Yugoslavia

1918–1992 country in Southeast Europe

This article is about the country that existed until 1992. For the self-proclaimed successor state, called "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" until 2003, see Serbia and Montenegro.

"Jugoslavija" redirects here. For the defunct magazine, see Jugoslavija (magazine). For other uses, see Yugoslavia (disambiguation).

Yugoslavia

Jugoslavija / Југославија[a]

1918–1992
1941–1945: Axis occupation

Top: Flag (1918–41)
Bottom: Flag (1946–92)

Top: Coat of arms
(1918–41)
Bottom: Emblem
(1963–92)

Anthem:
"National Anthem of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia" (1919–1941)

"Hey, Slavs" (1945–1992)

Yugoslavia during the Interwar period (top) and the Cold War (bottom)

Capital

and largest city

| Belgrade
44°49′N 20°27′E﻿ / ﻿44.817°N 20.450°E﻿ / 44.817; 20.450
Official languages| Serbo-Croato-Slovene (before 1944)
Serbo-Croatian (de facto; from 1944)
Demonym(s)| Yugoslav
Government| Hereditary monarchy
(1918–1941)
Federal republic
(1945–1992)

Details[excessive detail?]

* Unitary constitutional monarchy

(1918–1929, 1931–1939)
* Unitary absolute monarchy under a royal dictatorship (1929–1931)
* Federal constitutional monarchy

(1939–1941)
* Government-in-exile (1941–1945)
* Provisional socialist government presiding over liberated territories (1943–1945)
* Federal Marxist–Leninist one-party socialist republic (1945–1948)
* Federal Titoist one-party socialist republic (1948–1990)
* Federal parliamentary constitutional republic (1990–1992)

History|

• Creation

| 1 December 1918

• Axis invasion

| 6 April 1941

• Abolition of monarchy

| 29 November 1945

• Disintegration

| 27 April 1992
Population

• 1955

| 17,522,438[1]

• 1965

| 19,489,605[2]

• 1975

| 21,441,297[3]

• 1985

| 23,121,383[4]

• 1991

| 23,532,279[5]
Currency| Yugoslav dinar
Calling code| 38
ISO 3166 code| YU
Internet TLD| .yu

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | Serbia

|

| Montenegro
| State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
| Austria-Hungary
| Fiume
| Croatia |

|

Slovenia |
Macedonia |
Bosnia and Herzegovina |
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia |

Yugoslavia (/ˌjuːɡoʊˈslɑːviə/; lit. 'Land of the South Slavs')[a] was a country in Central Europe and the Balkans[6][7][8][9] that existed from 1918 to 1992. It came into existence following World War I,[b] under the name of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes from the merger of the Kingdom of Serbia with the provisional State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, and constituted the first union of South Slavic peoples as a sovereign state, following centuries of foreign rule over the region under the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg monarchy.

Under the rule of the House of Karađorđević, the kingdom gained international recognition on 13 July 1922 at the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris and was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 3 October 1929. Peter I was the country's first sovereign. Upon his father's death in 1921, Alexander I went on to rule the country through an extended period of political crisis that culminated in the 6 January Dictatorship and, ultimately, his assassination in 1934. Prince Paul headed the state as a prince regent until Alexander's son Peter II was declared of-age, which happened following the Yugoslav coup d'état in March 1941. Alexander I was the longest reigning of the three Yugoslav monarchs.[11]

The kingdom was invaded and occupied by the Axis powers in April 1941, marking the start of World War II in Yugoslavia. The Communist-led Partisan resistance went on to proclaim the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia in November 1943, having acquired the backing of the Allies earlier that year. In 1944, King Peter II, then living in exile, gave his recognition to the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia as the legitimate government. In November 1945, after the war ended, the regency council appointed by the King called a parliamentary election that established the Constituent Assembly of Yugoslavia. The Constituent Assembly proclaimed Yugoslavia a federal republic on 29 November 1945, thus abolishing monarchical rule. This marked the onset of a four-decade long uncontested communist party rule of the country. The newly proclaimed Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia acquired the territories of Istria, Rijeka, and Zadar from Italy. Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito ruled the country from 1944 until his death in 1980, first as the prime minister and later as the president. In 1963, the country was renamed for the final time, as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY).

The six constituent republics that made up the SFRY were the socialist republics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. Within Serbia were the two socialist autonomous provinces, Kosovo and Vojvodina, which, following the adoption of the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution, were largely equal to the other members of the federation.[12][13] After an economic and political crisis and the rise of nationalism and ethnic conflicts following Tito's death, Yugoslavia broke up along its republics' borders during the Revolutions of 1989, at first into five countries, leading to the Yugoslav Wars. From 1993 to 2017, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia tried political and military leaders from the former Yugoslavia for war crimes, genocide, and other crimes committed during those wars.

After the breakup, the republics of Montenegro and Serbia formed a reduced federative state, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY). This state aspired to the status of sole legal successor to the SFRY, but those claims were opposed by the other former republics. Eventually, it accepted the opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Committee about shared succession[14] and in 2003, its official name was changed to the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. This state dissolved when Montenegro and Serbia each became independent states in 2006, with Kosovo having an ongoing dispute over its declaration of independence in 2008.

## Background

[edit]

Main article: Creation of Yugoslavia

The concept of Yugoslavia, as a common state for all South Slavic peoples, emerged in the late 17th century and gained prominence through the Illyrian Movement of the 19th century. The name was created by the combination of the Slavic words jug ("south") and Slaveni/Sloveni (Slavs) and was in use as early as 1922 onward.[original research?][15] Moves towards the formal creation of Yugoslavia accelerated after the 1917 Corfu Declaration between the Yugoslav Committee and the government of the Kingdom of Serbia.[16]

## Kingdom of Yugoslavia

[edit]

Main article: Kingdom of Yugoslavia

Banovinas of Yugoslavia, 1929–39. After 1939 the Sava and Littoral banovinas were merged into the Banovina of Croatia.

The country was formed in 1918 immediately after World War I as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes by union of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and the Kingdom of Serbia.[17] It was commonly referred to at the time as a "Versailles state".[18] Later, King Alexander I renamed the country Yugoslavia in 1929.[19]

### King Alexander

[edit]

See also: 6 January Dictatorship

On 20 June 1928, Serb deputy Puniša Račić shot at five members of the opposition Croatian Peasant Party in the National Assembly, resulting in the death of two deputies on the spot and that of leader Stjepan Radić a few weeks later.[20] On 6 January 1929, King Alexander I got rid of the constitution, banned national political parties, assumed executive power, and renamed the country Yugoslavia.[19][21] He hoped to curb separatist tendencies and mitigate nationalist passions. He imposed a new constitution and relinquished his dictatorship in 1931.[22] However, Alexander's policies later encountered opposition from other European powers stemming from developments in Italy and Germany, where Fascists and Nazis rose to power, and the Soviet Union, where Joseph Stalin became absolute ruler. None of these three regimes favored the policy pursued by Alexander I. In fact, Italy and Germany wanted to revise the international treaties signed after World War I,[23] and the Soviets were determined to regain their positions in Europe and pursue a more active international policy.[24]

Alexander attempted to create a centralised Yugoslavia. He decided to abolish Yugoslavia's historic regions, and new internal boundaries were drawn for provinces or banovinas.[25][26] The banovinas were named after rivers.[25] Many politicians were jailed or kept under police surveillance. During his reign, communist movements were restricted.[27]

The king was assassinated in Marseille during an official visit to France in 1934 by Vlado Chernozemski, an experienced marksman from Ivan Mihailov's Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization with the cooperation of the Ustaše, a Croatian fascist revolutionary organisation.[28][29][30][31][32] Alexander was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son Peter II and a regency council headed by his cousin, Prince Paul.[33]

### 1934–1941

[edit]

The international political scene in the late 1930s was marked by growing intolerance between the principal figures, by the aggressive attitude of the totalitarian regimes, and by the certainty that the order set up after World War I was losing its strongholds and its sponsors their strength. Supported and pressured by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Croatian leader Vladko Maček and his party managed the creation of the Banovina of Croatia (Autonomous Region with significant internal self-government) in 1939.[citation needed] The agreement specified that Croatia was to remain part of Yugoslavia, but it was hurriedly building an independent political identity in international relations.[citation needed]

Prince Paul submitted to fascist pressure and signed the Tripartite Pact in Vienna on 25 March 1941, hoping to continue keeping Yugoslavia out of the war. However, this was at the expense of popular support for Paul's regency. Senior military officers were also opposed to the treaty and launched the Yugoslav coup d'état when the king returned on 27 March. Army General Dušan Simović seized power, arrested the Vienna delegation, exiled Prince Paul, and ended the regency, giving 17-year-old King Peter full powers. Hitler then decided to attack Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941, followed immediately by an invasion of Greece where Mussolini had previously been repelled.[34][35]

## World War II

[edit]

Main article: World War II in Yugoslavia

Partisan Stjepan Filipović shouting "Death to fascism, freedom to the people!" shortly before his execution (1942)

At 5:12 a.m. on 6 April 1941, German, Italian and Hungarian forces invaded Yugoslavia.[36] The German Air Force (Luftwaffe) bombed Belgrade and other major Yugoslav cities. On 17 April, representatives of Yugoslavia's various regions signed an armistice with Germany in Belgrade, ending eleven days of resistance against the invading German forces.[37] More than 300,000 Yugoslav officers and soldiers were taken prisoner.[38]

The Axis Powers occupied Yugoslavia and split it up. The Independent State of Croatia was established as a Nazi satellite state, ruled by the fascist militia known as the Ustaše that came into existence in 1929, but was relatively limited in its activities until 1941. German troops occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as part of Serbia and Slovenia, while other parts of the country were occupied by Bulgaria, Hungary, and Italy. From 1941 to 1945, the Croatian Ustaše regime persecuted and murdered around 300,000 Serbs, along with at least 30,000 Jews and Roma;[39] hundreds of thousands of Serbs were also expelled and another 200,000-300,000 were forced to convert to Catholicism.[40]

From the start, the Yugoslav resistance forces consisted of two factions: the communist-led Yugoslav Partisans and the royalist Chetniks, with the former receiving Allied recognition at the Tehran conference (1943). The heavily pro-Serbian Chetniks were led by Draža Mihajlović, while the pan-Yugoslav oriented Partisans were led by Josip Broz Tito.[41]

The Partisans initiated a guerrilla campaign that developed into the largest resistance army in occupied Western and Central Europe. The Chetniks were initially supported by the exiled royal government and the Allies, but they soon focused increasingly on combating the Partisans rather than the occupying Axis forces. By the end of the war, the Chetnik movement transformed into a collaborationist Serb nationalist militia completely dependent on Axis supplies.[42] The Chetniks also persecuted and killed Muslims and Croats,[43] with an estimated 50,000-68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).[44] The highly mobile Partisans, however, carried on their guerrilla warfare with great success. Most notable of the victories against the occupying forces were the battles of Neretva and Sutjeska.

On 25 November 1942, the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia was convened in Bihać, modern day Bosnia and Herzegovina. The council reconvened on 29 November 1943, in Jajce, also in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and established the basis for post-war organisation of the country, establishing a federation (this date was celebrated as Republic Day after the war).[citation needed]

The Yugoslav Partisans were able to expel the Axis from Serbia in 1944 and the rest of Yugoslavia in 1945. The Red Army provided limited assistance with the liberation of Belgrade and withdrew after the war was over. In May 1945, the Partisans met with Allied forces outside former Yugoslav borders, after also taking over Trieste and parts of the southern Austrian provinces of Styria and Carinthia. However, the Partisans withdrew from Trieste in June of the same year under heavy pressure from Stalin, who did not want a confrontation with the other Allies.[45]

Western attempts to reunite the Partisans, who denied the supremacy of the old government of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and the émigrés loyal to the king led to the Tito-Šubašić Agreement in June 1944; however, Marshal Josip Broz Tito was in control and was determined to lead an independent communist state, starting as a prime minister. He had the support of Moscow and London and led by far the strongest Partisan force with 800,000 men.[46][47]

The official Yugoslav post-war estimate of victims in Yugoslavia during World War II is 1,704,000. Subsequent data gathering in the 1980s by historians Vladimir Žerjavić and Bogoljub Kočović showed that the actual number of dead was about 1 million.[48]

## FPR Yugoslavia

[edit]

Main article: Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia

On 11 November 1945, parliamentary elections were held with only the Communist-led People's Front appearing on the ballot, securing all 354 seats in the newly formed Constituent Assembly. On 29 November, the Constituent Assembly proclaimed the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, thus abolishing monarchical rule.[49] The elections were called by the regency council[c] appointed by the King on 2 March 1945, though whether this represented an abdication is in dispute among historians.[50] Marshal Tito was now in full control, and all opposition elements were eliminated.[51]

The 1946 Constitution of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, modelled after the Constitution of the Soviet Union, established six republics, an autonomous province, and an autonomous district that were a part of Serbia. The federal capital was Belgrade. The policy focused on a strong central government under the control of the Communist Party, and on recognition of the multiple nationalities.[51] The flags of the republics used versions of the red flag or Slavic tricolor, with a red star in the centre or in the canton.[citation needed]

Name | Capital | Flag | Emblem | Location

|
|
|
|

Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina | Sarajevo |  |  |

SR Slovenia

SR Croatia

SR Bosnia and
Herzegovina

Montenegro

SR Macedonia

SR Serbia

SAP
Vojvodina

SAP
Kosovo

Socialist Republic of Croatia | Zagreb |  |
Socialist Republic of Macedonia | Skopje |  |
Socialist Republic of Montenegro | Titograd |  |
Socialist Republic of Serbia | Belgrade |  |

*     * Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo

| Pristina

*     * Socialist Autonomous Province of Vojvodina

| Novi Sad
Socialist Republic of Slovenia | Ljubljana |  |

Tito's regional goal was to expand south and take control of Albania and parts of Greece. In 1947, negotiations between Yugoslavia and Bulgaria led to the Bled agreement, which proposed to form a close relationship between the two Communist countries, and enable Yugoslavia to start a civil war in Greece and use Albania and Bulgaria as bases. Stalin vetoed this agreement and it was never realised. The break between Belgrade and Moscow was now imminent.[52]

Yugoslavia solved the national issue of nations and nationalities (national minorities) in a way that all nations and nationalities had the same rights. However, most of the German minority of Yugoslavia, most of whom had collaborated during the occupation and had been recruited to German forces, were expelled towards Germany or Austria.[53]

### Yugoslav–Soviet split and the Non-Alignment Movement

[edit]

Further information: Tito–Stalin split, Informbiro period, and Yugoslavia and the Non-Aligned Movement

The country distanced itself from the Soviets in 1948 (cf. Cominform and Informbiro) and started to build its own way to socialism under the political leadership of Josip Broz Tito.[54] Accordingly, the constitution was heavily amended to replace the emphasis on democratic centralism with workers' self-management and decentralization.[55] The Communist Party was renamed to the League of Communists and adopted Titoism at its congress the previous year.[56]

All the Communist European Countries had deferred to Stalin and rejected the Marshall Plan aid in 1947. Tito, at first went along and rejected the Marshall plan. However, in 1948 Tito broke decisively with Stalin on other issues, making Yugoslavia an independent communist state. Yugoslavia requested American aid. American leaders were internally divided, but finally agreed and began sending money on a small scale in 1949, and on a much larger scale 1950–53. The American aid was not part of the Marshall plan.[57]

Tito criticised both Eastern Bloc and NATO nations and, together with India and other countries, started the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961, which remained the official affiliation of the country until it dissolved.[citation needed]

## SFR Yugoslavia

[edit]

Main article: Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

Marshal Josip Broz Tito

On 7 April 1963, the nation changed its official name to Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Josip Broz Tito was named President for life.[58] In the SFRY, each republic and province had its own constitution, supreme court, parliament, president and prime minister.[59] At the top of the Yugoslav government were the President (Tito), the federal Prime Minister, and the federal Parliament (a collective Presidency was formed after Tito's death in 1980).[59][60] Also important were the Communist Party general secretaries for each republic and province, and the general secretary of Central Committee of the Communist Party.[59]

Tito was the most powerful person in the country, followed by republican and provincial premiers and presidents, and Communist Party presidents. Slobodan Penezić Krcun, Tito's chief of secret police in Serbia, fell victim to a dubious traffic incident after he started to complain about Tito's politics. Minister of the interior Aleksandar Ranković lost all of his titles and rights after a major disagreement with Tito regarding state politics. Some influential ministers in government, such as Edvard Kardelj or Stane Dolanc, were more important than the Prime Minister.[citation needed]

First cracks in the tightly governed system surfaced when students in Belgrade and several other cities joined the worldwide protests of 1968. President Josip Broz Tito gradually stopped the protests by giving in to some of the students' demands and saying that "students are right" during a televised speech. However, in the following years, he dealt with the leaders of the protests by sacking them from university and Communist party posts.[61]

Most dissidents during the 1960s and 1970s supported a Marxist humanism.[62]: 202

A more severe sign of disobedience was so-called Croatian Spring of 1970 and 1971, when students in Zagreb organised demonstrations for greater civil liberties and greater Croatian autonomy, followed by mass protests across Croatia.[63][64] The regime stifled the public protest and incarcerated the leaders, though many key Croatian representatives in the Party silently supported this cause.[65] As a result, a new Constitution was ratified in 1974, which gave more rights to the individual republics in Yugoslavia and provinces in Serbia.[63][64]

### Ethnic tensions and economic crisis

[edit]

After the Yugoslav Partisans took over the country at the end of WWII, nationalism was banned from being publicly promoted. Overall relative peace was retained under Tito's rule, though nationalist protests did occur, but these were usually repressed and nationalist leaders were arrested and some were executed by Yugoslav officials. However, the Croatian Spring protests in the 1970s were backed by large numbers of Croats who complained that Yugoslavia remained a Serb hegemony.[66]

Tito, whose home republic was Croatia, was concerned over the stability of the country and responded in a manner to appease both Croats and Serbs: he ordered the arrest of the Croatian Spring protestors while at the same time conceding to some of their demands. Following the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution, Serbia's influence in the country was significantly reduced,[67] while its autonomous provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo were granted greater autonomy, along with greater rights for the Albanians of Kosovo and Hungarians of Vojvodina.[68] Both provinces were afforded much of the same status as the six republics of Yugoslavia, though they could not secede.[69] Vojvodina and Kosovo formed the provinces of the Republic of Serbia but also formed part of the federation, which led to the unique situation in which Central Serbia did not have its own assembly but a joint assembly with its provinces represented in it. Albanian and Hungarian became nationally recognised minority languages, and the Serbo-Croat of Bosnia and Montenegro altered to a form based on the speech of the local people and not on the standards of Zagreb and Belgrade. In Slovenia the recognized minorities were Hungarians and Italians.[citation needed]

The fact that these autonomous provinces held the same voting power as the republics but unlike other republics could not legally separate from Yugoslavia satisfied Croatia and Slovenia, but in Serbia and in the new autonomous province of Kosovo, reaction was different. Serbs saw the new constitution as conceding to Croat and ethnic Albanian nationalists.[70] Ethnic Albanians in Kosovo saw the creation of an autonomous province as not being enough, and demanded that Kosovo become a constituent republic with the right to separate from Yugoslavia. This created tensions within the Communist leadership, particularly among Communist Serb officials who viewed the 1974 constitution as weakening Serbia's influence and jeopardising the unity of the country by allowing the republics the right to separate.[70]

Several groups of Croats from Herzegovina maintained close ties with the Croatian Ustaše émigrés, aiming to dismantle Yugoslavia and reestablish an independent Croatian state. On June 20, 1972, the Bugojno group attempted to infiltrate SFR Yugoslavia with the aim of inciting a rebellion against the socialist Yugoslav government.[71] Another group, inspired and possibly organized by friar Jozo Križić from Duvno, included soldiers serving their military service in the Yugoslav army. In 1985, they were arrested and imprisoned for attempted terrorism.[72][73]

According to official statistics, from the 1950s to the early 1980s, Yugoslavia was among the fastest growing countries, approaching the ranges reported in South Korea and other countries undergoing an economic miracle.[74] The unique socialist system in Yugoslavia, where factories were worker cooperatives and decision-making was less centralized than in other socialist countries, may have led to the stronger growth. However, even if the absolute value of the growth rates was not as high as indicated by the official statistics, both the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia were characterized by surprisingly high growth rates of both income and education during the 1950s.[74] The period of European growth ended after the oil price shock in 1970s. Following that, an economic crisis erupted in Yugoslavia due to disastrous economic policies such as borrowing vast amounts of Western capital to fund growth through exports.[74] At the same time, Western economies went into recession, decreasing demand for Yugoslav imports thereby creating a large debt problem.[75]

In 1989, 248 firms were declared bankrupt or were liquidated and 89,400 workers were laid off according to official sources[who?]. During the first nine months of 1990 and directly following the adoption of the IMF programme, another 889 enterprises with a combined work-force of 525,000 workers suffered the same fate. In other words, in less than two years "the trigger mechanism" (under the Financial Operations Act) had led to the layoff of more than 600,000 workers out of a total industrial workforce of the order of 2.7 million.[76] An additional 20% of the work force, or half a million people, were not paid wages during the early months of 1990 as enterprises sought to avoid bankruptcy.[77] The largest concentrations of bankrupt firms and lay-offs were in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Kosovo. Real earnings were in a free fall and social programmes collapsed; creating within the population an atmosphere of social despair and hopelessness.[77] This was a critical turning point in the events to follow.[citation needed]

## Breakup

[edit]

Main article: Breakup of Yugoslavia

Breakup of Yugoslavia

After Tito's death on 4 May 1980, ethnic tensions grew in Yugoslavia. The legacy of the Constitution of 1974 threw the system of decision-making into a state of paralysis, made all the more hopeless as the conflict of interests became irreconcilable. The Albanian majority in Kosovo demanded the status of a republic in the 1981 protests in Kosovo while Serbian authorities suppressed this sentiment and proceeded to reduce the province's autonomy.[78]

In 1986, the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts drafted a memorandum addressing some burning issues concerning the position of Serbs as the most numerous people in Yugoslavia.[79] The largest Yugoslav republic in territory and population, Serbia's influence over the regions of Kosovo and Vojvodina was reduced by the 1974 Constitution.[citation needed] Because its two autonomous provinces had de facto prerogatives of full-fledged republics, Serbia found that its hands were tied, for the republican government was restricted in making and carrying out decisions that would apply to the provinces.[citation needed] Since the provinces had a vote in the Federal Presidency Council (an eight-member council composed of representatives from the six republics and the two autonomous provinces), they sometimes even entered into coalitions with other republics, thus outvoting Serbia.[citation needed] Serbia's political impotence made it possible for others to exert pressure on the 2 million Serbs (20% of the total Serbian population) living outside Serbia.[79]

After Tito's death, Serbian communist leader Slobodan Milošević began making his way toward the pinnacle of Serbian leadership.[80] Milošević sought to restore pre-1974 Serbian sovereignty. Other republics, especially Slovenia and Croatia, denounced his proposal as a revival of greater Serbian hegemonism. Through a series of moves known as the "anti-bureaucratic revolution", Milošević succeeded in reducing the autonomy of Vojvodina and of Kosovo and Metohija,[81] but both entities retained a vote in the Yugoslav Presidency Council. The very instrument that reduced Serbian influence before was now used to increase it: in the eight-member Council, Serbia could now count on four votes at a minimum: Serbia proper, then-loyal Montenegro, Vojvodina, and Kosovo.[82]

As a result of these events, ethnic Albanian miners in Kosovo organised the 1989 Kosovo miners' strike, which dovetailed into an ethnic conflict between the Albanians and the non-Albanians in the province. At around 80% of the population of Kosovo in the 1980s, ethnic-Albanians were the majority. With Milošević gaining control over Kosovo in 1989, the original residency changed drastically leaving only a minimum number of Serbians in the region.[80] The number of Serbs in Kosovo was quickly declining for several reasons, among them the ever-increasing ethnic tensions and subsequent emigration from the area.[83][84] At this time, Serbian leaders became aware that they could expell (ethnically cleanse) ethnically non-Serbian populations with impunity. They knew that no international reaction had followed when in the summer of 1989 the neighboring communist Bulgaria had expelled (ethnically cleansed) 360,000 of its citizens of Turkish and Muslim identities.[85]

Meanwhile, Slovenia, under the presidency of Milan Kučan, and Croatia supported the Albanian miners and their struggle for formal recognition. Initial strikes turned into widespread demonstrations demanding a Kosovar republic. This angered Serbia's leadership which proceeded to use police force and later, federal police troops to restore civil order.[86]

In January 1990, the extraordinary 14th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia was convened, where the Serbian and Slovenian delegations argued over the future of the League of Communists and Yugoslavia. The Serbian delegation, led by Milošević, insisted on a policy of "one person, one vote" which would empower the plurality population, the Serbs. In turn, the Slovenian delegation, supported by Croats, sought to reform Yugoslavia by devolving even more power to republics, but were voted down. As a result, the Slovene and Croatian delegations left the Congress and the all-Yugoslav Communist party was dissolved.[87][88]

The constitutional crisis that inevitably followed resulted in a rise of nationalism in all republics: Slovenia and Croatia voiced demands for looser ties within the federation.[citation needed] Following the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, each of the republics held multi-party elections in 1990. Slovenia and Croatia held the elections in April since their communist parties chose to cede power peacefully. Other Yugoslav republics—especially Serbia—were more or less dissatisfied with the democratisation in two of the republics and proposed different sanctions (e.g. Serbian "customs tax" for Slovene products) against the two, but as the year progressed, other republics' communist parties saw the inevitability of the democratisation process.[citation needed] In December, as the last member of the federation, Serbia held parliamentary elections confirming the rule of former communists in the republic.[citation needed]

Slovenia and Croatia elected governments oriented towards greater autonomy of the republics (under Milan Kučan and Franjo Tuđman, respectively).[89] Serbia and Montenegro elected candidates who favoured Yugoslav unity.[citation needed] The Croat quest for independence led to large Serb communities within Croatia rebelling and trying to secede from the Croat republic. Serbs in Croatia would not accept the status of a national minority in a sovereign Croatia since they would be demoted from the status of a constituent nation.[90]

### Yugoslav Wars

[edit]

Main article: Yugoslav Wars

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|

The war broke out when the new regimes tried to replace Yugoslav civilian and military forces with secessionist forces. When, in August 1990, Croatia attempted to replace police in the Serb-populated Croat Krajina by force, the population first looked for refuge in the Yugoslav Army barracks, while the army remained passive. The civilians then organised armed resistance. These armed conflicts between the Croatian armed forces ("police") and civilians mark the beginning of the Yugoslav war that inflamed the region. Similarly, the attempt to replace Yugoslav frontier police by Slovene police forces provoked regional armed conflicts which ended with a minimal number of victims.[78]

A similar attempt in Bosnia and Herzegovina led to a war that lasted more than three years (see below). The results of all these conflicts were the almost total emigration of the Serbs from all three regions, the massive displacement of the populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the establishment of the three new independent states. The separation of Macedonia was peaceful, although the Yugoslav Army occupied the peak of the Straža mountain on Macedonian soil.[citation needed]

Serbian uprisings in Croatia began in August 1990 by blocking roads leading from the Dalmatian coast towards the interior almost a year before Croatian leadership made any move towards independence. These uprisings were more or less discreetly backed by the Serb-dominated federal army (JNA). The Serbs in Croatia proclaimed "Serb autonomous areas", which were later united into the Republic of Serb Krajina. The federal army tried to disarm the territorial defence forces of Slovenia (the republics had their local defence forces similar to the Home Guard) in 1990 but was not completely successful. Still, Slovenia began to covertly import arms to replenish its armed forces.[citation needed]

Croatia also embarked upon the illegal importation of arms, (following the disarmament of the republics' armed forces by the federal army) mainly from Hungary. These activities were under constant surveillance and produced a video of a secret meeting between the Croatian Defence minister Martin Špegelj and two unidentified men. The video, filmed by the Yugoslav counter-intelligence (KOS, Kontra-obavještajna služba), showed Špegel announcing that they were at war with the army and giving instructions about arms smuggling as well as methods of dealing with the Yugoslav Army's officers stationed in Croatian cities. Serbia and JNA used this discovery of Croatian rearmament for propaganda purposes. Guns were also fired from army bases through Croatia. Elsewhere, tensions were running high. In the same month, the Army leaders met with the Presidency of Yugoslavia in an attempt to get them to declare a state of emergency which would allow for the army to take control of the country. The army was seen as an arm of the Serbian government by that time so the consequence feared by the other republics was to be total Serbian domination of the union. The representatives of Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, and Vojvodina voted for the decision, while all other republics, Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, voted against. The tie delayed an escalation of conflicts, but not for long.[78]

Following the first multi-party election results, in the autumn of 1990, the republics of Slovenia and Croatia proposed transforming Yugoslavia into a loose confederation of six republics. By this proposal, republics would have right to self-determination. However Milošević rejected all such proposals, arguing that like Slovenes and Croats, the Serbs (having in mind Croatian Serbs) should also have a right to self-determination.[citation needed]

On 9 March 1991, demonstrations were held against Slobodan Milošević in Belgrade, but the police and the military were deployed in the streets to restore order, killing two people. In late March 1991, the Plitvice Lakes incident was one of the first sparks of open war in Croatia. The Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), whose superior officers were mainly of Serbian ethnicity, maintained an impression of being neutral, but as time went on, they became increasingly more involved in state politics.[citation needed]

On 25 June 1991, Slovenia and Croatia became the first republics to declare independence from Yugoslavia. The federal customs officers in Slovenia on the border crossings with Italy, Austria, and Hungary simply changed uniforms since most of them were local Slovenes. The following day (26 June), the Federal Executive Council specifically ordered the army to take control of the "internationally recognized borders", leading to the Ten-Day War. As Slovenia and Croatia fought towards independence, the Serbian and Croatian forces indulged in violent and perilous rivalry.[80]

The Yugoslav People's Army forces, based in barracks in Slovenia and Croatia, attempted to carry out the task within the next 48 hours. However, because of misinformation given to the Yugoslav Army conscripts that the Federation was under attack by foreign forces and the fact that the majority of them did not wish to engage in a war on the ground where they served their conscription, the Slovene territorial defence forces retook most of the posts within days with minimal loss of life on both sides.[citation needed]

There was, however, evidence of a suspected war crime. The Austrian ORF TV network showed footage of three Yugoslav Army soldiers surrendering to the territorial defence force when gunfire was heard and the troops were seen falling down. None were killed in the incident, yet there were numerous cases of destruction of civilian property and civilian life by the Yugoslav People's Army, including houses and a church. A civilian airport, along with a hangar and aircraft inside the hangar, was bombarded; truck drivers on the road from Ljubljana to Zagreb and Austrian journalists at the Ljubljana Airport were killed.[citation needed]

A ceasefire was eventually agreed upon. According to the Brioni Agreement, recognised by representatives of all republics, the international community pressured Slovenia and Croatia to place a three-month moratorium on their independence.[citation needed]

During these three months, the Yugoslav Army completed its pull-out from Slovenia, but in Croatia, a bloody war broke out in the autumn of 1991. Ethnic Serbs, who had created their own state Republic of Serbian Krajina in heavily Serb-populated regions resisted the police forces of the Republic of Croatia who were trying to bring that breakaway region back under Croatian jurisdiction. In some strategic places, the Yugoslav Army acted as a buffer zone; in most others it was protecting or aiding Serbs with resources and even manpower in their confrontation with the new Croatian army and their police force.[citation needed]

In September 1991, the Republic of Macedonia also declared independence, becoming the only former republic to gain sovereignty without resistance from the Belgrade-based Yugoslav authorities. 500 US soldiers were then deployed under the UN banner to monitor Macedonia's northern borders with the Republic of Serbia. Macedonia's first president, Kiro Gligorov, maintained good relations with Belgrade and the other breakaway republics and there have to date been no problems between Macedonian and Serbian border police even though small pockets of Kosovo and the Preševo valley complete the northern reaches of the historical region known as Macedonia (Prohor Pčinjski part), which would otherwise create a border dispute if ever Macedonian nationalism should resurface (see Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization). This was despite the fact that the Yugoslav Army refused to abandon its military infrastructure on the top of the Straža Mountain up to the year 2000.[citation needed]

As a result of the conflict, the United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted UN Security Council Resolution 721 on 27 November 1991, which paved the way to the establishment of peacekeeping operations in Yugoslavia.[91]

In Bosnia and Herzegovina in November 1991, the Bosnian Serbs held a referendum which resulted in an overwhelming vote in favour of forming a Serbian republic within the borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina and staying in a common state with Serbia and Montenegro. On 9 January 1992, the self-proclaimed Bosnian Serb assembly proclaimed a separate "Republic of the Serb people of Bosnia and Herzegovina". The referendum and creation of SARs were proclaimed unconstitutional by the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina and declared illegal and invalid. In February–March 1992, the government held a national referendum on Bosnian independence from Yugoslavia. That referendum was in turn declared contrary to the BiH and the Federal constitution by the federal Constitutional Court in Belgrade and the newly established Bosnian Serb government.[citation needed]

The referendum was largely boycotted by the Bosnian Serbs. The Federal court in Belgrade did not decide on the matter of the referendum of the Bosnian Serbs. The turnout was somewhere between 64 and 67% and 98% of the voters voted for independence. It was not clear what the two-thirds majority requirement actually meant and whether it was satisfied. The republic's government declared its independence on 5 April, and the Serbs immediately declared the independence of Republika Srpska. The war in Bosnia followed shortly thereafter.[citation needed]

### Timeline

[edit]

Various dates are considered the end of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia:

* 25 June 1991, when Croatia and Slovenia declared independence[92]
* 8 September 1991: following a referendum the Republic of Macedonia declared independence which was ratified by the Assembly of Macedonia on 17 September[93]
* 8 October 1991, when the 9 July moratorium on Slovene and Croatian secession ended and Croatia restated its independence in the Croatian Parliament (that day is officially considered the date of Independence)[94]
* 6 April 1992: full recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina's independence by the European Union followed by the U.S.[95]
* 27 April 1992: the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is formed[19]
* 14 December 1995: the Dayton Agreement is signed by the leaders of FR Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Croatia[96]

## New states

[edit]

### Succession, 1992–2003

[edit]

Yugoslavia at the time of its dissolution, early 1992

The state of affairs of the territory of the former Yugoslavia, 2008

As the Yugoslav Wars raged through Bosnia and Croatia, the republics of Serbia and Montenegro, which remained relatively untouched by the war, formed a rump state known as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) in 1992. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia aspired to be a sole legal successor to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, but those claims were opposed by the other former republics. The United Nations also denied its request to automatically continue the membership of the former state.[97] In 2000, Milošević was prosecuted for atrocities committed in his ten-year rule in Serbia and the Yugoslav Wars.[80] Eventually, after the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević from power as president of the federation in 2000, the country dropped those aspirations, accepted the opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Committee about shared succession, and reapplied for and gained UN membership on 2 November 2000.[14] From 1992 to 2000, some countries, including the United States, had referred to the FRY as Serbia and Montenegro[98] as they viewed its claim to Yugoslavia's successorship as illegitimate.[99] In April 2001, the five successor states extant at the time drafted an Agreement on Succession Issues of the Former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.[100][101] Marking an important transition in its history, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was officially renamed Serbia and Montenegro in 2003.[102]

According to the Succession Agreement signed in Vienna on 29 June 2001, all assets of former Yugoslavia were divided between five successor states:[101]

Name | Capital | Flag | Coat of arms | Declared date of independence  | United Nations membership[103]

|
|
|
|
|

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia[d] | Belgrade |  |  | 27 April 1992[e] | 1 November 2000[f]
Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina | Sarajevo |  |  | 3 March 1992 | 22 May 1992
Republic of Croatia | Zagreb |  |  | 25 June 1991 | 22 May 1992
Republic of Macedonia[g] | Skopje |  |  | 8 September 1991 | 8 April 1993
Republic of Slovenia | Ljubljana |  |  | 25 June 1991 | 22 May 1992

### Succession, 2006–present

[edit]

In June 2006, Montenegro became an independent nation after the results of a May 2006 referendum, therefore rendering Serbia and Montenegro no longer existent. After Montenegro's independence, Serbia became the legal successor of Serbia and Montenegro, while Montenegro re-applied for membership in international organisations. In February 2008, the Republic of Kosovo declared independence from Serbia, leading to an ongoing dispute on whether Kosovo is a legally recognised state. Republic of Kosovo is not a member of the United Nations, but a number of states, including the United States and various members of the European Union, have recognised Republic of Kosovo as a sovereign state.[104]

| Bosnia and Herzegovina | Croatia | Kosovo | Montenegro | North Macedonia | Serbia | Slovenia

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Flag  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Coat of arms  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Capital  | Sarajevo | Zagreb | Pristina | Podgorica | Skopje | Belgrade | Ljubljana
Independence  | 3 March,
1992  | 25 June,
1991  | 17 February,
2008  | 3 June,
2006  | 8 September,
1991  | 5 June,
2006  | 25 June,
1991
Population (2018)  | 3,301,779  | 4,109,669  | 1,886,259  | 622,359  | 2,068,979  | 6,988,221  | 2,086,525
Area  | 51,197 km2 | 56,594 km2 | 10,908 km2 | 13,812 km2 | 25,713 km2 | 88,361 km2 | 20,273 km2
Density  | 69/km2 | 74/km2 | 159/km2 | 45/km2 | 81/km2 | 91/km2 | 102/km2
Water area (%)  | 0.02%  | 1.1%  | 1.00%  | 2.61%  | 1.09%  | 0.13%  | 0.6%
GDP (nominal) total (2023)  | $24.531 billion  | $73.490 billion  | $9.815 billion  | $6.674 billion  | $15.024 billion  | $68.679 billion  | $65.202 billion
GDP (PPP) per capita (2023)  | $18,956  | $40,484  | $15,398  | $27,616  | $21,103  | $25,718  | $52,517
Gini Index (2018[105])  | 33.0  | 29.7  | 23.2  | 33.2  | 43.2  | 29.7  | 25.6
HDI (2021)  | 0.780 (High)  | 0.858 (Very High)  | 0.750 (High)  | 0.832 (Very High)  | 0.770 (High)  | 0.802 (Very High)  | 0.918 (Very High)
Internet TLD | .ba  | .hr  | .xk  | .me  | .mk  | .rs  | .si
Calling code | +387  | +385  | +383  | +382  | +389  | +381  | +386

### Yugo-nostalgia

[edit]

Main article: Yugo-nostalgia

Remembrance of the time of the joint state and its positive attributes is referred to as Yugo-nostalgia. Many aspects of Yugo-nostalgia refer to the socialist system and the sense of social security it provided. There are still people from the former Yugoslavia who self-identify as Yugoslavs; this identifier is commonly seen in demographics relating to ethnicity in today's independent states.[106]

## Demographics

[edit]

Main articles: Demographics of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and Demographics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

This section is missing information about overall statistics on religion, ethnicity, and language. Please expand the section by making an edit requestto include this information . Further details may exist on the talk page. (April 2022)

|

Ethnic map of Yugoslavia based on 1991 census data, published by CIA in 1992

Yugoslavia had always been a home to a very diverse population, not only in terms of national affiliation, but also religious affiliation. Of the many religions, Islam, Roman Catholicism, Judaism, and Protestantism, as well as various Eastern Orthodox faiths, composed the religions of Yugoslavia, comprising over 40 in all. The religious demographics of Yugoslavia changed dramatically since World War II. A census taken in 1921 and later in 1948 show that 99% of the population appeared to be deeply involved with their religion and practices. With postwar government programs of modernisation and urbanisation, the percentage of religious believers took a dramatic plunge. Connections between religious belief and nationality posed a serious threat to the post-war Communist government's policies on national unity and state structure.[107] Although Yugoslavia became a de facto atheist state, in contrast to other socialist states of the time, Catholic Church maintained an active role in society of Yugoslavia,[108] the Holy See normalized its relations with Yugoslavia by 1967 and worked together on stopping the Vietnam War.[109] Likewise, the Serbian Orthodox Church received favorable treatment, and Yugoslavia did not engage in anti-religious campaigns to the extent of other countries in the Eastern Bloc.[110]

After the rise of communism, a survey taken in 1964 showed that just over 70% of the total population of Yugoslavia considered themselves to be religious believers. The places of highest religious concentration were that of Kosovo with 91% and Bosnia and Herzegovina with 83.8%. The places of lowest religious concentration were Slovenia 65.4%, Serbia with 63.7% and Croatia with 63.6%. The percentage of self-declared atheists was highest among Yugoslavs by nationality at 45%, followed by Serbs at 42%.[111] Religious differences between Orthodox Serbs and Macedonians, Catholic Croats and Slovenes, and Muslim Bosniaks and Albanians alongside the rise of nationalism contributed to the collapse of Yugoslavia in 1991.[107]

The Kingdom of Yugoslavia had unitary policies, suppressed autonomy and proclaimed the official ideology to be that Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, Montenegrins, Macedonians and Slovenes were tribes of one nation of Yugoslavs (see Yugoslavism), to the heavy disagreement and resistance from Croats and other ethnic groups; this was interpreted as gradual Serbianization of Yugoslavia's non-Serb population. The ruling Communist Party of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was ideologically opposed to ethnic unitarism and royal hegemony, and instead promoted ethnic diversity and social Yugoslavism within the notion of "brotherhood and unity", while organizing the country as a federation.[112]

### Languages

[edit]

The three major languages in Yugoslavia were Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, and Macedonian.[113] Serbo-Croatian, the only language taught all across former Yugoslavia, remained the second language of many Slovenes[114] and Macedonians, especially those born during the time of Yugoslavia. After the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbo-Croatian has lost its unitary codification and its official unitary status and has since diverged into four standardized varieties of what remains one pluricentric language: Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian.[citation needed]

## See also

[edit]

* History of the Balkans

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ a b In national languages:
* Serbo-Croatian: Jugoslavija / Југославија [juɡǒslaːʋija];
* Slovene: Jugoslavija [juɡɔˈslàːʋija];
* Macedonian: Југославија [juɡɔˈsɫavija]

In regional and minority languages:
* Albanian: Jugosllavia;
* Aromanian: Iugoslavia;
* Hungarian: Jugoszlávia;
* Pannonian Rusyn: Югославия, romanized: Juhoslavija;
* Slovak: Juhoslávia;
* Romanian: Iugoslavia;
* Czech: Jugoslávie;
* Italian: Iugoslavia;
* Turkish: Yugoslavya;
* Bulgarian: Югославия, romanized: Yugoslaviya

See also: Languages of Yugoslavia.
2. ^ The Yugoslav Committee, led by Dalmatian Croat politician Ante Trumbić, lobbied the Allies to support the creation of an independent South Slavic state and delivered the proposal in the Corfu Declaration on 20 July 1917.[10]
3. ^ Consisting of constitutional lawyers Srđan Budisavljević, Ante Mandić, and Dušan Sernec [sl], a Serb, a Croat, and a Slovene, respectively.
4. ^ Later renamed to Serbia and Montenegro in 2003.
5. ^ Date of the proclamation of the FR of Yugoslavia.
6. ^ Membership succeeded by Serbia on 3 June 2006.
7. ^ Name changed to the Republic of North Macedonia in 2019 as a result of the Prespa Agreement.

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[edit]

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72. ^ "Inspirisao ih fratar". Politika ekspres. 28 September 1985.
73. ^ Karan, Ljuban (2006). Bio sam oficir KOS-a. Belgrade: Filip Višnjić, Blic. pp. 32–40.
74. ^ a b c Baten, Joerg, ed. (2016). A History of the Global Economy. Cambridge University Press. p. 64\. ISBN 978-1-1071-0470-9.
75. ^ "YUGOSLAVIA'S BALANCE OF PAYMENTS: IN THE BLACK THOUGH NOT FOR LONG" (PDF).
76. ^ Eade, Deborah (1998). From Conflict to Peace in a Changing World: Social Reconstruction in Times of Transition. Oxfam. p. 40\. ISBN 978-0-8559-8395-6.
77. ^ a b Chossudovsky, Michel (1996). "Dismantling Former Yugoslavia: Recolonising Bosnia". Economic and Political Weekly. 31 (9): 521–525\. JSTOR 4403857.
78. ^ a b c Allcock, et al. eds., Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia: An Encyclopedia (1998)[page needed]
79. ^ a b Mihailovic, Kosta; Krestić, Vasilije (1995). Pantić, Miroslav (ed.). Memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts: Answers to Criticisms (PDF). Translated by Milosavljevic, Margot; Milosavljevic, Bosko. Belgrade: Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. ISBN 978-86-7025-216-5.
80. ^ a b c d Hunt, Michael (2014). The World Transformed 1945 to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 522\. ISBN 978-0-19-937102-0.
81. ^ Roberts, Elizabeth (2007). Realm of the Black Mountain: A History of Montenegro. Cornell University Press. p. 432\. ISBN 9780801446016.
82. ^ Djokić, Dejan (2023). A Concise History of Serbia. Cambridge University Press. p. 461\. ISBN 9781009308656.
83. ^ Howe, Marvin (12 July 1982). "Exodus of Serbians Stirs Province in Yugoslavia". The New York Times.
84. ^ Kingsbury, Damien (2021). Separatism and the State. Taylor & Francis. p. 84\. ISBN 9781000368703.
85. ^ Tomasz Kamusella. 2019. Ethnic Cleansing During the Cold War The Forgotten 1989 Expulsion of Turks from Communist Bulgaria. London: Routledge (p. iii 'Faltering Yugoslavia’s future ethnic cleansers took a good note that neither Moscow nor Washington intervened in neighboring Bulgaria to stop the 1989 expulsion, which in light of international law was then still the legal instrument of ‘population transfer.’') and (p. xvii 'In Yugoslavia future ethnic cleansers and genocidaires clearly knew of the events that unfolded in neighboring communist Bulgaria. If Zhivkov was allowed to do as he pleased with Bulgaria’s Turks and Muslims, why would they not, too? Expelling Albanians, Croats, Muslims (or today’s Bosniaks), or Serbs was just another legal population transfer, was it not? Somehow, the West had a change of heart in this respect during the mid-1990s. In 1995 NATO intervened in Bosnia to prevent any further expulsions and four years later NATO struck in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (that is, Serbia-Montenegro) in order to reverse the expulsion of Albanians from Kosovo. In the process, between 1993 and 1995 the previously legal instrument of population transfer was redefined as a crime against humanity under the novel name of ‘ethnic cleansing.’')
86. ^ Meier, Viktor (1999). Yugoslavia: a history of its demise. Routledge. pp. 84–85\. ISBN 9780415185967.
87. ^ Borgeryd, Anna J. (1999). Managing Intercollective Conflict: Prevailing Structures and Global Challenges. Universal-Publishers. p. 213\. ISBN 9781581120431.
88. ^ Athanasiou, Athena (2017). Agonistic Mourning: Political Dissidence and the Women in Black. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9781474420174.
89. ^ Moore, Adam (2013). Peacebuilding in Practice: Local Experience in Two Bosnian Towns. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801469558.
90. ^ Lukic, Renéo; Lynch, Allen (1996). Europe from the Balkans to the Urals: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. SIPRI. p. 277\. ISBN 9780198292005.
91. ^ "Resolution 721". N.A.T.O. 25 September 1991. Archived from the original on 29 June 2006. Retrieved 21 July 2006.
92. ^ Meier, Viktor (2005). Yugoslavia: A History of its Demise. Routledge. p. xiv. ISBN 978-1-1346-6510-5.
93. ^ Vidmar, Jure (2013). Democratic Statehood in International Law: The Emergence of New States in Post-Cold War Practice. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 98\. ISBN 978-1-7822-5090-6.
94. ^ Stelkens, Ulrich; Andrijauskaitė, Agnė, eds. (2020). Good Administration and the Council of Europe: Law, Principles, and Effectiveness. Oxford University Press. p. 689\. ISBN 978-0-1988-6153-9.
95. ^ Calic, Marie-Janine (2013). Ingrao, Charles W.; Emmert, Thomas Allan (eds.). Confronting the Yugoslav Controversies: A Scholars' Initiative. Purdue University Press. p. 124\. ISBN 978-1-5575-3617-4.
96. ^ Whitney, Craig R. (15 December 1995). "BALKAN ACCORD: THE OVERVIEW;Balkan Foes Sign Peace Pact, Dividing An Unpacified Bosnia". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
97. ^ "Participation of Former Yugoslav States in the United Nations" (PDF). Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law. pp. 241–243\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 June 2010.
98. ^ 1999 CIA World Factbook: Serbia and Montenegro Archived 17 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
99. ^ "CIA – The World Factbook 1999 – Serbia and Montenegro". 16 August 2000. Archived from the original on 16 August 2000. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
100. ^ "Yugoslav Agreement on Succession Issues (2001)". Archived from the original on 26 May 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
101. ^ a b Arthur, Watts (2002). "Agreement on Succession Issues Between the Five Successor States of the Former State of Yugoslavia". International Legal Materials. 41 (1): 3–36\. doi:10.1017/s0020782900009141. JSTOR 20694208. S2CID 165064837.
102. ^ "Name Change of Yugoslavia to Serbia and Montenegro". Federal Register. National Archives & Records Administration of the United States Government. 22 January 2004. Retrieved 27 March 2025.
103. ^ "Member States". United Nations. Archived from the original on 27 June 2017. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
104. ^ "U.S. and most of the EU recognize Kosovo". The New York Times. 18 February 2008. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
105. ^ GINI index
106. ^ The Republic of Serbia, Statistical Office (12 October 2011). "Census 2011". Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. Archived from the original on 29 August 2023. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
107. ^ a b "Yugoslavia – Religious Demographics". Atheism.about.com. 16 December 2009. Archived from the original on 24 April 2013. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
108. ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin; Milic Lochman, Jan; Bromiley, Geoffrey William; Mbiti, John; Pelikan, Jaroslav; Vischer, Lukas, eds. (2008). "Evangelisches Kirchenlexikon". The Encyclodedia of Christianity. Vol. 5\. Translated by Bromiley, Geoffrey William. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 513\. ISBN 9780802824172. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
109. ^ Klasić, Hrvoje (11 January 2018). "DETALJI NEOČEKIVANE SURADNJE DVIJU SUPROTSTAVLJENIH STRANA Kako su Tito i Sveta Stolica došli na ideju da zajedno pokušaju zaustaviti rat u Vijetnamu". Jutarnji list. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
110. ^ Tomka, Miklós (2011). Expanding Religion: Religious Revival in Post-communist Central and Eastern Europe. Walter de Gruyter. p. 44\. ISBN 9783110228151.
111. ^ Perica, Vjekoslav (2002). "8. Flames and Shrines: The Serbian Church and Serbian Nationalist Movement in the 1980s". Balkan Idols: Religion and Nationalism in Yugoslav States. Oxford University Press. p. 132\. doi:10.1093/0195148568.001.0001. ISBN 0-19-517429-1.
112. ^ Bougarel, Xavier (2003). "Bosnian Muslims and the Yugoslav Idea". In Djokić, Dejan (ed.). Yugoslavism: Histories of a Failed Idea, 1918-1992. London: C. Hurst & Co. pp. 100–114\. ISBN 1-85065-663-0.
113. ^ Magner, Thomas (Fall 1967). "Language and Nationalism in Yugoslavia". Canadian Slavic Studies. 1 (3): 333–347.
114. ^ Törnquist-Plewa, Barbara (2002). Resic, Sanimir (ed.). The Balkans in Focus: Cultural Boundaries in Europe. Lund, Sweden: Nordic Academic Press. p. 198\. ISBN 9789187121708. OCLC 802047788.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Allcock, John B. Explaining Yugoslavia (Columbia University Press, 2000)
* Allcock, John B. et al. eds. Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia: An Encyclopedia (1998)
* Bezdrob, Anne Marie du Preez. Sarajevo Roses: War Memoirs of a Peacekeeper. Oshun, 2002. ISBN 1-77007-031-1
* Bataković, Dušan T., ed. (2005). Histoire du peuple serbe [History of the Serbian People] (in French). Lausanne: L’Age d’Homme. ISBN 9782825119587.
* Chan, Adrian. Free to Choose: A Teacher's Resource and Activity Guide to Revolution and Reform in Eastern Europe. Stanford, CA: SPICE, 1991. ED 351 248
* Cigar, Norman. Genocide in Bosnia: The Policy of Ethnic-Cleansing. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1995
* Cohen, Lenard J. Broken Bonds: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993
* Conversi, Daniele: German -Bashing and the Breakup of Yugoslavia, The Donald W. Treadgold Papers in Russian, East European and Central Asian Studies, no. 16, March 1998 (University of Washington: HMJ School of International Studies)
* Djilas, Milovan. Land without Justice, [with] introd. and notes by William Jovanovich. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1958.
* Dragnich, Alex N. Serbs and Croats. The Struggle in Yugoslavia. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1992
* Fisher, Sharon. Political Change in Post-Communist Slovakia and Croatia: From Nationalist to Europeanist. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006 ISBN 1-4039-7286-9
* Glenny, Mischa. The Balkans: Nationalism, War and the Great Powers, 1804–1999 (London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2000)
* Glenny, Mischa. The fall of Yugoslavia: The Third Balkan War, ISBN 0-14-026101-X
* Gutman, Roy. A Witness to Genocide. The 1993 Pulitzer Prize-winning Dispatches on the "Ethnic Cleansing" of Bosnia. New York: Macmillan, 1993
* Hall, Richard C., ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014) excerpt
* Hall, Brian. The Impossible Country: A Journey Through the Last Days of Yugoslavia (Penguin Books. New York, 1994)
* Hayden, Robert M.: Blueprints for a House Divided: The Constitutional Logic of the Yugoslav Conflicts. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000
* Hoare, Marko A., A History of Bosnia: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day. London: Saqi, 2007
* Hornyak, Arpad. Hungarian-Yugoslav Diplomatic Relations, 1918–1927 (East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press; 2013) 426 pages
* Jelavich, Barbara: History of the Balkans: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, Volume 1. New York: American Council of Learned Societies, 1983 ED 236 093
* Jelavich, Barbara: History of the Balkans: Twentieth Century, Volume 2. New York: American Council of Learned Societies, 1983. ED 236 094
* Kohlmann, Evan F.: Al-Qaida's Jihad in Europe: The Afghan-Bosnian Network Berg, New York 2004, ISBN 1-85973-802-8; ISBN 1-85973-807-9
* Malesevic, Sinisa: Ideology, Legitimacy and the New State: Yugoslavia, Serbia and Croatia. London: Routledge, 2002.
* Owen, David. Balkan Odyssey Harcourt (Harvest Book), 1997
* Pavlowitch, Stevan K. The improbable survivor: Yugoslavia and its problems, 1918–1988 (1988). online free to borrow
* Pavlowitch, Stevan K. Tito—Yugoslavia's great dictator : a reassessment (1992) online free to borrow
* Pavlowitch, Steven. Hitler's New Disorder: The Second World War in Yugoslavia (2008) excerpt and text search
* Ramet, Sabrina P. (2006). The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918–2005. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34656-8.
* Roberts, Walter R.: Tito, Mihailovic, and the Allies: 1941–1945. Duke University Press, 1987; ISBN 0-8223-0773-1.
* Sacco, Joe: Safe Area Gorazde: The War in Eastern Bosnia 1992–1995. Fantagraphics Books, January 2002
* Silber, Laura and Allan Little:Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation. New York: Penguin Books, 1997
* "New Power" at Time magazine (reprinted from 4 December 1944)
* West, Rebecca: Black Lamb and Gray Falcon: A Journey Through Yugoslavia. Viking, 1941

### Historiography and memory

[edit]

* Antolovi, Michael. "Writing History under the 'Dictatorship of the Proletariat': Yugoslav Historiography 1945–1991." Revista de História das Ideias 39 (2021): 49–73. online
* Banac, Ivo. "Yugoslavia."  American Historical Review 97.4 (1992): 1084–1104. online
* Banac, Ivo. "The dissolution of Yugoslav historiography." in Beyond Yugoslavia (Routledge, 2019) pp. 39–65. [1]
* Beloff, Nora (1986). Tito's Flawed Legacy: Yugoslavia and the West Since 1939. Westview Pr. ISBN 978-0-8133-0322-2. online
* Brunnbauer, Ulf. "Serving the Nation: Historiography in the Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) After Socialism." Historein 4 (2003): 161–182. online
* Carter, April (1989). Marshal Tito: A Bibliography. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-28087-0.
* Cicic, Ana. "Yugoslavia Revisited: Contested Histories through Public Memories of President Tito." (2020). online
* Cosovschi, Agustin. "Seeing and Imagining the Land of Tito: Oscar Waiss and the Geography of Socialist Yugoslavia." Balkanologie. Revue d'études pluridisciplinaires 17.1 (2022). online
* Dimić, Ljubodrag. "Historiography on the Cold War in Yugoslavia: from ideology to science." Cold War History 8.2 (2008): 285–297. https://doi.org/10.1080/14682740802018835
* Foster, Samuel. Yugoslavia in the British imagination: Peace, war and peasants before Tito (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2021) online. See also online book review
* Hoepken, Wolfgang. "War, memory, and education in a fragmented society: The case of Yugoslavia." East European Politics and Societies 13.1 (1998): 190–227. online
* Juhász, József. "Paradigms and narratives in the historiography on the disintegration of Yugoslavia." Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe (2023): 1–12. online
* Karge, Heike. "Mediated remembrance: local practices of remembering the Second World War in Tito's Yugoslavia." European Review of History—Revue européenne d'histoire 16.1 (2009): 49–62. [2]
* Kevo, Tomislav. "The Image of Socialist Yugoslavia in Croatian Historiography." (2013). online Archived 23 December 2023 at the Wayback Machine
* Lampe, John R: Yugoslavia As History: Twice There Was a Country (1996) ISBN 0-521-46705-5
* Perović, Jeronim. "The Tito-Stalin split: a reassessment in light of new evidence." Journal of Cold War Studies 9.2 (2007): 32–63. online
* Sindbæk, Tea. "The fall and rise of a national hero: interpretations of Draža Mihailović and the Chetniks in Yugoslavia and Serbia since 1945." Journal of contemporary European studies 17.1 (2009): 47–59. online
* Sindbæk, Tea. "World War II genocides in Yugoslav historiography." (2006). online[permanent dead link]
* Stallaerts, Robert. "Historiography in the Former and New Yugoslavia." Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis 3 (1999): 4+ online.
* Tromp, Nevanka. "Ongoing Disintegration of Yugoslavia: historiography of the conflict that won't go away." Leidschrift 36.november: 30 jaar postcommunisme. Op zoek naar een nieuw evenwicht (2021): 31–48. [3][permanent dead link]
* Trošt, Tamara P. "The image of Josip Broz Tito in post-Yugoslavia: Between national and local memory." in Ruler Personality Cults from Empires to Nation-States and Beyond (Routledge, 2020) pp. 143–162. online

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Yugoslavia.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Yugoslavia.

Look up Yugoslavia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikisource has the text of the 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Yugoslavia".

* Wikimedia Atlas of Yugoslavia
* Maps
* Milivoy S. Stanoyevich (1920). "Jugoslavia" . Encyclopedia Americana.
* The First Yugoslavia: Search for a Viable Political System, by Alex N. Dragnich
* European University Institute Yugoslavia
* "Yugoslavia: the outworn structure"—CIA report from November 1970
* Timeline: Break-up of Yugoslavia at BBC News
* Teaching about Conflict and Crisis in the Former Yugoslavia Archived 2 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine
* Video on the Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
* The collapse of communist Yugoslavia

* v
* t
* e

Yugoslavia articles

History|

* Timeline
* Creation
* Kingdom
* 6 January Dictatorship
* Yugoslav regency
* World War II
* Invasion
* Partisans
* Chetniks
* Ustaše
* Belgrade offensive
* SFR Yugoslavia
* Tito–Stalin split
* Informbiro period
* Balkan Pact
* FR Yugoslavia
* Kosovo War
* Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević
* Yugoslavism
* Yugoslav irredentism
* Yugoslav Committee
* Yugo-nostalgia

Breakup|

* v
* t
* e

Breakup of Yugoslavia

Overview|

* Breakup of Yugoslavia (1991–1992)
* Timeline of the breakup of Yugoslavia (1980–2008)

Background|

* Josip Broz Tito (until 1980)
* Brotherhood and unity (until 1990)
* League of Communists of Yugoslavia (until 1990)
* Croatian Spring (1967–1971)
* Islamic Declaration (1970)
* Protests in Kosovo (1981)
* Sarajevo Process (1983)
* SANU Memorandum (1986)
* Contributions to the Slovene National Program (1987)
* Slovene Spring (1987–1988)
* Agrokomerc Affair (1987)
* 8th session of the Central Committee of the League of Communists of Serbia (1987)
* JBTZ trial (1988)
* Neum Affair [bs] (1988–1989)
* Hyperinflation in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1980s)

Events and actors|

* Anti-bureaucratic revolution (1988–1989)
* Gazimestan speech (1989)
* 14th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia (1990)
* Independence of Croatia (1989–1992)
* Log Revolution (1990–1991)
* Milošević–Tuđman Karađorđevo meeting (1991)
* RAM Plan (1991)
* Brioni Agreement (1991)
* Role of the media in the breakup of Yugoslavia
* Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia (1991–1993)

* v
* t
* e

Independence referendums in Yugoslavia

Republics and provinces|

* Slovenia (1990)
* Croatia (1991)
* Macedonia (1991)
* Kosovo (1991)
* Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992)
* Montenegro (1992)
* Montenegro (2006)

Autonomy|

* Krajina (1990)
* Sandžak (1991)
* Srpska (1991)
* Ilirida (1992)
* Eastern Slavonia (1997)
* Macedonia (2004)

Consequences|

* Yugoslav Wars (1991-2001)
* Ethnic cleansing
* Croatian War of Independence (1991–1995)
* Ten-Day War (1991)
* Bosnian War (1992–1995)
* Croat–Bosniak War (1992–1994)
* Intra-Bosnian Muslim War (1993–1995)
* Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1992–2003)
* Graz agreement (1992)
* International sanctions against Serbia and Montenegro (1992–2001)
* Hyperinflation in Serbia and Montenegro (1992–1994)
* Washington Agreement (1994)
* Dayton Agreement (1996)
* Joint Criminal Enterprise
* Agreement on Sub-Regional Arms Control (1996)
* International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (1993–2017)
* Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević (2000)

Nationalism|

* Greater Albania
* Greater Bosnia
* Greater Croatia
* United Macedonia
* Greater Serbia
* United Slovenia
* Anti-Serbian sentiment
* Anti-Croat sentiment
* Islamophobia
* Albanian nationalism
* Bosniak nationalism
* Croatian nationalism
* Macedonian nationalism
* Montenegrin nationalism
* Serbian nationalism
* Serbian–Montenegrin unionism
* Slovenian nationalism
* Yugoslavism

* Category

Politics|

* Administrative divisions
* Kingdom
* Constitution
* 1921
* 1931
* 1946
* 1953
* 1963
* 1974
* Elections
* Federal Executive Council
* Prime Minister
* Deputy Prime Minister
* Foreign relations
* UN
* NAM
* OAU
* EEC
* Passport
* Governments
* Heads of state
* Deputy heads of state
* Presidency
* members
* Human rights
* LGBT
* Parliament
* Titoism
* Đilasism
* Rankovićism
* Political parties
* League of Communists
* Security
* counterintelligence

Military|

* History
* Army
* 1918-1945
* 1945-1992
* Ground
* Navy
* 1918-1945
* 1945-1992
* Air Force
* 1918-1945
* 1945-1992
* Ranks
* 1918-1945
* 1945-1992
* Marshal
* Territorial Defense

Economy|

* Agriculture
* Computer systems
* list
* Dinar (currency)
* Energy
* Industry
* Krone (currency)
* Mining
* National Bank
* governors
* Postal codes
* Services
* Stock Exchange
* Telecommunications
* Internet domain
* Telephone numbers
* Tourism
* Transport
* Railways
* List of companies

Society|

* Demographics
* Kingdom
* SFRY
* Education
* Ethnic groups
* Healthcare
* Minorities
* Public holidays
* Yugoslavs
* in Serbia
* in Canada
* in the United States

Languages|

* Macedonian
* Serbo-Croatian
* Bosnian
* Croatian
* Montenegrin
* Serbian
* Slovene

Culture|

* Yugoslav studies
* Academy
* Architecture
* Art
* Cinema
* films
* Drama
* Encyclopedia of Yugoslavia
* Folklore
* Music
* composers
* National costume
* Philosophy
* Religion
* Sport
* football
* Yugoslav Radio Television

| Cuisine|

* Bosnian
* Croatian
* wine
* Macedonian
* wine
* Montenegrin
* wine
* Serbian
* wine
* Slovenian
* wine
* Kosovan
* Balkan
* Central European
* Mediterranean

|

Literature|

* Bosnian
* Croatian
* Kosovan
* Macedonian
* Montenegrin
* Serbian
* Slovene
* Poets

Symbols|

* Anthem (1918-1945
* 1945-1992)
* Emblem
* republics
* Flag of Yugoslavia
* list
* Motto
* Orders, decorations, and medals of SFR Yugoslavia

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Timeline of Yugoslav statehood

| Region  | until
1918 | 1918–
1929 | 1929–
1945 | 1941–
1945 | 1945–
1946 | 1946–
1963 | 1963–
1992 | 1992–
2003 | 2003–
2006 | 2006–
2008 | since
2008

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Slovenia |

Part of

Austria-Hungary

including the
Bay of Kotor

See also:

Kingdom of
Croatia-Slavonia
(1868–1918)

Kingdom of Dalmatia
(1815–1918)

Condominium of
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
(1878–1918)

State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
(1918)

Kingdom of Serbs,
Croats and Slovenes
(1918–1929)

Kingdom of Yugoslavia
(1929–1943)

See also:

Republic of Prekmurje
(1919)

Banat, Bačka and Baranja
(1918–1919)

Free State of Fiume
(1920–1924)
(1924–1945)

Italian province of Zadar
(1920–1947)

| Annexed by
Italy, Germany, and Hungarya |
Democratic Federal Yugoslavia
(1943–1945)

Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia
(1945–1963)

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(1963–1992)

Consisted of the
Socialist Republics of:

Slovenia (1945–1991)
Croatia (1945–1991)
Bosnia and Herzegovina (1945–1992)

Serbia (1945–1992)
(included the autonomous
provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo)

Montenegro (1945–1992)
Macedonia (1945–1991)

See also:

Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954)h

|  Republic of Slovenia
Ten-Day War
Dalmatia |

Independent State of Croatia
(1941–1945)

Puppet state of Germany.
Parts annexed by Italy.
Međimurje and Baranja annexed by Hungary.

|  Republic of Croatiab
Croatian War of Independence
Slavonia
Croatia
Bosnia |  Bosnia and Herzegovinac
Bosnian War

Consists of the
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (since 1995),
Republika Srpska (since 1995), and
Brčko District (since 2000).

Herzegovina
Vojvodina | Part of the Délvidék region of Hungary  | Autonomous Banatd

(part of the German
Territory of the
Military Commander
in Serbia)

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

Consisted of the
Republic of Serbia (1992–2006)
and
Republic of Montenegro (1992–2006) Included Kosovo and Metohija, under UN administration, without control since 1999

State Union of Serbia and Montenegro

Included Kosovo, under UN administration

|  Republic of Serbia

Included the autonomous provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo and Metohija under UN administration

Republic of Serbia

Includes the autonomous province of Vojvodina; Kosovo claim

Central Serbia |
Kingdom of Serbia
(1882–1918) | Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia
(1941–1944) e
Kosovo | Part of the Kingdom of Serbia
(1912–1918) | Mostly annexed by Italian Albania
(1941–1944)

along with western Macedonia and south-eastern Montenegro

|  Republic of Kosovo
Metohija |
Kingdom of Montenegro
(1910–1918)

Metohija controlled by Austria-Hungary 1915–1918

Montenegro and Brda | Protectorate of Montenegrof
(1941–1944) |  Montenegro
Vardar Macedonia | Part of the Kingdom of Serbia
(1912–1918) | Annexed by the Kingdom of Bulgaria
(1941–1944) |  Republic of North Macedoniag

* a Prekmurje annexed by Hungary.
* b See also: SAO Kninska Krajina (1990) → SAO Krajina (1990–1991); and SAO Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia (1990–1991), SAO Western Slavonia (1990–1991) and the Republic of Serbian Krajina (1990–1995), all replaced by the UN Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium (1996–1998).
* c See also: Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina; Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia; and the Serbian Autonomous Oblasts (SAOs) of Bosanska Krajina, North-East Bosnia, Romanija and Herzegovina (1991–1992), which all combined to form the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–1995).
* d Bačka was reannexed by Hungary (1941–1944), while Syrmia was annexed by the Independent State of Croatia (1941–1944).
* e Including North Kosovo. See also: Republic of Užice.
* f Annexed by Italy (1941–1943) and Germany (1943–1944). Smaller part annexed by the Independent State of Croatia (1941–1944).
* g North Macedonia's official and constitutional name was the Republic of Macedonia until 2019. It was known in the United Nations as the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia because of a naming dispute with Greece.
* h Free Territory was established in 1947. Its administration was divided into two areas (Zone A) and (Zone B). Free Territory was de facto taken over by Italy and SFRY in 1954.

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44°49′N 20°27′E﻿ / ﻿44.817°N 20.450°E﻿ / 44.817; 20.450
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