beginci
* Gerai
* Tringgus

North Bornean|

* Bah-Biau
* Basap
* Bukat
* Bukitan
* Kelabit
* Kenyah
* Mainstream
* Lengilu
* Lun Bawang
* Murut
* Okolod
* Selungai
* Sembakung
* Tagol
* Punan Merap
* Punan Tubu
* Sa'ban
* Sajau
* Tidung
* Burusu
* Kalabakan
* Nonukan

Philippine languages|

| Central Philippine|

* Tausug

|

Gorontalo-Mongondow|

* Bintauna
* Bolango
* Buol
* Gorontaloan
* Kaidipang
* Lolak
* Mongondow
* Ponosakan
* Suwawa

Minahasan|

* Tombulu
* Tondano
* Tonsawang
* Tonsea
* Tontemboan

Sangiric|

* Bantik
* Ratahan
* Sangirese
* Talaud

Central-Eastern languages

| Aru|

* Barakai
* Batuley
* Dobel
* Karey
* Koba
* Kola-Kompane
* Lola
* Lorang
* Manombai
* Mariri
* Tarangan
* Ujir

|

Central Maluku|

* Alune
* Amahai
* Ambelau
* Asilulu
* Banda
* Bati
* Benggoi
* Boano
* Bobot
* Buru
* Geser
* Haruku
* Hitu
* Hoti
* Huaulu
* Hulung
* Kaibobo
* Kamarian
* Kowiai
* Laha
* Larike-Wakasihu
* Latu
* Liana-Seti
* Lisabata-Nuniali
* Lisela
* Loun
* Luhu
* Mangole
* Manipa
* Manusela
* Masiwang
* Naka'ela
* Nuaulu
* Nusa Laut
* Paulohi
* Salas
* Saleman
* Saparua
* Seit-Kaitetu
* Sepa-Teluti
* Sula
* Taliabo
* Teor-Kur
* Tulehu
* Watubela
* Wemale
* Yalahatan

Flores–Lembata|

* Alorese
* Kedang
* Lamaholot
* Adonara
* Ile Ape
* Lamalera
* Lamatuka
* Levuka
* Lewo Eleng
* Lewotobi
* South Lembata
* West Lembata
* Sika

Halmahera-
Cenderawasih|

* Ambai
* Ambel
* Ansus
* Arguni
* As
* Bedoanas
* Biak
* Biga
* Buli
* Busami
* Dusner
* Erokwanas
* Gane
* Irarutu
* Iresim
* Kuri
* Kurudu
* Maba
* Maden
* Matbat
* Ma'ya
* Munggui
* Marau
* Meoswar
* Mor
* Papuma
* Patani
* Pom
* Roon
* Sawai
* Serui-Laut
* Taba
* Tandia
* Wabo
* Wamesa
* Wandamen
* Waropen
* Woi
* Yaur
* Yeretuar
* Yeresiam

Kei-Tanimbar|

* Fordata
* Kei
* Onin
* Sekar
* Uruangnirin
* Yamdena

Selaru|

* Selaru
* Seluwasan

Sumba–Flores|

* Anakalangu
* Baliledo
* Bima
* Dhao
* Ende
* Gaura
* Hawu
* Kambera
* Kéo
* Kodi
* Komodo
* Lamboya
* Lio
* Mamboru
* Manggarai
* Nage
* Ngadha
* Palu'e
* Pondok
* Rajong
* Rembong
* Riung
* Rongga
* So'a
* Kepo'
* Wae Rana
* Wanukaka
* Wejewa

Timor–Babar|

* Amarasi
* Bekais
* Bilba
* Dai
* Dawera-Daweloor
* Dela-Oenale
* Dengka
* East Damar
* Emplawas
* Galoli
* Helong
* Imroing
* Kemak
* Kisar
* Leti
* Lole
* Luang
* Masela
* Nila
* North Babar
* Ringgou
* Romang
* Serili
* Serua
* Southeast Babar
* Tela'a
* Termanu
* Tetum
* Te'un
* Tii
* Uab Meto
* West Damar
* Welaun
* Wetar

Western Oceanic|

* Anus
* Bonggo
* Kayupulau
* Liki
* Masimasi
* Ormu
* Podena
* Kaptiau
* Sobei
* Tarpia
* Tobati
* Wakde
* Yamna

Papuan languages

| North Halmahera|

* Galela
* Gamkonora
* Loloda
* Modole
* Pagu
* Sahu
* Tabaru
* Ternate
* Tidore
* Tobelo
* Waioli
* West Makian

|

Timor–Alor–Pantar|

* Abui
* Adang
* Blagar
* Bunak
* Kaera
* Kafoa
* Kamang
* Klon
* Kui
* Kula
* Nedebang
* Oirata
* Retta
* Sawila
* Teiwa
* Wersing
* Western Pantar
* Woisika

Asmat–Mombum|

* Buruwai
* Casuarina Coast Asmat
* Central Asmat
* North Asmat
* Citak
* Mombum
* Kamberau
* Kamoro
* Koneraw
* Sempan

West Bird's Head|

* Kalabra
* Kuwani
* Moi
* Moraid
* Seget
* Tehit

South Bird's Head|

* Arandai
* Dombano
* Duriankari
* Inanwatan
* Kaburi
* Kais
* Kemberano
* Kokoda
* Konda
* Kovojab
* Puragi
* Yahadian

East Bird's Head|

* Hatam
* Mansim
* Meyah
* Moskona
* Sougb

West Bomberai|

* Baham
* Iha
* Karas

Dani|

* Grand Valley Dani
* Hupla
* Nduga
* Nggem
* Silimo
* Walak
* Wano
* Western Dani
* Yali

Paniai Lakes|

* Auye
* Dao
* Ekari
* Moni
* Wolani

Digul River|

* Aghu
* Awbono
* Bayono
* Densar
* Edera
* Jair
* Kombai
* Komyandaret
* Korowai
* Mandobo
* Pisa
* Sawi
* Shiaxa
* Tsaukambo
* Wambon

Foja Range|

* Airoran
* Bagusa
* Berik
* Betaf
* Bonerif
* Dabe
* Dineor
* Edwas
* Gresi
* Isirawa
* Itik
* Kapori
* Kauwera
* Keijar
* Kemtuik
* Kwerba
* Kwerba Mamberamo
* Kwesten
* Kwinsu
* Mander
* Massep
* Mawes
* Mekwei
* Mlap
* Namblong
* Nimboran
* Orya
* Sause
* Oksapmin
* Samarokena
* Trimuris
* Vitou

Lakes Plain|

* Awera
* Biritai
* Doutai
* Duvle
* Eritai
* Fayu
* Foau
* Iau
* Kaiy
* Keuw
* Kirikiri
* Kwerisa
* Obokuitai
* Papasena
* Rasawa
* Sikaritai
* Tause
* Taworta
* Waritai

East Cenderawasih Bay|

* Baropasi
* Bauzi
* Burate
* Demisa
* Kofei
* Nisa-Anasi
* Sauri
* Tefaro
* Tunggare
* Woria

Yawa |

* Saweru
* Yawa

Demta–Sentani|

* Demta
* Nafri
* Sentani
* Tabla

Ok|

* Burumakok
* Faiwol
* Iwur
* Kopka
* Muyu
* Nakai
* Ngalum
* Ninggerum
* Tangko
* Tifal
* Yonggom

Momuna–Mek|

* Eipo
* Goliath
* Ketengban
* Kosarek
* Korupun
* Nalca
* Nipsan
* Somahai

Skou |

* Skou

South Pauwasi|

* Biksi-Yetfa
* Kimki
* Lepki
* Murkim

East Pauwasi|

* Emem
* Zorop

West Pauwasi|

* Namla
* Tebi
* Tofanma
* Towei
* Usku

Kaure–Kosare|

* Kaure
* Kosare

Marind–Yaqai|

* Bipim
* Marind
* Yaqay

Bulaka River|

* Maklew
* Yelmek

Kayagar |

* Atohwaim
* Kayagar
* Tamagario

Border|

* Awyi
* Elseng
* Taikat
* Manem
* Sowanda
* Viid
* Waris

Senagi |

* Dera

Mairasi |

* Mairasi
* Mer
* Semimi

Kolopom |

* Kimaghama
* Morori
* Ndom
* Riantana

Yam|

* Ngkolmpu Kanum
* Rema
* Smerki
* Tamer
* Yei

Lower Mamberamo|

* Warembori
* Yoke

Others|

* Abinomn
* Abun
* Amung
* Burmeso
* Dem
* Kanum
* Maklew
* Maybrat
* Molof
* Momina
* Mor
* Mpur

Other languages

| Creoles and Pidgins|

| Malay-based creoles|

* Alor Malay
* Ambonese Malay
* Bandanese Malay
* Bacanese Malay
* Balinese Malay
* Betawi
* Gorap
* Gorontaloan Malay
* Kupang Malay
* Larantuka Malay
* Manado Malay
* Makassar Malay
* North Moluccan Malay
* Papuan Malay
* Peranakan
* Serui Malay

|

Other creoles and pidgins|

* Javindo
* Petjo
* Mardijker
* Pidgin Iha
* Pidgin Onin
* Portugis
* Bidau Creole Portuguese

|

Immigrant languages|

| Chinese|

* Cantonese
* Hakka
* Fujianese
* Hokkien
* Medan
* Riau
* Tiochiu
* Hainanese
* Hinghwa
* Fuzhounese
* Mandarin

|

European|

* Dutch
* English
* Portuguese

Indian|

* Bengali
* Gujarati
* Odia
* Pali
* Punjabi
* Sanskrit
* Sindhi
* Tamil
* Telugu
* Urdu

Middle Eastern|

* Arabic
* Hadhrami Arabic
* Modern Standard Arabic
* Persian

Others|

* Filipino
* Japanese
* Korean

Sign languages|

* Indonesian Sign Languages
* Kata Kolok

*[DET]: determiner
*[1PL]: first person, plural
*[INCL]: inclusive person
*[FOC]: focus
*[1sg]: first person, singular
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