Waterfowl hunting

Practice of hunting waterfowl for food and sport

"Wildfowler" redirects here. For the racehorse, see Wildfowler (horse).

See also: Hunting in Australia and Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom

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Waterfowl hunting is the practice of hunting aquatic birds such as ducks, geese and other waterfowls or shorebirds for food and sport. Many types of ducks and geese share the same habitat, have overlapping or identical hunting seasons, and are hunted using the same methods. Thus it is possible to take different species of waterfowl in the same outing. Waterfowl can be hunted in crop fields where they feed, or, more frequently, on or near bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, ponds, wetlands, sloughs, or sea coasts.

## History

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Lov na race; čakališče na jezeru pri jami Lisišče (1759) by Franz Anton von Steinberg, which depicts waterfowl hunting

### Prehistoric waterfowl hunting

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Wild waterfowl have been hunted for food, down, and feathers worldwide since prehistoric times. Ducks, geese, and swans appear in European cave paintings from the last Ice Age, and a mural in the Ancient Egyptian tomb of Khnumhotep II (c. 1900 BCE) shows a man in a hunting blind capturing swimming ducks in a trap.[1] Muscovy ducks were depicted in the art of the Moche culture of ancient Peru by 200 BCE, and were likely hunted by many people of the Americas before then.[2]

Duck Hunters on the Lagoon (c. 1760) by Pietro Longhi.

### Rise of modern waterfowl hunting

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Hunting with shotguns began in the 17th century with the matchlock shotgun. Later flintlock shotguns and percussion cap guns were used. Shotguns were loaded with black powder and lead shot through the muzzle in the 17th century to the late 19th century. The transition from flint to "detonating" or percussion lock firearms and from muzzle to breech loading guns was largely driven by innovations made by English gun makers such as Joseph Manton, at which time wildfowling was extremely popular in England both as a pastime and as a means of earning a living, as described by Col. Peter Hawker in his diaries.[3] Damascus barrels are safe to shoot (where proofed) only with black powder charges. When smokeless powder was invented in the late 19th century, steel barrels were made. Damascus barrels which were made of a twisted steel could not take the high pressure of smokeless powder. Fred Kimble, Tanner, and Adam, duck hunters from Illinois, invented the shotgun choke in 1886. This is a constriction at the end of the barrel. This allowed for longer range shooting with the shotgun and kept the pattern of shot tighter or looser according to which type of choke is being used. Until 1886, shotguns had cylinder bore barrels which could only shoot up to 25 yards, so duck hunting was done at close range. After 1886, market hunters could shoot at longer ranges up to forty five yards with a full choke barrel and harvest more waterfowl. Shotguns became bigger and more powerful as steel barrels were being used, so the range was extended to sixty yards.[4]

A duck hunter with his dog on a lake in the Chippewa National Forest in a photograph taken on November 27, 1938 by an employee of the United States Department of Agriculture. Decoy ducks can be seen around the canoe.

Pump shotguns were invented in the late 19th century, and the semi-automatic 12 gauge shotgun was developed by John Browning in the very early 20th century, which allowed commercial hunters to use a four-shell magazine (five including the one in the chamber) to rake rafts of ducks on the water or kill them at night, in order to kill larger numbers of waterfowl for the commercial markets. Even during the Great Depression years, a brace of canvasbacks could be sold to restaurants before legislation and hunting organizations pushed for greater enforcement. Once waterfowlers had access to these guns, this made these men more proficient market hunters. These guns could fire five to seven shots, therefore hunters were having bigger harvests.[4]

Early European settlers in America hunted waterfowl with great zeal, as the supply of waterfowl seemed unlimited in the coastal Atlantic regions. During the fall migrations, the skies were filled with waterfowl. Places such as Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, and Barnaget Bay were hunted extensively.[4]

As more immigrants came to America in the late 18th and 19th centuries, the need for more food became greater. Market hunting started to take form, to supply the local population living along the Atlantic coast with fresh ducks and geese. Men would go into wooden boats and go out into the bays hunting, sometimes with large shotguns. They would bring back a wooden barrel or two of ducks each day. Live ducks were used as decoys as well as bait such as corn or other grain to attract waterfowl.[4]

The rise of modern waterfowl hunting is tied to the history of the shotgun, which shoots a pattern of round pellets making it easier to hit a moving target. In the 19th century, the seemingly limitless flocks of ducks and geese in the Atlantic and Mississippi Flyways of North America were the basis for a thriving commercial waterfowl hunting industry. With the advent of punt guns – massive, boat-mounted shotguns that could fire a half-pound of lead shot at a time – hunters could kill dozens of birds with a single blast. This was the four and six gauge shotgun. This period of intense commercial waterfowl hunting is vividly depicted in James Michener's historical novel Chesapeake.[4]

## Species of waterfowl hunted

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In North America a variety of ducks and geese are hunted, the most common being mallards, Canada geese, snow geese, canvasback, redhead, northern pintail, gadwall, ruddy duck, coots, common, hooded and red-breasted merganser (often avoided because of its reputation as a poor-eating bird with a strong flavor). Also hunted are black duck, wood duck, blue-winged teal, green-winged teal, bufflehead, northern shoveler, American wigeon, and goldeneye. Sea ducks include oldsquaw (long tailed duck), eider duck, and scoter.[5]

## Modern hunting techniques

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Three waterfowl hunters donned in camouflage and armed with shotguns.

The waterfowl hunting season is generally in the autumn and winter. Hunting seasons are set by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in the United States. In the autumn, the ducks and geese have finished raising their young and are migrating to warmer areas to feed. The hunting seasons usually begin in October and end in January. There are several items used by almost all waterfowl hunters: a shotgun, ammunition, a hunting blind, decoys, a boat, and a duck or goose call. Waterfowl hunters also often use dogs to retrieve dead or injured birds in the water. There are many retriever breeds, such as Labrador Retrievers and Chesapeake Bay Retrievers, specifically bred for the task.[6]

### Shotguns

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While hunting of waterfowl was on the rise in America and Europe, hunters used a wide array of shotguns. Shotguns used included 4 gauge, 6 gauge, 8 gauge, 10 gauge, 12 gauge, 16 gauge, 18 gauge, 20 gauge, 24 gauge, 28 gauge and .410. The 12 gauge turns out to be the most popular with hunters then and now due to its weight to firepower ratio.

With the development of higher-pressure 3.5-inch shells, 12 gauge shotguns can deliver close to the power and shot load of a ten gauge out of a lighter gun with less recoil. Modern 16-gauge shotguns are rare, with more people choosing the higher power twelve gauge or lower recoil of the 20 gauge. 20-gauge shotguns are less commonly used for long-range waterfowl hunting, but are preferred by hunters who do not like the weight of the twelve gauge. 28-gauge and .410 bore shotguns are rarely used due to the gun's inability to ensure clean kills at ranges of 40 to 50 yards. Some hunting guns have camouflage-patterned stocks and low-gloss finishes on the metal to reduce their visibility to waterfowl.

When hunting with shotguns, there is a risk of accidentally injuring ducks that survive. As ducks often fly in flocks, there is a potential for multiple ducks to be hit when hunters shoot into the flock to target an individual. The duck struck by the central cluster of the shot typically dies and falls to the ground. However, ducks on the periphery of the shot may still be hit by some pellets, which they survive but result in lifelong suffering. Shooting at too far a distance also increases the risk of causing injury due to the increased spread of shot pellets.[7]

### Shotgun ammunition

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Since the 16th century, lead shot has been used in waterfowl hunting. Lead shot was originally poured down the barrel. Later, shells were made of paper and brass in the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. In the early 1960s, manufacturers began making shot-shells of plastic. In the late 1960s, it was determined that lead shot poisoned waterfowl eating in shallow water areas where there was heavy hunting. In 1974, steel shot shells were offered for sale to hunters at the Brigantine Waterfowl Refuge in southern New Jersey, and at Union County State Fish & Wildlife area in Union County, Illinois, by Winchester at five dollars a box. These shells were marked "Experimental" and were orange in color.

Prior hunting with lead shot, along with the use of lead sinkers in angling, has been identified as a major cause of lead poisoning in waterfowl, which often feed off the bottom of lakes and wetlands where lead shot collects.[8][9] In the United States, UK, Canada, and many western European countries (France as of 2006[update]), all shot used for waterfowl must now be non-toxic, and therefore may not contain any lead. Steel is the cheapest alternative to lead. However, some hunters do not like its shooting properties, as steel is significantly less dense than lead. Therefore, its effective range is decreased due to rapidly decreasing velocity of the shot: thirty to forty yards is considered its maximum effective range for duck hunting. Many companies have improved steel shot by increasing muzzle-velocity, by using fast-burning powder such as rifle powder thus making more consistent 'shot' or pellet patterns. Steel shot now travels at 1400 to 1500 feet per second. However, any use of steel shot requires a shotgun barrel with thicker walls and a specially hardened bore, resulting in a heavier gun.

Within recent years, several companies have created "heavier than lead" non-toxic shot out of tungsten, bismuth, or other elements with a density similar to or greater than lead. These shells have more consistent patterns and greater range than steel shot. The increase in performance comes at a higher cost. Shell boxes often cost more than thirty dollars a box for twenty five shells.

Hunters use pellet sizes 4, 3, and 2 for ducks, and 2, BB, BBB and T shot for geese. Buckshot is illegal.

### Blinds

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Duck hunters in a hunting blind. Decoys are visible in the water to the right.

A hunting blind is a structure intended to conceal hunters, dogs, and equipment from the intended prey. Blinds can be temporary or permanent. Blinds for hunting can be made of various materials like plywood, logs, burlap, plastic, or natural vegetation. They can look like small shacks with openings facing the water and sky, ranging from simple vegetation piles to outbuildings with amenities. Temporary blinds, like "pop-up" tents, are common where permanent blinds aren't allowed. Boat blinds hide hunters on water, while land blinds include pit and layout types, made of materials like fiberglass or wood. Pit blinds can range from basic to elaborate, with amenities like sleeping quarters. They often have movable doors for quick access and camo netting for cover. Water accumulation is a common issue, so pumps are used to drain excess water in wet areas.[6]

### Decoys

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Main article: Duck decoy (model)

Decoys are replica waterfowl that are used to attract birds to a location near the hunters; an important piece of equipment for the waterfowler. Using a good spread of decoys and calling, an experienced waterfowl hunter can successfully bag ducks or geese if waterfowl are flying that day. Modern decoys, primarily made of molded plastic since the 1960s, offer advantages over wood carving. Plastic allows for detailed, resilient, and cost-effective decoys, often hand-painted. Decoys feature "water keels" or "weighted keels" to maintain stability in water.[6]

### Boats

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A photograph of a waterfowl hunter launching his boat, c. 1900–1912

Boats are used while hunting to set up decoys, pick up birds, or travel to and from hunting areas. For general camouflage, boats are often painted some combination of brown, tan, green, and black. They can also be covered with grass or burlap and used as a hunting blind, known as sneak boat hunting. Boats for hunting are generally either propelled by motor or with oars. Most popular are flat-bottomed boats (usually jon boats) for increased stability, with keels made of wood or aluminum between 10 and 16 feet (3.0 and 4.9 m) long. Painted kayaks or canoes made of aluminum or fiberglass reinforced with Kevlar are also used; these can navigate shallow streams or small narrow rivers in search of waterfowl. Care must be taken when shooting from boats as hunters may fall overboard due to loss of balance when shooting at waterfowl. Pursuing diving ducks in lakes, bays or sounds in the United States requires larger and more stable boats, as small boats have been known to capsize, wherein hunters can drown by hypothermia. Sink boxes, boats that conceal the hunter under the water surface, are illegal to use in the United States, but technically legal in Canada.[6]

### Dogs

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See also: Retriever

A duck hunter with two mallards and one redhead. A Labrador Retriever and duck decoys are visible in the background.

Duck hunters quite often employ a dog to retrieve downed birds. Most often hunters use a Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever or Chesapeake Bay Retriever to retrieve waterfowl. The use of a dog provides a number of advantages. As duck hunting often takes place in cold wet locations, the use of a dog frees the hunter from potentially dangerous forays into cold water to retrieve the bird. Such efforts can be dangerous for the hunter, but are managed by a dog quite easily. It also allows for the recovery of wounded birds that might otherwise escape. A dog's acute sense of smell allows them to find the wounded birds in swamps or marshes where weeds can allow a duck to hide. The use of a dog ensures that a higher percentage of the birds shot end up on the table. A disadvantage of having dogs in the duck blind, is that some dogs are not well-trained to sit still and can potentially ruin a good hunt. Dogs that run into the water looking for birds when guns are fired, rather than waiting until sent or released create a hazard to the dog and hunters. Nevertheless, dogs are considered the greatest conservation tool known to waterfowlers.

## Regulations, sportsmanship, and safety

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Ducks are illegally netted in this photograph taken in 1916 which was presented to the Canadian Conservation of Fish, Birds and Game Committee.

Waterfowl hunting is highly regulated in most western countries. Hunters are required to obtain a hunting license and face strict limits on the number of birds that can be taken in a day (bag limits), and the total number of birds a hunter can possess (possession limits).

To hunt waterfowl in Canada, one must first obtain a valid Canada Migratory Game Bird Hunting Permit with a Wildlife Habitat Conservation stamp affixed to or printed on the permit, as well as any additional licenses and certificates which may be required at the provincial level.[10]

There were no regulations on waterfowl hunting from when the Paleo Indians arrived in North America to the early 20th century. In the early 20th century large bore shotguns and rifles were used. Traps were used. Live decoys were used in front of blinds, as well as shotguns holding many shells. Hunting was done throughout the year. In 1913 the United States Congress passed the Weeks–McLean Act regulating waterfowl hunting; however, the states were successful in arguing that the constitution gave no such regulatory power to the federal government, and the statute was struck down. In response, the United States negotiated the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 with the United Kingdom (which at the time was largely responsible for Canada's foreign affairs) covering the same substance, but would be constitutional because of the Supremacy Clause. The treaty was upheld by the Supreme Court in Missouri v. Holland.

In the United States, hunters must also purchase a federal duck stamp and often a state stamp. It is illegal to shoot ducks from a motor vehicle or a moving boat. Shooting sitting or swimming ducks is considered unsportsmanlike by some and possibly unsafe. Many practices that were once common in commercial duck hunting before the start of the 20th century, including laying baits such as corn, use of live ducks as "decoys," and use of guns larger than a 10-gauge, are now prohibited.[11] In most areas, shotguns that can hold more than three shells must be modified to reduce their magazine size. A wooden plug is installed in the hollow magazine of the shotgun. Legal hunting is limited to a set time period (or "season"), which generally extends from fall to early winter, while birds are migrating south.[12]

The Conservation Order established by the USF&WS allows for hunting snow geese in March and April. The reason for this is that snow geese populations have become so large that more hunting is needed to control their populations, as they are destroying their habitat. Shotguns can be loaded to full capacity for hunting these geese.

An injured duck in distress with a limp and blood on her beak. The duck had shot projectiles in her hip and severe lung injury.

It is also considered good sportsmanship to make every possible attempt to retrieve dead or injured waterfowl the hunter has shot (In the Australian state of Victoria it is required by law). Birds are shot within range to prevent cripples. Shooting before birds are within range is also considered poor sportsmanship, as this often merely injures the birds and may drive them away before other hunters can fire.

The losses resulting from hunters not retrieving their kills, referred to as crippling losses, likely range from 20% to 40% of all waterfowl shot in Canada and the United States. The probable fate for mutilated ducks is a prolonged, agonizing death, marked by relentless suffering and distress.[13][14]

According to Australian studies, duck hunting with shotguns causes a significant proportion of crippling losses with shotguns. An X-ray study of ducks caught using nets in Victoria found that between 6% and 19% of ducks live with embedded pellets from shots in their bodies.[15] A survey conducted in Victoria on hunting four species of native ducks revealed a significant number of injured birds. Some of these birds survive, while others suffer before eventually dying. Approximately 26% of the shot ducks are either wounded or mutilated. Of these, 12% will be wounded and survive, whereas between 14% and 33% will be mutilated. The likely outcome for mutilated birds is a slow, painful death.[16] Remarkably, this animal cruelty has been mostly neglected by government officials.[17] A small improvement is that Canada and United States require hunters, including waterfowl hunters, to complete hunter safety courses before they can obtain a license.[18]

## Hunting areas

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Wild Duck Shooting, Crane Creek, Near Toledo, Ohio

All states except Hawaii have public land for waterfowl hunting. Some states might refer to them as fish and game lands or Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs). Every state's DNR has a website, and each has a link to their licenses and regulations and WMAs, as well as information on various draw and public hunts. Some states call them fish and wildlife management areas. These are lands purchased from hunting license revenue. Water in bays or ocean are open area to hunting, as no one can own these areas, although some counties in North Carolina and Virginia still allow a limited number of Registered Blinds in public waters of certain coastal counties. The Mississippi Flyway is a very famous waterfowling community. The Central Flyway has the highest numbers of waterfowl migrating south from Canada in the Great Southern Migration. The Pacific Flyway is an exceptional hunting area for migratory waterfowl today, although their WMAs can be quite crowded from Washington State all the way south to California rice fields which used to see Hollywood's great hunters flock to Tulle Lake, and Sacramento private duck hunting clubs.

The problem for the average waterfowler is getting access to the ocean, bay, marsh, or lake to hunt public access waters. Hunters usually need large boats, and motors to travel safely to and in these areas. Many people will set up hunting blinds on the shoreline of water unless it is private property. Many states across the United States are not allowing the building of hunting blinds on any public waters. Such action therefore allows more use of boat blinds, and therefore no permanent water hazards of blinds in public waters such as lakes, bays or sounds allows all waterfowl hunters to hunt all public waters. This can be very successful if they know how to use a duck call, and proper use of decoy placement and wind direction, and can call ducks in towards their decoys. Most sportsmen know to stay at least 500 yards from anyone else that may be hunting nearby them in public waters. More waterfowlers today should learn from their elders the importance of "ethical sportsmanship", whenever gunning on public waters hunting ducks and geese today and in the future.

## Flyways

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Waterfowl flyways of North America

In North America, the routes used by migratory waterfowl are generally divided into four broad geographical paths known as flyways. Each flyway is characterized by a different composition of species and habitat. The U.S. fish and wildlife service established the flyways to help with the management of migratory birds. They studied all migratory birds and established the Mississippi, Atlantic, Mountain, and Pacific flyway, all holding different species of migratory birds.

### Mississippi flyway

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Main article: Mississippi Flyway

The Mississippi flyway is a migration route used by waterfowl to travel from central Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, flying along the route of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. The Mississippi flyway is one of the most popular flyways to hunt in North America. Along with being popular its very abundant in many species of migrating waterfowl. For the dabbling waterfowl it has the American Wigeon, blue-winged teal, green-winged teal, mallard, mottled duck, northern pintail, northern shoveler, gadwall, and the wood duck. The flyway has an abundance of diving ducks as well such as the bufflehead, canvasback, hooded merganser, redhead, and ring neck. the flyway i\s also home to a large amount of geese such as the, Canda goose, blue goose, cackling goose, ross goose, sn0w goose, and the white-fronted goose.

In the Midwest and central United States, wildfowl hunting generally occurs on lakes, marshes, swamps, or rivers where ducks and geese land during their migration. Cornfields and rice paddies are also common hunting grounds, since geese and ducks often feed on the grain that remains in the field after harvest. In some areas, farmers rent or lease hunting rights. Some farmers or hunters form hunt clubs, which can cover thousands of acres and have resort-like amenities, or be as simple as a shallow pit blind dug into a field. On the East and West Coast of America and many parts of Europe, waterfowl hunters often focus on the seashore.

The United States Fish and Wildlife Service maintains millions of acres as National Wildlife Refuges open to public hunting. All states have public hunting and fishing areas. States publish maps of these areas.

### Atlantic flyway

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Main article: Atlantic Flyway

The Atlantic Flyway is a migration route used by waterfowl flying from northern Quebec to Florida in the autumn and back in the springtime. This is where duck hunting first started some of the largest and grandest waterfowl hunting clubs and clubhouses in North America. Look at photos of the "Whalehead Club in the Outer Banks of North Carolina" which is no longer a hunting club, but is a historical building today, built in the grand style of the gilded age of water fowling. North Carolina waterfowl guide and writer Joe Guide states, "some of the greatest and grandest of Waterfowl Clubs along the famous Atlantic flyway developed following the Civil War era, and the largest ones were financed by Northerners loaded with money due to the great industrial revolution period beginning around the mid 1870s—and most of the grand waterfowl clubs ended due to the great depression years due to economic conditions. It might surprise you that a majority of the grand Atlantic Seaboard Waterfowl Hunt Clubs did not have southerners as "members" until well into the 1950s, however, they all used locals as caretakers, guides, paddlers, and cooks". Diver hunting is the major waterfowl activity along the coastal regions of the Atlantic, however, local populations of greater snow geese seem to be increasing in number, as they have started breeding with lesser snow geese and their migration range is ever increasing.

Retired professional baseball player Dazzy Vance hunting waterfowl on Crystal River in Florida which is on the edge of the Atlantic and Mississippi flyways.

Ducks and geese are born in the tundra of Quebec, and fly south in autumn to Chesapeake Bay and Virginia's famous Back Bay, and the James River, and then move southward through North and South Carolina, Georgia and Florida for the winter. Northeast and northwest Florida get a great number of teal and divers as the winter progresses. In the northeastern states the Saint Lawrence River, the coast of Maine, Long island harbors, Barnegat Bay, Great Egg Harbor, Little Egg Harbor, Absecon Bay, Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Virginia's Eastern Shore and Back Bays saw presidents and captains of great industry spend part of their winters at their wildfowling clubs. North Carolina's Outer Banks, and the Core and Pamlico Sounds have been known for centuries for great waterfowl hunting drawing people from throughout the big cities of the northeastern states. In South Carolina there was Georgetown's and Charleston's old rice fields, and backcountry marshes and freshwater rivers and lakes that continued to draw ducks in great numbers until the Santee National Wildlife Refuge stopped feeding the ducks in the winter months of the 1980s due to the economy and changes in National Wildlife Refuge policy across the nation. In the 1960s to the mid-1980s the upper Santee swamp's upper Lake Marion region used to winter over 150,000 mallards each and every winter's duck count. The Atlantic flyway holds a large number of migrating waterfowl. for dabbling ducks holds a bunch of the same birds as the Mississippi fly way with them being neighboring flyway geese are also the same, but what the Atlantic flyway has that the Mississippi flyway doesn't have is the sea ducks and geese. Such as atlantic brant, common eider, golden eye, surf scoter, common eider, white winged scoter.

In the Chesapeake Bay area well into the 1930s one of the biggest threats to waterfowl was "local poachers" using flat boat boats, mounting huge 12 foot black powder swivel guns. Most of these ancient weapons have been confiscated and are in museums, although a few families have hidden theirs as family keepsakes.[19]

### Mountain (Central) Flyway

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Main article: Central Flyway

The Rocky Mountain Flyway is used by waterfowl of that region to fly from Alberta and Saskatchewan Canada to Texas, the Gulf Coast, and western Mexico. the central flyway is one of the larger of the flyways. holding a majority of the migrating waterfowl species that can be found in the Mississippi flyway and the Atlantic and pacific flyway. the central flyway doesn't have sea ducks.

Main article: Pacific Flyway

The Pacific flyway is a migration route from central Alaska to southern Mexico. It is used by nearly all waterfowl species in that region. The pacific flyway is home to a large abundance of North American waterfowl. you can find almost all waterfowl except the black duck, and the pacific flyway is home to the pacific brant. This is the bird that holds the record for the longest migration without stopping.

Due to extensive market hunting from the 18th century to the early 20th century, waterfowl populations dropped drastically. In the 1930s there was a severe drought,[where?] in which waterfowl populations declined severely.

Waterfowl are indigenous to marsh and wetland areas, which are shrinking at alarming rates due to the drought and farmers draining wetland areas to plant crops. Wetland conservation and restoration is critical for the continuance of waterfowl hunting. Organizations such as Ducks Unlimited are making a concerted effort to maintain and expand waterfowl and marshland conservation to ensure safety and expansion of the sport. Ducks Unlimited buys land or converts land into waterfowl habitat. Ducks Unlimited started in 1937 in Sullivan County, New York when a hunter went hunting along a river and could not find any wood ducks. This hunter and others formed Ducks Unlimited. Now Ducks Unlimited has thousands of members that donate millions of dollars for buying waterfowl habitat in the United States, Canada and Mexico. Ducks Unlimited has many dinners and other fund raisers throughout the year in each state.

## References

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1. ^ David, Arlette (2014). "Hoopoes and Acacias: Decoding an Ancient Egyptian Funerary Scene". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 73 (2): 235–252. doi:10.1086/677251. S2CID 164075553.
2. ^ Baldassarre, Guy A.; Bolen, Eric G.; Saunders, D. Andrew (1994). Waterfowl Ecology and Management. New York: Wiley. pp. 3–6. ISBN 0-471-59770-8.
3. ^ The diary of Colonel Peter Hawker, (Volume I) 1802-1853
4. ^ a b c d e Dizard, Jan E.; Stange, Mary Zeiss (2022). Hunting: a cultural history. The MIT Press Essential Knowledge Series. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-54329-3.
5. ^ Le Master, Richard (1986). Waterfowl identification: the LeMaster method. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-2982-6.
6. ^ a b c d Knowles, Skip, ed. (2017). Wildfowl magazine's guide to duck hunting: best of Wildfowl's skills, tactics, and techniques from top experts. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5107-1910-1.
7. ^ Russell, Geoff (1994). "Shotgun Wounding Characteristics". Maple Tech: Maple in Mathematics and the Sciences. December: 17–23.
8. ^ Sanderson, Glen C.; Bellrose, Frank C. (1986). "A Review of the Problem of Lead Poisoning in Waterfowl". Special Publication. Champaign, Illinois. Archived from the original on April 22, 1999.
9. ^ Scheuhammer, A. M.; Norris, S. L. (1996). "The ecotoxicology of lead shot and lead fishing weights". Ecotoxicology. 5 (5): 279–295. Bibcode:1996Ecotx...5..279S. doi:10.1007/BF00119051. PMID 24193869. S2CID 40092400.
10. ^ "Migratory Game Bird Hunting Permit". September 2011.
11. ^ State of California. "Selected 2006 Waterfowl Hunting Regulations."
12. ^ TPWD:2006 2006-2007 Texas Hunting Season Dates, Grouped by Animal
13. ^ Perry, Matthew C.; Geissler, Paul H. (1980). "Incidence of Embedded Shot in Canvasbacks". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 44 (4): 888–894. doi:10.2307/3808317. ISSN 0022-541X.
14. ^ O'Kelley, Brian L.; Bolen, Eric G. (1985). "Hunting Pressure on Black-Bellied Whistling-Ducks as Indicated by Embedded Shot". Wildlife Society Bulletin (1973-2006). 13 (4): 515–517. ISSN 0091-7648.
15. ^ Norman, Fi (1976). "The Incidence of Lead Shotgun Pellets in Waterfowl (Anatidae and Rallidae) Examined in South-Eastern Australia Between 1957 and 1973". Wildlife Research. 3 (1): 61. doi:10.1071/WR9760061. ISSN 1035-3712.
16. ^ Norman, Fi; Powell, Dgm (1981). "Rates of Recovery of Bands, Harvest Patterns and Estimates for Black Duck, Chestnut Teal, Grey Teal and Mountain Duck Shot during Victorian Open Seasons, 1953-1977". Wildlife Research. 8 (3): 659. doi:10.1071/WR9810659. ISSN 1035-3712.
17. ^ Hampton, Jordan O.; Hyndman, Timothy H. (2019). "Underaddressed animal‐welfare issues in conservation". Conservation Biology. 33 (4): 803–811. doi:10.1111/cobi.13267. hdl:11343/285334. ISSN 0888-8892.
18. ^ "Hunter Education Requirements in the United States and Canada — Texas Parks & Wildlife Department".
19. ^ "Poaching Made Big Business", October 1933, Popular Science middle of page

## External links

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* Flyways.us – United States Fish & Wildlife Service, Flyway Councils, waterfowl hunting management in North America
* Delta Waterfowl Foundation – Waterfowl hunting
* Ducks Unlimited – Hunting and Wetlands and Waterfowl Conservation
* The Book of Duck Decoys Archived 2008-04-05 at the Wayback Machine – Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey, 1886 (full text)
* British Duck Decoys of To-Day, 1918 Archived 2004-12-09 at the Wayback Machine – Joseph Whitaker (full text)
* Midwest Decoy Collectors Association – The de facto international collectors group
* "Hide And Seek With The Mallards", October 1931, Popular Mechanics
* British Association for Shooting and Conservation – Covering wildfowling in the UK
* Duckr – Application devoted to identifying waterfowl
* Waterfowl Craft – Hub dedicated to bringing awareness to Waterfowl Hunting

* v
* t
* e

Game animals and shooting in North America

Game birds|

* Bobwhite quail
* Chukar
* Hungarian partridge
* Prairie chicken
* Mourning dove
* Ring-necked pheasant
* Ptarmigan
* Ruffed grouse
* Sharp-tailed grouse
* Snipe (common snipe)
* Spruce grouse
* Turkey
* Woodcock

Waterfowl hunters

Waterfowl|

* Black duck
* Canada goose
* Canvasback
* Gadwall
* Greater scaup
* Lesser scaup
* Mallard
* Northern pintail
* Redhead
* Ross's goose
* Snow goose
* Wood duck

Big game|

* Bighorn sheep
* Black bear
* Razorback
* Brown bear
* Bison (buffalo)
* Caribou
* Cougar (mountain lion)
* Elk
* Moose
* White-tailed deer
* Wolf
* Mountain goat
* Mule deer
* Pronghorn
* Muskox
* Dall sheep
* Polar bear
* Whales

Other quarry|

* American alligator
* Badger
* Bobcat
* Coyote
* Fox squirrel
* Gray fox
* Gray squirrel
* Opossum
* Rabbit
* Raccoon
* Red fox
* Snowshoe hare

See also|

* Bear hunting
* Big-game hunting
* Bison hunting
* Deer hunting
* Fox hunting
* Waterfowl hunting
* Whaling
* Fishing
* Wolf hunting
* Upland hunting

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