Wisdom

Ability to apply knowledge with good judgment

"Sapience" redirects here; not to be confused with Sentience.

For other uses, see Wisdom (disambiguation).

Luca Giordano: The Dream of Solomon: God promises Solomon wisdom

Wisdom, also known as sapience, is the ability to apply knowledge, experience, and good judgment to navigate life’s complexities. It is often associated with insight, discernment, and ethics in decision-making. Throughout history, wisdom has been regarded as a key virtue in philosophy, religion, and psychology, representing the ability to understand and respond to reality in a balanced and thoughtful manner. Unlike intelligence, which primarily concerns problem-solving and reasoning, wisdom involves a deeper comprehension of human nature, moral principles, and the long-term consequences of actions.

Philosophically, wisdom has been explored by thinkers from Ancient Greece to modern times. Socrates famously equated wisdom with recognizing one’s own ignorance, while Aristotle saw it as practical reasoning (phronesis) and deep contemplation (sophia). Eastern traditions, such as Confucianism and Buddhism, emphasize wisdom as a form of enlightened understanding that leads to ethical living and inner peace. Across cultures, wisdom is often linked to virtues like humility, patience, and compassion, suggesting that it is not just about knowing what is right but also acting upon it.

Psychologists study wisdom as a cognitive and emotional trait, often linking it to maturity, emotional regulation, and the ability to consider multiple perspectives. Research suggests that wisdom is associated with qualities such as open-mindedness, empathy, and the ability to manage uncertainty. Some psychological models, such as the Berlin Wisdom Paradigm and Robert Sternberg's Balance Theory, attempt to define and measure wisdom through various cognitive and social factors. Neuroscience studies also explore how brain structures related to emotional processing and long-term thinking contribute to wise decision-making.

Wisdom continues to be a subject of interest in modern society, influencing fields as diverse as leadership, education, and personal development. While technology provides greater access to information, it does not necessarily lead to wisdom, which requires careful reflection and ethical consideration. As artificial intelligence and data-driven decision-making play a growing role in shaping human life, discussions on wisdom remain relevant, emphasizing the importance of judgment, ethical responsibility, and long-term planning.

## Etymology and overview

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### Etymology

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The English word wisdom originates from the Old English wīsdōm, which is derived from wīs ("wise") and dōm ("judgment, decision, law").[1] The Proto-Germanic root wis- ("to see, to know") connects wisdom to perception and insight. Related terms appear in Old High German (wīssag, "prophetic"), Old Norse (vísdómr), and Gothic (weisdumbs).[2]

In Ancient Greek, wisdom is expressed as σοφία (sophia), often referring to both practical skill and philosophical insight. The term was central to Greek philosophy, particularly in Plato's and Aristotle's discussions on virtue.[3] The Latin equivalent, sapientia, derives from sapere ("to taste, to discern"), emphasizing wisdom as discerning between right and wrong.[4]

Similar concepts exist in non-Indo-European languages:

* Sanskrit: Jñāna (ज्ञान) and viveka (विवेक) refer to intellectual and spiritual wisdom in Hindu thought.[5]
* Chinese: Zhì (智) represents wisdom as practical intelligence, central to Confucian ethics.[6]
* Hebrew: Chokhmah (חָכְמָה) in the Hebrew Bible is linked to divine and moral wisdom.[7]

### Historical overview

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Wisdom has been a central concept in philosophy, religion, and literature across ancient civilizations.

The earliest wisdom literature comes from Sumerian and Egyptian texts. In Sumerian tradition, wisdom (me) was considered a divine principle given by the gods, recorded in proverbs and myths.[8] Egyptian wisdom texts, such as the Maxims of Ptahhotep (c. 2400 BCE), emphasized moral conduct and social harmony.[9]

Wisdom became a major theme in Greek philosophy. Socrates equated wisdom with knowing one's own ignorance, while Plato argued that wisdom was the highest form of knowledge.[10] Aristotle distinguished between practical wisdom (phronesis) and theoretical wisdom (sophia), defining wisdom as the ability to deliberate well about the good life.[11]

In Roman philosophy, wisdom (sapientia) was regarded as the virtue of the Stoic sage. Cicero and Seneca viewed wisdom as self-discipline and rational living, essential for achieving inner tranquility (ataraxia).[12]

Wisdom also developed as a spiritual concept in various traditions:

* Biblical wisdom literature: Books like Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job depict wisdom as both divine and practical, often contrasting human knowledge with divine omniscience.[13]
* Buddhism: Wisdom (prajñā) is one of the threefold trainings leading to enlightenment, developed through meditation and ethical conduct.[14]
* Islamic philosophy: The Arabic term hikmah (حكمة) refers to wisdom as both divine insight and rational philosophy, deeply influenced by Aristotle, Avicenna, and Al-Farabi.[15]

## Philosophical perspectives

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Philosophers have explored wisdom as a fundamental concept for millennia, debating its nature, acquisition, and role in ethical and intellectual life. Some traditions emphasize wisdom as practical decision-making, while others frame it as deep contemplation or spiritual insight. Broadly, wisdom has been categorized into theoretical wisdom (sophia), practical wisdom (phronesis), and moral wisdom, with varying interpretations across different philosophical traditions.

### Western philosophy

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Main article: Western philosophy

#### Ancient Greek philosophy

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Main article: Ancient Greek philosophy

Wisdom (sophia, σοφία) played a central role in Ancient Greek philosophy and was often distinguished from mere knowledge (episteme, ἐπιστήμη).

##### Socrates

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According to Plato and Xenophon, the Pythia of the Delphic Oracle answered the question "who is the wisest man in Greece?" by stating Socrates was the wisest.[16] According to Plato's Apology, Socrates (469–399 BCE) decided to investigate the people who might be considered wiser than him, concluding they lacked true knowledge. He argued that true wisdom involves questioning and refining beliefs rather than assuming certainty:

τούτου μὲν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐγὼ σοφώτερός εἰμι: κινδυνεύει μὲν γὰρ ἡμῶν οὐδέτερος οὐδὲν καλὸν κἀγαθὸν εἰδέναι, ἀλλ᾽ οὗτος μὲν οἴεταί τι εἰδέναι οὐκ εἰδώς, ἐγὼ δέ, ὥσπερ οὖν οὐκ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι: ἔοικα γοῦν τούτου γε σμικρῷ τινι αὐτῷ τούτῳ σοφώτερος εἶναι, ὅτι ἃ μὴ οἶδα οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι.

I am wiser than this man; for neither of us really knows anything fine and good, but this man thinks he knows something when he does not, whereas I, as I do not know anything, do not think I do either.

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This became immortalized in the phrase "I know that I know nothing", an aphorism suggesting that it is wise to recognize one's own ignorance[17] and to value epistemic humility.[18]

##### Plato and Aristotle

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To Socrates and his student Plato (c. 427–347 BCE), philosophy was literally the love of wisdom (philo-sophia). This permeates Plato's dialogues; in The Republic the leaders of his proposed utopia are philosopher kings who, through education and contemplation, attain a deep understanding of justice and the Forms, and possess the courage to act accordingly.[19]

Aristotle (384–322 BCE), in Metaphysics, defined wisdom as understanding why things are a certain way (causality), which is deeper than merely knowing things are a certain way. was the first to differentiate between two types of wisdom:

* Theoretical wisdom (sophia), which involves deep contemplation of universal truths.
* Practical wisdom (phronesis), which is the ability to make sound decisions in everyday life.

Aristotle saw phronesis as essential for ethical living, arguing that virtuous actions require both knowledge and experience. This concept of practical wisdom later influenced virtue ethics and modern discussions of decision-making.[19]

#### Medieval and Renaissance thought

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In the Medieval period, wisdom was often linked to divine revelation and theology. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) viewed wisdom as knowledge aligned with God's eternal truth, distinguishing it from mere worldly intelligence.[20] He argued that true wisdom (sapientia) comes from knowing and loving God, contrasting it with human knowledge (scientia), which concerns temporal matters.[21]

Thomas Aquinas built upon Aristotle's distinction between theoretical and practical wisdom, incorporating it into Christian theology. He argued that wisdom (sapientia) is the highest intellectual virtue, guiding reason toward ultimate truth and divine understanding.[22] Aquinas distinguished between natural wisdom, which humans acquire through reason, and supernatural wisdom, which comes through divine revelation.[23]

During the Renaissance, humanist thinkers such as Erasmus and Montaigne emphasized the role of self-reflection and skepticism in wisdom, challenging dogmatic reliance on authority.[24] Montaigne, in his Essays, proposed that true wisdom lies in acknowledging uncertainty and maintaining intellectual humility.[25] The Renaissance emphasis on human reason and critical inquiry laid the groundwork for early modern philosophical discussions of wisdom.

#### Modern and contemporary philosophy

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In the Age of Enlightenment, the concept of wisdom shifted from religious and metaphysical frameworks to one rooted in rationality and moral duty. Immanuel Kant argued that wisdom involves the application of practical reason to align one’s actions with universal moral principles.[26] He distinguished between theoretical reason, which seeks knowledge for its own sake, and practical reason, which applies knowledge ethically. Kantian wisdom involves making decisions that conform to the categorical imperative, a moral law derived from reason.

During the 19th century, romanticism and existentialism challenged the rationalist foundations of wisdom. Friedrich Nietzsche criticized traditional views of wisdom as passive contemplation and obedience to moral codes. Instead, he championed "life-affirming wisdom", emphasizing personal growth through struggle and self-overcoming.[27] Nietzsche rejected the pursuit of static truths, instead advocating for a dynamic and self-created form of wisdom.

Existentialist philosophers further expanded this critique. Jean-Paul Sartre viewed wisdom as a confrontation with the absurd condition of life and the freedom to create meaning in a world devoid of inherent purpose.[28] Albert Camus echoed these ideas in The Myth of Sisyphus, arguing that wisdom lies in accepting life's absurdity and choosing to live meaningfully despite its challenges.[29]

In the 20th century, pragmatist philosophers like John Dewey argued for a form of wisdom based on adaptability and practical decision-making. Dewey rejected fixed moral absolutes in favor of wisdom as a constantly evolving process of inquiry and experimentation.[30] Pragmatic wisdom, according to Dewey, emerges from ongoing reflection on experience and the ability to adapt principles to changing contexts.

Meanwhile, virtue ethicists such as Martha Nussbaum argue that wisdom is tied to emotional intelligence and empathy. In her works on Aristotelian ethics, Nussbaum writes that wise individuals understand the complexities of human emotions and integrate them into moral reasoning.[31] This perspective sees wisdom not merely as intellectual discernment but as the capacity to recognize the emotional and contextual dimensions of moral life.

Postmodern philosophers challenge the notion of wisdom as a universal concept. Michel Foucault argued that ideas of wisdom are shaped by power structures and are inherently subjective, often serving to reinforce dominant ideologies.[32] Postmodern perspectives emphasize cultural relativism and the diversity of wisdom across historical and social contexts rather than a singular definition.

Today, contemporary discussions of wisdom draw from cognitive science and social philosophy. Philosophers like Philip Kitcher focus on practical wisdom as collaborative decision-making in democratic societies.[33] This view holds that wisdom is not an individual trait but a collective process involving diverse perspectives. As such, modern philosophy views wisdom as dynamic, context-dependent, and shaped by emotional, social, and cognitive factors.

### Eastern philosophy

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Main article: Eastern philosophy

#### In Confucian thought

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Main article: Confucianism

Confucius in a fresco from a Western Han tomb in Dongping, Shandong

In Confucian thought, wisdom (zhi, 智) is closely linked to ethical living and social harmony. Confucius (551–479 BCE) taught that wisdom is not merely intelligence but the ability to act virtuously in relationships and governance.[34] It involves self-cultivation, learning from the past, and practicing benevolence (ren, 仁), which Confucius regarded as a foundational virtue.[6]

Wisdom in Confucianism is practical and moral, requiring individuals to cultivate righteousness (yi, 義) and ritual propriety (li, 禮) in order to contribute to a stable society.[35] The ideal wise person, or "superior person" (junzi, 君子), embodies wisdom by continuously refining their character and aligning their actions with ethical principles.[36]

Later Confucian thinkers expanded on this concept. Mencius (372–289 BCE) emphasized compassion and moral intuition as sources of wisdom, arguing that humans are naturally inclined toward goodness but must develop wisdom through education and reflection.[37] Xunzi (c. 310–235 BCE), by contrast, saw wisdom as the product of strict discipline and adherence to ritual, believing that human nature is inherently flawed and must be shaped through deliberate effort.[38]

The Confucian approach to wisdom remains influential in East Asian ethics, education, and leadership philosophy, continuing to shape modern discussions on morality and governance.[39]

#### In Buddhist philosophy

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Main article: Buddhist philosophy

Shakyamuni Buddha flanked by Chenrezig and Manjushri

In Buddhist philosophy, wisdom (prajñā, प्रज्ञा) is one of the threefold training principles (along with ethics and meditation). It involves seeing reality as it truly is, free from delusions. In Mahayana Buddhism, wisdom is often personified by the Bodhisattva Manjushri, who wields a sword to cut through ignorance. Zen traditions emphasize satori (悟り), a sudden flash of wisdom or enlightenment. In Theravāda Buddhism, wisdom is developed through vipassanā (insight meditation), leading to the realization of impermanence (anicca), suffering (duḥkha), and non-self (anattā). Buddhist religious traditions provide comprehensive guidance on how to develop wisdom.[40][41]

The term Prajñā was translated into Chinese as 智慧 (pinyin zhìhuì, characters 智 "knowledge" and 慧 "bright, intelligent"). In Chinese Buddhism, the idea of wisdom is closely linked to its Indian equivalent as it appears for instance in certain conceptual continuities that exist between Asanga, Vasubandhu and Xuanzang.[further explanation needed][42]

Developing wisdom is of central importance in Buddhist traditions, where the ultimate aim is often presented as "seeing things as they are" or as gaining a "penetrative understanding of all phenomena", which in turn is described as ultimately leading to the "complete freedom from suffering".[40][41] In Buddhism, developing wisdom is accomplished through an understanding of what are known as the Four Noble Truths and by following the Noble Eightfold Path.[40][41] This path lists mindfulness as one of eight required components for cultivating wisdom.[40]

Buddhist scriptures teach that wise people conduct themselves well.[43] A wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results, and does not do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results.[44] Wisdom is the antidote to the poison of ignorance. The Buddha has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:

* He who arbitrates a case by force does not thereby become just (established in Dhamma). But the wise man is he who carefully discriminates between right and wrong.[45]
* He who leads others by nonviolence, righteously and equitably, is indeed a guardian of justice, wise and righteous.[46]
* One is not wise merely because he talks much. But he who is calm, free from hatred and fear, is verily called a wise man.[47]
* By quietude alone one does not become a sage (muni) if he is foolish and ignorant. But he who, as if holding a pair of scales, takes the good and shuns the evil, is a wise man; he is indeed a muni by that very reason. He who understands both good and evil as they really are, is called a true sage.[48]

To recover the original supreme wisdom of self-nature (Buddha-nature or Tathagata) concealed by the self-imposed three dusty poisons (the kleshas: greed, anger, ignorance), Buddha taught to his students the threefold training by turning greed into generosity and discipline, anger into kindness and meditation, ignorance into wisdom.[citation needed]

#### In Hindu philosophy

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Main article: Hindu philosophy

In Hindu philosophy, wisdom (jñāna, ज्ञान) is closely associated with self-realization and spiritual knowledge. Unlike the empirical knowledge (vidyā, विद्या) gained through sensory experience, wisdom in Hinduism involves insight into the ultimate nature of reality (Brahman, ब्रह्मन्) and the self (Ātman, आत्मन्).[5] The Upanishads, foundational texts of Hindu thought, describe wisdom as the realization that all worldly distinctions are illusions (maya, माया), and that the self is one with the infinite consciousness of Brahman.[49]

Within Vedanta philosophy, wisdom is considered the path to liberation (mokṣa, मोक्ष). Adi Shankaracharya (c. 8th century CE) argued that true wisdom (jnana yoga) arises through discrimination (viveka, विवेक) between the real and the unreal.[50] He taught that ignorance (avidyā, अविद्या) binds individuals to the cycle of samsara (rebirth), and wisdom is the means to overcome illusion and attain self-realization.[51] In contrast, Dvaita Vedanta, founded by Madhvacharya (13th century CE), holds that wisdom involves recognizing the eternal distinction between the self and God, rather than dissolving all distinctions.[52]

Wisdom is also a core element in Hindu sacred texts, including the Bhagavad Gita, where Krishna teaches Arjuna that true wisdom transcends personal desires and emotions.[53] The Gita outlines three paths to wisdom:

* Jnana yoga – the path of intellectual discernment and self-inquiry.
* Bhakti yoga – the path of devotion to a personal deity as a means to wisdom.
* Karma yoga – the path of selfless action leading to enlightened understanding.[54]

Hindu wisdom traditions remain deeply influential in both spiritual practice and philosophical inquiry, with modern thinkers like Swami Vivekananda and Aurobindo Ghose integrating ancient wisdom concepts with contemporary thought.[55] Medha is a goddess of wisdom found in the Garuda Purana.[56]

#### In Taoist philosophy

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Main article: Taoist philosophy

Bagua diagram from Zhao Huiqian's Liushu benyi, c. 1370s

Taoist views of wisdom (wu wei, 無為) emphasizes effortless action, aligning with the natural flow of the universe (Tao). While early Confucianism values social harmony and structured virtue, Taoist wisdom often embraces paradox and non-conformity. The Zhuangzi text, attributed to Zhuang Zhou (c. 4th century BCE), presents wisdom as a state of effortless flow (wu wei), where one aligns with the spontaneous patterns of nature rather than imposing human will.[57] This contrasts with Confucian ideals of ritual and duty, as Taoist wisdom values freedom from rigid thinking and acceptance of change.[58]

Taoist wisdom also includes cosmological insight, recognizing that all things emerge from the Tao (道), the fundamental force of existence.[59] In Tao Te Ching (道德經), attributed to Laozi (6th century BCE), wisdom is described as yielding like water, able to overcome obstacles through gentleness rather than force.[60] This perspective aligns with Taoist ethics, which discourage aggression and rigid control, instead promoting a harmonious existence in sync with nature’s rhythms.[61] He also describes wisdom as understanding the balance of opposites (Yin and Yang) and acting in harmony with nature rather than imposing force.[60]

Unlike Western views, Taoist wisdom often involves paradox and non-action, valuing spontaneity over rigid rules. Taoist sages are often depicted as detached from worldly concerns, seeking a deeper, wordless understanding of existence that transcends conventional logic.[62]

## Psychological perspectives

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Main article: Expert

Further information: Developmental psychology and personality psychology

The three major psychological categories for wisdom are personality, development, and expertise.[63]

Psychologists have begun to gather data on commonly held beliefs or folk theories about wisdom.[64] Initial analyses indicate that although "there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality, and shrewdness, it is evident that wisdom is an expertise in dealing with difficult questions of life and adaptation to the complex requirements."[65]

The field of psychology has also developed explicit theories and empirical research on the psychological processes underlying wisdom.[66][67] Opinions on the psychological definition of wisdom vary,[67] but there is some consensus that critical to wisdom are certain meta-cognitive processes that afford life reflection and judgment about critical life matters.[68][69] These processes include recognizing the limits of one's own knowledge, acknowledging uncertainty and change, attention to context and the bigger picture, and integrating different perspectives of a situation.[70] Cognitive scientists suggest that wisdom requires coordinating such reasoning processes for insight into managing one's life.[71] Reasoning of this sort is both theoretically and empirically distinct from general (fluid or crystallized) intelligence.[72] Researchers have shown empirically that wise reasoning is distinct from IQ.[73]

Baltes and colleagues defined wisdom as "the ability to deal with the contradictions of a specific situation and to assess the consequences of an action for themselves and for others. It is achieved when in a concrete situation, a balance between intrapersonal, interpersonal and institutional interests can be prepared".[74] Balance appears to be a critical criterion of wisdom. Empirical research provides some support for this idea, showing that wisdom-related reasoning is associated with achieving balance between intrapersonal and interpersonal interests when facing personal life challenges, and when setting goals for managing interpersonal conflicts.[75][76]

Researchers also explore the role of emotions in wisdom.[77] Most agree that emotions and emotion regulation are key to effectively managing the kinds of complex and arousing situations that most call for wisdom. Much empirical research has focused on the cognitive or meta-cognitive aspects of wisdom, assuming that an ability to reason through difficult situations is paramount. So although emotions likely play a role in how wisdom plays out in real events (and in reflecting on past events), empirical studies were late to develop on how emotions affect a person's ability to deal wisely with complex events. One study found a positive relationship between diversity of emotional experience and wise reasoning, irrespective of emotional intensity.[78]

### Gestalt therapy

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Main article: Gestalt therapy

A wise-person fantasy is an awareness intervention, where one poses a question, thinks on it for a few minutes, and then role-plays a fantasized wise person to answer that same question.[79]

### Grossman

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Grossmann and colleagues summarized prior psychological literature to conclude that wisdom involves certain cognitive processes that afford unbiased, sound judgment in the face of ill-defined life situations:

1. intellectual humility, or recognition of limits of own knowledge
2. appreciation of perspectives broader than the issue at hand
3. sensitivity to the possibility of change in social relations
4. compromise or integration of different perspectives[80][81]

Grossmann found that habitually speaking and thinking of oneself in the third person increases these characteristics, which means that such a habit makes a person wiser.[82] Grossmann says contextual factors - such as culture, experiences, and social situations - influence the understanding, development, and propensity of wisdom, with implications for training and educational practice.[69][80] These contextual factors are the focus of continuing research. For instance, Grossmann and Kross identified a phenomenon they called "the Solomon's paradox": that people reflect more wisely on other people's problems than on their own. (It is named after King Solomon, who had legendary sagacity when making judgments about other people's dilemmas but lacked insight when it came to important decisions in his own life.)[83]

### Measuring wisdom

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A researcher will measure wisdom differently depending on their theoretical position about the nature of wisdom. For example, some view wisdom as a stable personality trait, others as a context-bound process.[84] Those wedded to the former approach often use single-shot questionnaires, which are prone to biased[clarification needed] responses,[75][85] something that is antithetical to the wisdom construct[86] and fails to study wisdom in the contexts where it is most relevant: complex life challenges. In contrast, researchers who prefer the latter approach measure wisdom-related features of cognition, motivation, and emotion in the context of a specific situation.[87][84] Such state-level measures provide less-biased responses as well as greater power in explaining meaningful psychological processes.[75] Also, a focus on the situation allows wisdom researchers to develop a fuller understanding of the role of context in producing wisdom.[84] For example, studies have shown evidence of cross-cultural[88] and within-cultural variability,[89] and systematic variability in reasoning wisely across contexts[75][83] and in daily life.[90]

Many, but not all, studies find that adults' self-ratings of perspective and wisdom do not depend on age.[91][92][93] This conflicts with the popular notion that wisdom increases with age.[92] The answer to whether age and wisdom correlate depends on how one defines wisdom and one's experimental technique. The answer to this question also depends on the domain studied, and the role of experience in that domain, with some contexts favoring older adults, others favoring younger adults, and some not differentiating age groups.[84] Rigorous longitudinal work is needed to answer this question, while most studies rely on cross-sectional observations.[94]

The Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index[95] is based on a survey (SD-WISE-28) created by researchers at the University of California San Diego to determine how wise a person is. In 2021 Dilip V. Jeste and his colleagues created a survey (SD-WISE-7) testing seven components: acceptance of diverse perspectives, decisiveness, emotional regulation, prosocial behaviors, self-reflection, social advising, and (to a lesser degree) spirituality.[96]

### Archetypal psychology

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Main article: Wise Old Man and Wise Old Woman

For broader coverage of this topic, see Jungian archetypes.

The wise old person is an unconscious attitude concerning nature and the collective unconscious.[97]

Star Wars is a monomyth that uses archetypal psychology, specifically Joseph Campbell's The Hero of a Thousand Faces.[98] The character Master Yoda from the films evokes the trope of the wise old man,[99] and he is frequently quoted, analogously to Chinese thinkers or Eastern sages in general.[100][101]

### Theories and models

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This section is in list format but may read better as prose. You can help by converting this section, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (February 2025)

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* The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm is an expertise model of life wisdom.[102][103]
* The Balance Theory of Wisdom[103]
* The Self-transcendence Wisdom Theory[103]
* The Three-dimensional Wisdom Theory[103]
* The H.E.R.O.(E.) Model of Wisdom[103]
* The Process View of Wisdom[103]
* The Integrating Virtue and Wit Theory of Wisdom[103]

## Religious perspectives

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### Zoroastrianism

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Main article: Zoroastrianism

In the Avesta Gathas, hymns traditionally attributed to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda means "Lord" (Ahura) and "Wisdom" (Mazda), and is the central deity who embodies goodness, being also called "Good Thought" (Vohu Manah).[104] In Zoroastrianism, the order of the universe and morals is called asha (in Avestan, truth, righteousness), which is determined by this omniscient Thought and also considered a deity emanating from Ahura (Amesha Spenta). It is related to another ahura deity, Spenta Mainyu (active Mentality).[105] It says in Yazna 31:[106]

> To him shall the best befall, who, as one that knows, speaks to me Right's truthful word of Welfare and of Immortality; even the Dominion of Mazda which Good Thought shall increase for him. About which he in the beginning thus thought, "let the blessed realms be filled with Light", he it is that by his wisdom created Right.

### Hellenistic religion and Gnosticism

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Main articles: Sophia (wisdom) and Sophia (Gnosticism)

In Hellenistic religion, wisdom was often personified as a divine or mystical force guiding human understanding. In Greek mystery religions, particularly Orphism and the Eleusinian Mysteries, wisdom was associated with spiritual enlightenment and initiation into hidden truths.[107] Philosophical movements such as Neoplatonism developed a concept of wisdom (sophia, σοφία) as the knowledge of the divine order of existence. Plotinus (204–270 CE) viewed wisdom as an ascent of the soul towards the One, the ultimate source of all reality.[108] In this tradition, wisdom was both intellectual and mystical, requiring inner purification to grasp transcendent truths.

Wisdom also played a central role in Gnosticism, an esoteric movement that emerged in the first few centuries CE. Gnostics saw wisdom (Sophia) as a divine figure, often depicted as a fallen being who sought to restore humanity’s knowledge of its divine origin. In texts in the Nag Hammadi library, Sophia is described as the mother of all living and the source of gnosis (spiritual knowledge).[109] According to Valentinian Gnosticism, Sophia’s fall led to the creation of the material world, but through wisdom, the soul could transcend illusion and return to the divine realm.[110]

Gnostic texts such as the Pistis Sophia depict wisdom as a cosmic force struggling to free itself from ignorance and darkness. This contrasts with orthodox Christian views, where wisdom (σοφία) is associated with the Logos and divine order rather than cosmic dualism.[111] In Hermeticism, another esoteric tradition of the Hellenistic period, wisdom was linked to inner enlightenment and mystical union with the divine mind (nous, νοῦς).[112] These traditions, though diverse, shared the belief that wisdom was the key to transcending material existence and reuniting with the divine.

### Abrahamic religions

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Main articles: Holy Wisdom and Hikmah

Image from "Book of Wisdom" of Francysk Skaryna 1518

The word "wisdom" (חכם) is mentioned 222 times in the Hebrew Bible. It was regarded as one of the highest virtues among the Israelites along with kindness (חסד) and justice (צדק). Wisdom is exemplified by Solomon. Much of the Book of Proverbs, which is filled with wise sayings, is attributed to Solomon. The Talmud teaches that a wise person can foresee the future. Nolad is a Hebrew word for "future," but also the Hebrew word for "birth", so one rabbinic interpretation of the teaching is that a wise person is one who can foresee the consequences of his/her choices (i.e. can "see the future" that he/she "gives birth" to).[113]

In Christian theology, "wisdom" describes an aspect of God, or the theological concept regarding the wisdom of God.[citation needed] Wisdom is considered one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. Justin Martyr,[114] Athenagoras of Athens and Theophilus of Antioch identified the Wisdom of the Book of Proverbs with the Word who is Jesus Christ God.[115]

The Islamic term for wisdom is hikmah. Prophets of Islam are believed by Muslims to possess great wisdom. The Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi considers al-Hakim ("The Wise") as one of the names of the Creator.[116] Wisdom and truth, considered divine attributes, were valued in Islamic sciences and philosophy. The first Arab philosopher, Al-Kindi says at the beginning of his book:[117]

> We must not be ashamed to admire the truth or to acquire it, from wherever it comes. Even if it should come from far-flung nations and foreign peoples, there is for the student of truth nothing more important than the truth, nor is the truth demeaned or diminished by the one who states or conveys it; no one is demeaned by the truth, rather all are ennobled by it.

— Al-Kindi, On First Philosophy

In Baháʼí Faith scripture, "The essence of wisdom is the fear of God, the dread of His scourge and punishment, and the apprehension of His justice and decree."[118] Wisdom is seen as a light that casts away darkness, and "its dictates must be observed under all circumstances".[119] One may obtain knowledge and wisdom through God, his Word, and his Divine Manifestation; the source of all learning is the knowledge of God.[120]

## Cultural and literary depictions

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Wisdom Defending Youth against Love by Meynier, c. 1810 Truth and Wisdom assist History in writing by Jacob de Wit, 1754

### In mythology

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#### Mesopotamian mythology

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In Mesopotamian religion and mythology, Enki, also known as Ea, was the god of wisdom and intelligence. Divine wisdom allowed the provident designation of functions[clarification needed] and the ordering of the cosmos, and it[ambiguous] was achieved by humans by following mes (in Sumerian: order, rite, righteousness) which maintain balance.[121] In addition to hymns to Enki or Ea dating from the third millennium BCE, there is among the clay tablets of Abu Salabikh from 2600 BCE (the oldest dated texts), a "Hymn to Shamash" which includes the following:[122]

> Wide is the courtyard of Shamash night chamber, (just as wide is the womb of) a wise pregnant woman! Sin, his warrior, wise one, heard of the offerings and came down to his fiesta. He is the father of the nation and the father of intelligence

#### Egyptian mythology

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Main article: Egyptian mythology

Further information: Sia (god) and Thoth

Sia was the personification of perception and thoughtfulness in the mythology of Ancient Egypt. Thoth, married to Maat (in ancient Egyptian: order, righteousness, truth), was regarded as the being who introduced wisdom to the nation.[123][124]

The concept of Logos - manifest word of the divine thought - was also present in the philosophy and hymns of Egypt and Ancient Greece.[124] It was important in the thinking of Heraclitus, and in the Abrahamic traditions. It seems to have been derived from Mesopotamian culture.[125]

#### Greek mythology

[edit]

##### Athena and Metis

[edit]

Main articles: Athena and Metis (mythology)

> Athena (as Mentor) supported him by recognizing and fostering courage, hope, sense, bravery, and adeptness (Homer, trans. 1996, p. 102).[126]

— Sommer

The ancient Greeks considered wisdom to be an important virtue, personified as the goddesses Metis and Athena. Metis was the first wife of Zeus, who, according to Hesiod's Theogony, had devoured her pregnant; Zeus earned the title of Mêtieta ("The Wise Counselor") after that, as Metis was the embodiment of wisdom, and he gave birth to Athena, who is said to have sprung from his head.[127][128] Athena was portrayed as strong, fair, merciful, and chaste.[129]

##### Apollo

[edit]

Main article: Apollo

Apollo was also considered a god of wisdom, designated as the conductor of the Muses (Musagetes),[130] who were personifications of the sciences and of the inspired and poetic arts. According to Plato in his Cratylus, the name of Apollo could also mean "ballon" (archer) and "omopoulon" (unifier of poles [divine and earthly]), since this god was responsible for divine and true inspirations, thus considered an archer who was always right in healing and oracles: "he is an ever-darting archer".[131] Apollo prophesied through the priestesses (Pythia) in the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), where the aphorism "know thyself" (gnōthi seauton)[a] was inscribed (one of the Delphic maxims).[132] He was contrasted with Hermes, who was related to the sciences and technical wisdom, and, in the first centuries after Christ, was associated with Thoth in an Egyptian syncretism, under the name Hermes Trimegistus.[133] Greek tradition recorded the earliest introducers of wisdom in the Seven Sages of Greece.[134]

#### Roman mythology

[edit]

Main article: Roman mythology

The ancient Romans also valued wisdom, which was personified as Minerva or Pallas. She also represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was the owl, which is still a popular representation of wisdom, because it can see in darkness. She was said to have been born from Jupiter's forehead.[135]

#### Norse mythology

[edit]

Main article: Norse mythology

Further information: Odin and Mimir

Odin is known for his wisdom, often as acquired through various hardships and ordeals involving pain and self-sacrifice. In one instance he plucked out an eye and offered it to Mímir, guardian of the well of knowledge and wisdom, in return for a drink from the well.[136] In another famous account, Odin hanged himself for nine nights from Yggdrasil, the World Tree that unites all the realms of existence, suffering from hunger and thirst and finally wounding himself with a spear until he gained the knowledge of runes for use in casting powerful magic.[137] He was also able to acquire the mead of poetry from the giants, a drink of which could grant the power of a scholar or poet, for the benefit of gods and mortals alike.[136]

### In folklore

[edit]

In many cultures, the name for third molars, which are the last teeth to grow, is etymologically linked with wisdom, as in the English wisdom tooth. This nickname originated from the classical tradition - the Hippocratic writings used the term sóphronistér (in Greek, related to the meaning of moderation or teaching a lesson), and in Latin dens sapientiae (wisdom tooth).[138]

## Educational perspectives

[edit]

Public schools in the U.S. sometimes nod at "character education" which would include training in wisdom.[139]

### Maxwell's educational philosophy

[edit]

See also: Nicholas Maxwell

Nicholas Maxwell, a philosopher in the United Kingdom, believes academia ought to alter its focus from the acquisition of knowledge to seeking and promoting wisdom.[140] This he defines as the capacity to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others.[141] He teaches that new knowledge and technological know-how increase our power to act. Without wisdom though, Maxwell claims this new knowledge may cause human harm as well as human good. He argues that the pursuit of knowledge is indeed valuable and good, but that it should be considered a part of the broader task of improving wisdom.[142]

## See also

[edit]

* Philosophy portal
* Psychology portal

* Anima mundi – Concept in metaphysics
* Bildung – German tradition of self-cultivation
* Book of Wisdom – Jewish work written in Greek generally dated to the mid-first century BC
* Cassandra (metaphor) – Metaphor originating from Greek mythology
* Conventional wisdom – Ideas generally accepted by experts or the public
* DIKW pyramid – Data, information, knowledge, wisdom hierarchy
* Ecological wisdom – Philosophy of ecological harmony or equilibrium as developed by Arne Næss or Félix GuattariPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
* Eudaimonia – Human flourishing in ancient Greek philosophy
* Genius – Exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or originality
* Heuristic – Problem-solving method
* Invocation – Supplication to a supernatural being
* Metacognition – Self-awareness about thinking, higher-order thinking skills
* Perspicacity – Great discernment or insight
* Procedural knowledge – Knowledge of how to perform a task
* Reflexivity (social theory) – Circular relationships between cause and effect
* Sage (philosophy) – Someone who has attained wisdom
* Sapere aude – Latin phrase meaning "dare to know"
* Socratic method – Type of cooperative argumentative dialogue
* Transcendence (philosophy) – Concept designating the extra-categorical attributes of beings
* Wisdom of the crowd – Collective perception of a group of people

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Critias states the meaning of "know thyself" in Plato's Charmides (165a)

## References

[edit]

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73. ^

* Grossmann, I.; Na, J.; Varnum, M.E.; Park, D.C.; Kitayama, S.; Nisbett, R.E. (2010). "Reasoning about social conflicts improves into old age" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (16): 7246–7250\. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.7246G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1001715107. PMC 2867718. PMID 20368436.
* Staudinger, U.M.; Lopez, D.F; Baltes, P.B. (1997). "The psychometric location of wisdom-related performance: Intelligence, personality, and more?". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 23 (11): 1200–1214\. doi:10.1177/01461672972311007. S2CID 145148320.

74. ^

* Baltes, P.B.; Glück, J.; Kunzmann, U. "Wisdom: Its structure and function in regulating successful life span development". In Snyder, C.R.; Lopez, S.J. (eds.). Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press. pp. 327–347.
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* Robson, David (14 April 2023). "Illeism: The ancient trick to help you think more wisely". BBC. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
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114. ^ In his Dialogue with Tripho (55, 1), Justin calls the Word of God a "second God" (ἕτερος θεός), meaning the second divine person of a unique Triune God.
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## Further reading

[edit]

* Liguori, Alphonus (1882). "Sermon V. - Sunday within the Octave of the Nativity: In what true wisdom consists" . Sermons for all the Sundays in the year. Dublin.
* Sternberg, R.; Gluck, J. (2021). Wisdom: The Psychology of Wise Thoughts, Words, and Deeds. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
* Tsai, Cheng-hung (2023). Wisdom: A Skill Theory. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

## External links

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Wisdom at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Definitions from Wiktionary
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* Resources from Wikiversity

* Wisdom at PhilPapers
* Metis portal for intercultural wisdom literature and wisdom practices at ETH Zurich.
* Wisdom at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
* Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Wisdom". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* Center for Practical Wisdom at the University of Chicago

* v
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Virtues

About virtues|

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Latin|

* Auctoritas
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Other|

* Ganbaru
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Humanities

Disciplines|

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Journals|

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Related|

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