Water pricing

Water pricing is a term that covers various processes to assign a price to water. These processes differ greatly under different circumstances.

## Agricultural water pricing

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The management of agricultural water resources in regions facing scarcity, requires nuanced policy approaches. While water pricing is often proposed as a tool to curb excessive water use, its effectiveness hinges on complementary strategies. Price adjustments alone are unlikely to significantly impact consumption due to the inelastic nature of water demand and existing subsidies. The issue of excessive agricultural water consumption cannot be solely attributed to the low price of water, as raising prices without concurrent development of essential infrastructure would fail to produce meaningful results.[1]

Contrasting perspectives exist on addressing the challenge: one view advocates making agricultural water free of charge, citing its eventual return to the hydrological cycle, while another emphasizes reducing water supply costs through technological advancements rather than raising prices. Effective solutions demand comprehensive measures, including modernization of irrigation systems, institutional reforms, public education on sustainable practices, and support for farmers via subsidies, crop insurance, and advanced agricultural technologies. Drawing on international experiences, policymakers should prioritize institutional reforms and the establishment of local water distribution cooperatives to create a foundation for sustainable water use. These strategies must align water use efficiency with agricultural productivity and sustainability goals.[2]

Agricultural water price reforms are critical for managing water scarcity but require careful planning to ensure sustainability and minimize negative impacts. Successful reforms depend on strengthening institutional frameworks, modernizing irrigation infrastructure, and providing education and training to farmers. Creating alternative livelihoods and offering financial incentives are essential to support farmers transitioning away from traditional practices. Without these measures, water price increases may lead to unintended consequences, such as illegal water extraction, reduced agricultural productivity, and social unrest. Holistic strategies should aim to enhance water-use efficiency, align policies with sustainability goals, and address socioeconomic disparities, ensuring that environmental conservation is achieved alongside improved social and economic outcomes[3]

## Effective and efficient water pricing

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Key to effective and efficient water pricing is a systematic process to understand: (i) the value of water in alternative uses; (ii) the private and external costs of supplying water services; and (iii) the multiple options to determine an appropriate water tariff. Within the four dimensions of water pricing (uniform versus variable tariff and flat charge versus volumetric pricing), there is an almost infinite number of possible pricing combinations. Within this choice set, the preferred water tariff depends on multiple factors including: the goals of water pricing; the capacity of a water services supplier to allocate its costs, to price water, and to collect revenues from its customers; the price responsiveness of water consumers; and what is considered to be a fair or just water tariff. [4]

## Bottled water

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Prices for bottled water are set in the market, but must be seen not as much as a price of water, than the price of the convenience, bottle and transportation. It is comparable to other bottled cheap beverages (soda, beer, ...). Retail prices vary widely between countries, brands, bottle sizes (0.33 liter to 20 liters) and place of sale (supermarket, fair, restaurant etc.). They range from US$0.05 to US$6 per liter, equivalent to US$50 to US$6,000 per cubic meter.

## Tanker trucks

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Prices for water sold by tanker trucks in bulk, which is common in cities of some developing countries for households without access to piped water supply, are set in the market. Prices for trucked water vary between about US$1 and US$6 per cubic meter.

## Utility tariffs

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Prices for piped water supply provided by utilities, be they publicly or privately managed, are determined administratively (see water tariffs). They vary from US$0.01 to almost US$8 per cubic meter (including sewer tariffs).

Portland 2.17 gallons cost $0.01 [5]

## Irrigation

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Prices for irrigation water that is being provided by a public agency are also typically determined administratively, usually using a flat rate, since metering is not common in agriculture in most countries of the world.

The following pricing systems exist for irrigation:[6]

* Area-based tariffs, sometimes differentiated by type of crop grown
* Volumetric pricing, which requires measurement

Tariffs can be paid in the form of labor, which holds mainly in communal types of management in traditional irrigation systems, or in cash. Tariffs can also vary between seasons, with higher tariffs charged during the dry season.

## Direct abstraction

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In most countries there is no charge for abstracting water directly from rivers, lakes and aquifers. However, some countries do levy volumetric charges or fees for water abstraction rights. These charges are typically levied on industries, utilities and farmers. Fees for water abstraction and discharge exist for example in France, where revenues are significant and are re-invested in the water sector by water agencies established in major basins. In Germany abstraction fees exist only for groundwater and only in some states, and their proceeds go into the general state budget. Mexico also charges for water abstraction and returns proceeds to utilities, but not to industries. Outside the OECD countries few countries charge water abstraction fees. Where they are applied the level of fees tends to be nominal, such as in Morocco, or enforcement is partial, such as for groundwater abstraction fees in Jordan. In almost all countries that have introduced abstraction fees agriculture, the major water user worldwide, is exempted from abstraction fees. Some countries allow water rights to be traded, so that the price for water itself is formed in the market. Such water trading exist in parts of Australia, Chile and the Southwestern United States).

## References

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1. ^ Momeni, Marzieh; Razavi, Vahid; Zahedi, Sina; Momeni, Farshad; Behzadian, Kourosh; Dolatabadi, Neda (2023-09-16). "A study of the required sustainability-driven institutional and behavioural mechanisms to tackle the anticipated implications of agricultural water price shocks: a system dynamics approach". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 15397. Bibcode:2023NatSR..1315397M. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-42778-8. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 10505165. PMID 37717105.
2. ^ Momeni, Marzieh; Zakeri, Zahra; Esfandiari, Mojtaba; Behzadian, Kourosh; Zahedi, Sina; Razavi, Vahid (2019-08-20). "Comparative analysis of agricultural water pricing between Azarbaijan Provinces in Iran and the state of California in the US: A hydro-economic approach". Agricultural Water Management. 223: 105724. Bibcode:2019AgWM..22305724M. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2019.105724. ISSN 0378-3774.
3. ^ Momeni, Marzieh; Razavi, Vahid; Zahedi, Sina; Momeni, Farshad; Behzadian, Kourosh; Dolatabadi, Neda (2023-09-16). "A study of the required sustainability-driven institutional and behavioural mechanisms to tackle the anticipated implications of agricultural water price shocks: a system dynamics approach". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 15397. Bibcode:2023NatSR..1315397M. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-42778-8. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 10505165. PMID 37717105.
4. ^ Grafton, R Quentin; Chu, Long; Wyrwoll, Paul (2020-01-06). "The paradox of water pricing: dichotomies, dilemmas, and decisions". Oxford Review of Economic Policy. 36 (1): 86–107\. doi:10.1093/oxrep/grz030. hdl:10.1093/oxrep/grz030. ISSN 0266-903X.
5. ^ "Water rates and charges".
6. ^ World Bank, by K. William Easter and Yang Liu:Cost Recovery and Water Pricing for Irrigation and Drainage Projects Archived 2009-12-29 at the Wayback Machine, Agriculture and Rural Development Discussion Paper 26, 2005, p. 15-19, accessed on February 7, 2010