Zirid dynasty

Sanhaja Berber dynasty

For the related dynasty that ruled Granada, see Taifa of Granada.

Zirid dynasty

الزيريون

972–1148

Maximum extent of Zirid control c. 980

Status| Vassal state of the Fatimid Caliphate
(972–c. 1048)
Nominal vassal of the Abbasid Caliphate
(c. 1048–1148)
Capital| 'Ashir
(936–1014)
al-Mansuriyya
(972–1057)
Mahdia
(1057–1148)[1][2][3][4]
Common languages| Berber (primary), Maghrebi Arabic, African Latin, Hebrew
Religion

| Islam (Shia Islam, Sunni, Ibadi), Christianity (Roman Catholicism), Judaism
Government| Monarchy (Emirate)
Emir|

• 973–984

| Buluggin ibn Ziri

• 1121–1148

| Al-Hassan ibn Ali
History|

• Established

| 972

• Disestablished

| 1148
Currency| Dinar

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | Fatimid Caliphate

|

| Hammadid dynasty |

|

Kingdom of Africa |
Khurasanid dynasty |
Banu Khazrun |

Part of a series on the

History of Algeria

Prehistory

* Aterian Culture (80,000 BC)
* Iberomaurusian Culture (20,000 BC)
* Capsian culture (10,000 BC)
* Rock art in Oran, Djelfa, Tassili and Ahaggar

* Roknia
* Madghacen
* Jedars

* Related: Archeology of Algeria

Antiquity

* Phoenicia
* Ancient Carthage
* Numidia (202–46 BC)
* Punic Wars (264–146 BC)
* Jugurthine War (111–106 BC)
* Roman Mauretania and Africa (146 BC–590 AD)
* Vandal Kingdom (435–534 AD)
* Mauro-Roman Kingdom (477–578 AD)
* Kingdom of the Aurès (484–703 AD)
* Kingdom of Altava (578–708 AD)
* Prefecture of Africa (534–585 AD)
* Exarchate of Africa (585–698 AD)

* Early African Church
* Partenia
* Fossatum Africae
* Gemellae

Middle Ages

* Arab conquest (647–709 AD)
* Umayyad Caliphate (703–744 AD)
* Ifranids (742–1066 AD)
* Muhallabids (771–793 AD)
* Rustamids (776–909 AD)
* Idrisids (789–828 AD)
* Aghlabids (800–909 AD)
* Fatimids (909–1171 AD)
* Maghrawas (970–1068 AD)
* Zirids (973–1152 AD)
* Hammadids (1014–1152 AD)
* Almoravids (1040–1147 AD)
* Almohads (1121–1269 AD)
* Marinids (1215–1465 AD)
* Hafsids (1229–1574 AD)
* Ziyyanids (1235–1556 AD)

Modern times

Regency of Algiers (16th–19th centuries)

* Ottoman governors

* Emirate of Beni Abbas
* Emirate of Kuku

* Barbary pirates
* Barbary Slave Trade

* First Barbary War
* Second Barbary War

French Algeria (19th–20th centuries)

* French conquest
* French governors

* Resistance
* Pacification

* Emir Abdelkader
* Fatma N'Soumer
* Mokrani Revolt
* Cheikh Bouamama

* Attack on Mers-el-Kébir
* Operation Torch
* Sétif and Guelma massacre

Algerian War (1954–1962)

* Nationalism
* RCUA
* FLN
* GPRA
* 1958 crisis
* 1961 putsch
* Évian Accords
* Independence referendum

* Pied-Noir
* Harkis
* Oujda Group

Contemporary era

1960s–80s

* FFS rebellion
* 1965 coup d'état

* Berber Spring
* 1988 riots

1990s–2000s

* Algerian Civil War
* Timeline
* Massacres

* FIS
* GIA
* High Council of State
* Civil Concord
* Black Spring
* Peace Charter
* Insurgency in the Maghreb

2010s to present

* Arab Spring
* Hirak Movement
* COVID-19 pandemic

Related topics

* Outline of Algeria
* Military history of Algeria
(List of wars involving Algeria)
* Postal history of Algeria
(List of people on stamps of Algeria)
* History of North Africa

* v
* t
* e

Part of a series on the

History of Tunisia

Prehistoric

| Prehistory|

|

Ancient

|  Carthage| 12th C.-146 BC

|

1st Roman (Province)| 146 BC-435
Vandal| 435-534
2nd Roman (Byzantine) / Byzantine North Africa| 534-698
Prefecture| 534-590
Exarchate| 590-698

Early Islamic

|  Umayyad| 698-750

|

Abbasid| 750-800
Aghlabid| 800-909
Fatimid| 909-973

Medieval

|  Zirid| 973-1148

|

Norman| 1148-1160
Almohad| 1160-1229
Hafsid| 1229-1574

Early modern

|  Ottoman|  1574-1705

|

Husainid|  1705-1881

Modern

|  French Tunisia|  1881-1956

|

Kingdom of Tunisia|  1956-1957
Bourguiba rule|  1957-1987
Ben Ali coup|  1987
Ben Ali rule|  1987-2011
Tunisian Revolution|  2011
Parliamentary system|  2011-present

Africa portal • History portal

* v
* t
* e

The Zirid dynasty (Arabic: الزيريون, romanized: az-zīriyyūn), Banu Ziri (Arabic: بنو زيري, romanized: banū zīrī), was a Sanhaja Berber dynasty from what is now Algeria which ruled the central Maghreb from 972 to 1014 and Ifriqiya (eastern Maghreb) from 972 to 1148.[2][5]

Descendants of Ziri ibn Manad, a military leader of the Fatimid Caliphate and the eponymous founder of the dynasty, the Zirids were emirs who ruled in the name of the Fatimids. The Zirids gradually established their autonomy in Ifriqiya through military conquest until officially breaking with the Fatimids in the mid-11th century. The rule of the Zirid emirs opened the way to a period in North African history where political power was held by Berber dynasties such as the Almoravid dynasty, Almohad Caliphate, Zayyanid dynasty, Marinid Sultanate and Hafsid dynasty.[6]

Under Buluggin ibn Ziri the Zirids extended their control westwards and briefly occupied Fez and much of present-day Morocco after 980, but encountered resistance from the local Zenata Berbers who gave their allegiance to the Caliphate of Cordoba.[4][7][8][9] To the east, Zirid control was extended over Tripolitania after 978[10] and as far as Ajdabiya (in present-day Libya).[11] One member of the dynastic family, Zawi ibn Ziri, revolted and fled to al-Andalus, eventually founding the Taifa of Granada in 1013, after the collapse of the Caliphate of Cordoba.[12] Another branch of the Zirids, the Hammadids, broke away from the main branch after various internal disputes and took control of the territories of the central Maghreb after 1015.[13] The main branch of the Zirids, also called the Badisides,[14] occupied only Ifriqiya between 1048 and 1148.[3] They were based in Kairouan until 1057, when they moved the capital to Mahdia on the coast.[15] The Zirids of Ifriqiya also intervened in Sicily during the 11th century, as the Kalbids, the dynasty who governed the island on behalf of the Fatimids, fell into disorder.[16]

The Zirids of Granada surrendered to the Almoravids in 1090,[17] but the Badicides and the Hammadids remained independent during this time. Sometime between 1041 and 1051 the Zirid ruler al-Mu'izz ibn Badis renounced the Fatimid Caliphs and recognized the Sunni Muslim Abbasid Caliphate.[18] In retaliation, the Fatimids instigated the migration of the Banu Hilal tribe to the Maghreb, dealing a serious blow to Zirid power in Ifriqiya.[19][20] In the 12th century, the Hilalian invasions combined with the attacks of the Normans of Sicily along the coast further weakened Zirid power. The last Zirid ruler, al-Hasan, surrendered Mahdia to the Normans in 1148, thus ending independent Zirid rule.[20] The Almohad Caliphate conquered the central Maghreb and Ifriqiya by 1160, ending the Hammadid dynasty in turn and finally unifying the whole of the Maghreb.[7][21]

## History[edit]

### Origins and establishment[edit]

The Zirids were Sanhaja Berbers, from the sedentary Talkata tribe,[22][23] originating from the area of modern Algeria. In the 10th century this tribe served as vassals of the Fatimid Caliphate, an Isma'ili Shi'a state that challenged the authority of the Sunni Abbasid caliphs. The progenitor of the Zirid dynasty, Ziri ibn Manad (r. 935–971) was installed as governor of the central Maghreb (roughly north-eastern Algeria today) on behalf of the Fatimids, guarding the western frontier of the Fatimid Caliphate.[24][25]

With Fatimid support Ziri founded his own capital and palace at 'Ashir, south-east of Algiers, in 936.[26][27][28] He proved his worth as a key ally in 945, during the Kharijite rebellion of Abu Yazid, when he helped break Abu Yazid's siege of the Fatimid capital, Mahdia.[13][29] After playing this valuable role, he expanded 'Ashir with a new palace circa 947.[26][30] In 959 he aided Jawhar al-Siqili on a Fatimid military expedition which successfully conquered Fez and Sijilmasa in present-day Morocco. On their return home to the Fatimid capital they paraded the emir of Fez and the "Caliph" Ibn Wasul of Sijilmasa in cages in a humiliating manner.[31][32][33] After this success, Ziri was also given Tahart to govern on behalf of the Fatimids.[34] He was eventually killed in battle against the Zanata in 971.[27][35]

When the Fatimids moved their capital to Egypt in 972, Ziri's son Buluggin ibn Ziri (r. 971–984) was appointed viceroy of Ifriqiya, spawning a dynasty whose rulers held the title of amir.[10] Buluggin's position was confirmed on 2 October 972 at Sardaniya, a place outside Kairouan where the Fatimid caliph al-Mu'izz was preparing for his departure to Egypt.[36] On 20 December 972, Buluggin took up residence in Sabra al-Mansuriyya, the Fatimid caliph's former palace-city just outside the walls of Kairouan, where his successors continued to reside until the mid-11th century.[37][38] Buluggin spent much of his time in the west, however. From 974 onward he entrusted the governance of Ifriqiya to Abd Allah ibn Muhammad al-Katib, a secretary with whom he replaced the Fatimid-appointed secretary, Ziyadat Allah.[39][40] In 974 or 977–978 (364 or 367 AH), he founded another capital and palace complex in Ashir, next to his father's foundation,[41][26] which he favoured over Kairouan.[41][39] Ashir continued to be the capital of the Zirids in the central Maghreb, while Kairouan was the capital of Ifriqiya.[26][39][42]

Buluggin soon led a new expedition west and by 980 he had conquered Fez and most of the western Maghreb (present-day Morocco), which had previously been retaken by the Umayyads of Cordoba in 973.[43][44] He also led a successful expedition to Barghawata territory, from which he brought back a large number of slaves to Ifriqiya.[45] In 978 the Fatimids also granted Buluggin overlordship of Tripolitania (in present-day Libya), allowing him to appoint his own governor in Tripoli. In 984 Buluggin died in Sijilmasa from an illness and his successor decided to abandon Morocco in 985.[46][47][20]

### Buluggin's successors and the first divisions[edit]

After Buluggin's death, he was succeeded by his son Al-Mansur ibn Buluggin (r. 984–996). After his departure to the west in 979, Bulugin had not returned to Kairouan and during this time his appointee, Abd Allah ibn Muhammad al-Katib, had amassed considerable power and influence in Ifriqiya. As a result, al-Mansur became involved in a confrontation with Abd Allah starting in 987. Later Zirid sources portray Abd Allah as a rebel who was aided by the Fatimid Caliphs, because the latter now preferred him over al-Mansur and wished to impose a new arrangement in Ifriqiya.[48] In the end, al-Mansur ordered the successful assassination of Abd Allah and his son. In 989–990 he also suppressed a revolt by the Kutama, the traditional source of the Fatimid army, under the leadership of a pretender named Abu'l-Faraj. Following these challenges, al-Mansur was finally able to reunify the Zirid realm, but he was obliged to move his principal residence from 'Ashir to al-Mansuriyya (Kairouan) in 991, leaving his brother Yattufat to govern 'Ashir.[49]

With al-Mansur's succession, the rule of the Zirid was now being passed on through the son of Buluggin and his descendants. This alienated the other sons of Ziri ibn Manad, who now found themselves excluded from power. In 999 many of these brothers launched a rebellion in 'Ashir against Badis ibn al-Mansur (r. 996–1016), Buluggin's grandson, marking the first serious break in the unity of the Zirids.[50] The rebels were defeated in battle by Hammad ibn Buluggin, Badis' uncle, and most of the brothers were killed. The only remaining brother of stature, Zawi ibn Ziri, led the remaining rebels westwards and sought new opportunity in al-Andalus under the Umayyads Caliphs of Cordoba, the former enemies of the Fatimids and Zirids.[50][51] He and his followers eventually founded an independent kingdom in al-Andalus, the Taifa of Granada, in 1013.[12][52]

After 1001 Tripolitania broke away under the leadership of Fulful ibn Sa'id ibn Khazrun, a Maghrawa leader who founded the Banu Khazrun dynasty, which endured until 1147.[53][10][11] Fulful fought a protracted war against Badis ibn al-Mansur and sought outside help from the Fatimids and even from the Umayyads of Cordoba, but after his death in 1009 the Zirids were able to retake Tripoli for a time. The region nonetheless remained effectively under control of the Banu Khazrun, who fluctuated between practical autonomy and full independence, often playing the Fatimids and the Zirids against each other.[54][55][10][56] The Zirids finally lost Tripoli to them in 1022.[57]

Badis appointed Hammad ibn Buluggin as governor of 'Ashir and the western Zirid territories in 997.[58] He gave Hammad a great deal of autonomy, allowing him to campaign against the Zanata and control any new territories he conquered.[59][29] Hammad constructed his own capital, the Qal'at Bani Hammad, in 1008, and in 1015 he rebelled against Badis and declared himself independent altogether, while also recognizing the Abbasids instead of the Fatimids as caliphs. Badis besieged Hammad's capital and nearly subdued him, but died in 1016 shortly before this could be accomplished. His son and successor, al-Mu'izz ibn Badis (r. 1016–1062), defeated Hammad in 1017, which forced the negotiation of a peace agreement between them. Hammad resumed his recognition of the Fatimids as caliphs but remained independent, forging a new Hammadid state which controlled a large part of present-day Algeria thereafter.[60][59] Qal'at Bani Hammad was retained as the Hammadid capital, while 'Ashir became its second city.[26]

### Apogee in Ifriqiya[edit]

The Zirid period of Ifriqiya is considered a high point in its history, with agriculture, industry, trade and learning, both religious and secular, all flourishing, especially in their capital, Qayrawan (Kairouan).[61] The early reign of al-Mu'izz ibn Badis (r. 1016–1062) was particularly prosperous and marked the height of their power in Ifriqiya.[29] In the eleventh century, when the question of Berber origin became a concern, the dynasty of al-Mu'izz started, as part of the Zirids' propaganda, to emphasize its supposed links to the Himyarite kings as a title to nobility, a theme that was taken the by court historians of the period.[62][63] Management of the area by later Zirid rulers was neglectful as the agricultural economy declined, prompting an increase in banditry among the rural population.[61] The relationship between the Zirids and their Fatimid overlords varied - 20,000 Shiites were killed in the 1016 Ismaili massacre in Ifriqiya, and the Fatimids encouraged the defection of Tripolitania from the Zirids, but nevertheless the relationship remained close. In the 1040s, the Zirids broke away completely by adopting Sunni Islam and recognizing the Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs, a move which was popular with the urban Arabs of Kairouan.[3][64]

In Sicily the Kalbids continued to govern on behalf of the Fatimids but the island descended into political disarray during the 11th century,[16] inciting the Zirids to intervene on the island. In 1025 (or 1021[65]), al-Mu'izz ibn Badis sent a fleet of 400 ships to the island in response to the Byzantines reconquering Calabria (in southern Italy) from the Muslims, but the fleet was lost in a powerful storm off the coast of Pantelleria.[29][65][66] In 1036, the Muslim population of the island request aid from al-Mu'izz to overthrow the Kalbid emir Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf al-Akḥal [it], whose rule they considered flawed and unjust.[16] The request also contained a pledge to recognize al-Mu'izz as their ruler.[65] Al-Mu'izz, eager to expand his influence after the fragmentation of Zirid North Africa, accepted and sent his son, 'Abdallah, to the island with a large army.[65][16][67] Al-Akhal, who had been in negotiations with the Byzantines, requested help from them. A Byzantine army intervened and defeated the Zirid army on the island, but it then withdrew to Calabria, allowing 'Abdallah to finish off al-Akhal.[16] Al-Akhal was besieged in Palermo and killed in 1038.[65][16][13] 'Abdallah was subsequently forced to withdraw from the island, either due to the ever-divided Sicilians turning against him or due to another Byzantine invasion in 1038, led by George Maniakes.[67][65] Another Kalbid amir, al-Hasan al-Samsam, was elected to govern Sicily, but Muslim rule there disintegrated into various petty factions leading up to the Norman conquest of the island in the second half of the 11th century.[68][16][65]

### Hilalian invasions and withdrawal to Mahdia[edit]

The Zirids renounced the Fatimids and recognized the Abbasid Caliphs in 1048-49,[29] or sometime between 1041 and 1051.[a][69][70][13] The recognition of the Abbasids was nominal, as the Abbasids themselves were in political decline and could not impose direct authority in the region.[71] In retaliation against the Zirids, the Fatimids sent the Arab tribes of the Banu Hilal and the Banu Sulaym to the Maghreb.[59][29] The Banu Sulaym settled first in Cyrenaica, but the Banu Hilal continued towards Ifriqiya.[59] The Zirids attempted to stop their advance towards Ifriqiya, they sent 30,000 Sanhaja cavalry to meet the 3,000 Arab cavalry of Banu Hilal in the Battle of Haydaran of 14 April 1052.[72] Nevertheless, the Zirids were decisively defeated and were forced to retreat, opening the road to Kairouan for the Hilalian Arab cavalry.[72][3][73] The resulting anarchy devastated the previously flourishing agriculture, and the coastal towns assumed a new importance as conduits for maritime trade and bases for piracy against Christian shipping, as well as being the last holdout of the Zirids.[3] The Banu Hilal invasions eventually forced al-Mu'izz ibn Badis to abandon Kairouan in 1057 and move his capital to Mahdia, while the Banu Hilal largely roamed and pillaged the interior of the former Zirid territories.[15][29]

As a result of the Zirid withdrawal, various local principalities emerged in different areas. In Tunis, the shaykhs of the city elected Abd al-Haqq ibn Abd al-Aziz ibn Khurasan (r. 1059-1095) as local ruler. He founded the local Banu Khurasan dynasty that governed the city thereafter, alternately recognizing the Hammadids or the Zirids as overlords depending on the circumstances.[74][75] In Qabis (Gabès), the Zirid governor, al-Mu'izz ibn Muhammad ibn Walmiya remained loyal until 1062 when, outraged by the expulsion of his two brothers from Mahdia by al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, he declared his independence and placed himself under the protection of Mu'nis ibn Yahya, a chief of Banu Hilal.[76][77] Sfaqus (Sfax) was declared independent by the Zirid governor, Mansur al-Barghawati, who was murdered and succeeded by his cousin Hammu ibn Malil al-Barghawati.[78]

Al-Mui'zz ibn Badis was succeeded by his son, Tamim ibn al-Mu'izz (r. 1062-1108), who spent much of his reign attempting to restore Zirid power in the region. In 1063 he repelled a siege of Mahdia by the independent ruler of Sfax while also capturing the important port of Sus (Sousse).[79] Meanwhile, the Hammadid ruler al-Nasir ibn 'Alannas (r. 1062-1088) began to intervene in Ifriqiya around this time, having his sovereignty recognized in Sfax, Tunis, and Kairouan. Tamim organized a coalition with some of the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym tribes and succeeded in inflicting a heavy defeat on al-Nasir at the Battle of Sabiba in 1065. The war between the Zirids and Hammadids continued until 1077, when a truce was negotiated, sealed by a marriage between Tamim and one of al-Nasir's daughters.[80] In 1074 Tamim sent a naval expedition to Calabria where they ravaged the Italian coasts, plundered Nicotera and enslaved many of its inhabitants. The next year (1075) another Zirid raid resulted in the capture of Mazara in Sicily; however, the Zirid emir rethought his involvement in Sicily and decided to withdraw, abandoning what they had briefly held.[81] In 1087, the Zirid capital, Mahdia, was sacked by the Pisans.[82] According to Ettinghausen, Grabar, and Jenkins-Madina, the Pisa Griffin is believed to have been part of the spoils taken during the sack.[83] In 1083 Mahdia was besieged by a chief of the Banu Hilal, Malik ibn 'Alawi. Unable to take the city, Malik instead turned to Kairouan and captured that city, but Tamim marched out with his entire army and defeated the Banu Hilal forces, at which point he also brought Kairouan back under Zirid control.[84] He went on to capture Gabès in 1097 and Sfax in 1100.[84] Gabès, however, soon declared itself independent again under the leadership of the Banu Jami', a family from the Riyahi branch of the Banu Hilal.[77][76]

Tamim's son and successor, Yahya ibn Tamim (r. 1108-1116), formally recognized the Fatimid caliphs again and received an emissary from Cairo in 1111.[84] He captured an important fortress near Carthage called Iqlibiya and his fleet launched raids against Sardinia and Genoa, bringing back many captives.[84] He was assassinated in 1116 and succeeded by his son, 'Ali ibn Yahya (r. 1116-1121).[84] 'Ali continued to recognize the Fatimids, receiving another embassy from Cairo in 1118.[85] He imposed his authority on Tunis, but failed to recapture Gabès from its local ruler, Rafi' ibn Jami', whose counterattack he then had to repel from Mahdia.[85][76] He was succeeded by his son al-Hasan in 1121, the last Zirid ruler.[13]

### End of Zirid rule[edit]

During the 1130s and 1140s the Normans of Sicily began to capture cities and islands along the coast of Ifriqiya.[86] Jerba was captured in 1135 and Tripoli was captured in 1146. In 1148, the Normans captured Sfax, Gabès, and Mahdia.[86][87] In Mahdia, the population was weakened by years of famine and the bulk of the Zirid army was away on another campaign when the Norman fleet, commanded by George of Antioch, arrived off the coast. Al-Hasan decided to abandon the city, leaving it to be occupied, which effectively ended the Zirid dynasty's rule.[29][88] Al-Hasan fled to the citadel of al-Mu'allaqa near Carthage and stayed there for a several months. He planned to flee to the Fatimid court in Egypt but the Norman fleet blocked his way, so instead he headed west, making for the Almohad court of 'Abd al-Mu'min in Marrakesh. He obtained permission from Yahya ibn al-'Aziz, the Hammadid ruler, to cross his territory, but after entering Hammadid territory he was detained and placed under house arrest in Algiers.[88][29] When 'Abd al-Mu'min captured Algiers in 1151, he freed al-Hasan, who accompanied him back to Marrakesh. Later, when 'Abd al-Mu'min conquered Mahdia in 1160, placing all of Ifriqiya under Almohad rule, al-Hasan was with him.[29][21] 'Abd al-Mu'min appointed him governor of Mahdia, where he remained, residing in the suburb of Zawila, until 'Abd al-Mu'min's death in 1163. The new Almohad caliph, Abu Ya'qub Yusuf, subsequently ordered him to come back to Marrakesh, but al-Hasan died along the way in Tamasna in 1167.[29][13]

## Economy[edit]

The Zirid period was a time of great economic prosperity. The departure of the Fatimids to Cairo, far from ending this prosperity, saw its amplification under the Zirid and Hammadid rulers. Referring to the government of the Zirid emir al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, the historian Ibn Khaldun reports: "It [has] never [been] seen by the Berbers of that country a kingdom more vast and more flourishing than his own." The northern regions produced wheat in large quantities, while the region of Sfax was a major hub of olive production and the cultivation of the date was an important part of the local economy in Biskra. Other crops such as sugar cane, saffron, cotton, sorghum, millet and chickpea were grown. The breeding of horses and sheep flourished and fishing provided plentiful food. The Mediterranean was also an important part of the economy, even though it was, for a time, abandoned after the departure of the Fatimids, when the priority of the Zirid Emirs turned to territorial and internal conflicts. Their maritime policy enabled them to establish trade links, in particular for the importation of the timber necessary for their fleet, and enabled them to begin an alliance and very close ties with the Kalbid Emirs of Sicily. They did, however, face blockade attempts by the Venetians and Normans, who sought to reduce their wood supply and thus their dominance in the region.[89]

The Arab chronicler Ibn Hawqal visited and described the city of Algiers in the Zirid era: "The city of Algiers is built on a gulf and surrounded by a wall. It contains a large number of bazaars and a few sources of good water near the sea. It is from these sources that the inhabitants draw the water they drink. In the outbuildings of this town are very extensive countryside and mountains inhabited by several tribes of the Berbers. The chief wealth of the inhabitants consists of herds of cattle and sheep grazing in the mountains. Algiers supplies so much honey that it forms an export object, and the quantity of butter, figs and other commodities is so great that it is exported to Kairouan and elsewhere".[89]

## Culture[edit]

### Literature[edit]

Surat Al-An'am of the "Nurse’s Quran”, executed in fine Kufic script and commissioned by a nursemaid serving a Zirid sultan in 1020.[90][91]

Abd al-Aziz ibn Shaddad was a Zirid chronicler and prince.[92] He wrote Kitab al-Jam' wa 'l-bayan fi akhbar al-Qayrawan (كتاب الجمع والبيان في أخبار القيروان) about the history of Qayrawan.[92] Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, the Zirid ruler, was also himself an author and wrote an important treatise on the arts of the book, covering subjects such as calligraphy, bookbinding, and illumination.[91][93]

### Architecture[edit]

See also: Taifa of Granada § Architecture

Remains of the palace at 'Ashir, the residence founded by Ziri ibn Manad

The Zirid dynasty was responsible for various constructions and renovations throughout the Maghreb. Zirid and Hammadid architecture in North Africa was closely linked to Fatimid architecture,[94] but also influenced Norman architecture in Sicily.[95][96] The Zirid palace at 'Ashir (near present-day Kef Lakhdar), built in 934 by Ziri ibn Manad (who served the Fatimids), is one of the oldest palaces in the Maghreb to have been discovered and excavated.[97] As independent rulers, however, the Zirids of Ifriqiya seem to have built few structures on a grand scale and there are few surviving major monuments from this period.[98][99] They reportedly built a new palace at al-Mansuriyya, the former Fatimid capital near Kairouan, but it has not been uncovered by modern archeologists,[98] except for some fragments of carved stucco decoration.[100] At the Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis an elegantly-designed ribbed dome, called the Qubbat al-Bahw, was added to the entrance of the prayer hall in 991 and is attributed to the patronage of Al-Mansur ibn Buluggin.[101] The Great Mosque of Kairouan was restored by Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis in the 11th century. From this restoration some brightly-painted wooden ceilings have survived, featuring arabesques of scrolling vegetal motifs.[102] Under Al-Mu’izz the Zirids also built the Sidi Abu Marwan mosque in Annaba.[103] A major remodeling of the Great Mosque of Sfax, including the construction of a new minaret and an unusually decorated exterior façade, has also been attributed to the Zirid period (probably 10th century) by Georges Marçais and Lucien Golvin.[104][105]

The Hammadids, for their part, built an entirely new fortified capital at Qal'at Bani Hammad, founded in 1007. Although abandoned and destroyed in the 12th century, the city has been studied by modern archeologists and is one of the best-preserved medieval Islamic capitals in the world.[106] The Zirid branch in Granada was also responsible for turning it into one of the major cities of al-Andalus. Among the surviving remains of the Zirid period in Granada today are a section of its original city walls, an extensive system of cisterns on the Albaicín hill, and the former minaret of a mosque (now part of the Church of San José).[107]

### Art[edit]

Detail of the wooden maqsura added to the Great Mosque of Kairouan during the reign of al-Mu'izz

The Zirids were also patrons of the arts. Important examples of woodwork commissioned for mosques have survived from this period.[91][108] Buluggin ibn Ziri commissioned the production of a minbar for the Mosque of the Andalusians in Fez. The minbar, whose original fragments are now preserved in a museum, bears an inscription that dates it to the year 980, around the time of Buluggin's military expedition to this region.[109]: 249 The wooden maqsura in the Great Mosque of Kairouan is believed to date from al-Mu'izz ibn Badis's restoration of the building.[100] It is the oldest maqsura in the Islamic world to be preserved in situ and was commissioned by al-Mu῾izz ibn Badis in the first half of the 11th century (though later restored).[110][111] It is one of the most significant works of art from the Zirid period,[108] notable for its elaborately carved woodwork featuring arabesque motifs and a Kufic inscription dedicated to al-Mu'izz.[91][111]

Zirid art is also known for its decorated manuscripts.[91] This art form flourished in Kairouan under Zirid rule and manuscripts from this city were exported throughout the Islamic world.[93] One important example is the so-called "Nurse's Qur'an" (Arabic: مصحف الحاضنة, romanized: Mushaf al-Hadina), a Qur'an manuscript copied in 1020 by 'Ali ibn Ahmad al-Warraq for Fatima, the nursemaid of al-Mu'izz ibn Badis.[91][112] It is one of many Qur'an manuscripts that were donated to the Great Mosque of Kairouan and it is one of the most important surviving Islamic manuscripts commissioned by a female patron in North Africa.[112] Its folios are now kept in several museums and collections around the world, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Bardo Museum, and the David Collection.[112][113][114][115]

## List of Zirid rulers[edit]

The following list includes the Zirid rulers who ruled in the Maghreb:[13][116]

* Ziri ibn Manad, d. 971 CE (as Fatimid governor)

* Buluggin ibn Ziri, 972–984 (as viceroy of the Fatimids in Ifriqiya and the Maghreb)
* al-Mansur ibn Buluggin, 984–996
* Badis ibn al-Mansur, 996–1016

After 1015, the Hammadid branch ruled in the central Maghreb while the descendants of Badis ibn al-Mansur continued to rule in Ifriqiya:[13][116]

* al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, 1016–1062
* Tamim ibn al-Mu'izz, 1062–1108
* Yahya ibn Tamim, 1108–1116
* Ali ibn Yahya, 1116–1121
* al-Hasan ibn Ali, 1121–1148

Pedigree of Zirid dynasty and its offshoots

| Zirid State| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Ziri ibn
Manad
d. 971| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Granada Taifa
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Buluggin
ibn Ziri
972-984| | | | | | | Hammadid dynasty| | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Maksen
ibn Ziri| | | Zawi
ibn Ziri
1013-1019/20
| | | | | | | | |
Al-Mansur
ibn Buluggin
984-996| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | Hammad
ibn Buluggin
1015-1028| | | | | | | | Habbus
al-Muzaffar
1019/20-1038
Badis
ibn al-Mansur
996-1016| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | Qaid
ibn Hammad
1028-1054| | Muhammad
ibn Hammad| | Alnas
ibn Hammad| | | | Badis
ibn Habbus
1038-1073
Al-Mu'izz
ibn Badis
1016-1062| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | Muhsin
ibn Qaid
1054-1055| | Buluggin
ibn Muhammad
1055-1062| | Nasir
ibn Alnas
1062-1088| | | | Buluggin
ibn Badis
Tamim
ibn al-Mu'izz
1062-1108| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | Al-Mansur
ibn al-Nasir
1088-1105| | | | | | | | Abdallah
ibn Buluggin
1073-1090
Yahya
ibn Tamim
1108-1116| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | Badis
ibn Mansur
1105| | Abd al-Aziz
ibn Mansur
1105-1121| | | | | | |
| | | |
Ali
ibn Yahya
1116-1121| | Abu al-Futuh
ibn Yahya| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | Yahya
ibn Abd al-Aziz
1121-1152| | | | | | | | | |
Abu'l-Hasan
al-Hasan
ibn Ali
1121-1148| | Abbas
ibn Abi al-Futuh
Fatimid vizier 1153-1154| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | Nasr
ibn Abbas| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

## Offshoots of the Zirid dynasty[edit]

### Zirids of Granada[edit]

Main article: Taifa of Granada

Map of the Taifa of Granada in the first half of the 11th century

After the rebellion of Buluggin's brothers failed in 999, Zawi ibn Ziri sought to move to al-Andalus, which was under Umayyad control. The hajib of Caliph Hisham II (r. 976–1009) and de facto ruler of the Caliphate of Córdoba at the time, Ibn Abi ʿAmir al-Mansur (also known as Almanzor), initially refused to allow Zawi's immigration to al-Andalus, believing his reputation as a troublemaker.[12] However, his son and successor, 'Abd al-Malik al-Muẓaffar (r. 1002–1008), seeking able military commanders, granted Zawi and his followers permission to come to Cordoba, where they subsequently became an important part of al-Muzaffar's army.[12][52][117] The Caliphate of Córdoba fragmented after 1008, a period known as the fitna of al-Andalus. Zawi initially played a role, along with other Berber factions, in the siege of Córdoba between 1010 and 1013.[12][118] By the end of the siege they succeeded in installing their own puppet caliph in Córdoba, Sulayman al-Musta'in, but by this point Zawi and other factions were seeking political fortunes elsewhere in al-Andalus.[12][52] The new caliph granted Zawi and his faction the province of Ilbira (Elvira) to settle in 1013.[12][52] After moving the capital from Madinat Ilbira to the hilltop settlement of Gharnāṭa (Granada) that year, Zawi founded the Taifa kingdom of Granada.[119][12] Arab sources consider him to be the founder of the present-day city of Granada,[117] a designation also repeated by some modern historians like Helen Rodgers, Stephen Cavendish, and Brian Catlos.[52][120]

In 1018 the Umayyad pretender al-Murtada attempted to conquer Granada but was soundly defeated by the Zirids.[12] In 1019 or 1020 Zawi left al-Andalus and returned to Ifriqiya, resuming his ambitions within the Zirid state there.[12] His fate is not known for certain: according to Ibn Hayyan he died of the plague years later, while Abdallah ibn Buluggin's memoirs claim he was poisoned not long after arriving in North Africa, but neither gives the date of his death.[121][122] In Granada, Zawi's nephew Habbus ibn Maksan was invited by the qadi of the city, Abu 'Abdallah ibn Abi Zamanin, to take control of the new kingdom instead of one Zawi's sons.[12] Under the reign of Habus (1019–1038), the Taifa of Granada was consolidated and evolved into one of the most important political forces of al-Andalus during this period.[12] During the reign of Badis Ibn Habus the Zirids of Granada defeated an attack by the Taifa of Almeria in 1038, annexing much of that kingdom's territory and turning Almeria into a vassal state for several years, before they defeated the Abbadids of Seville in battle in 1039, gaining some territory in turn to the west.[123][124] In 1056 they annexed the Taifa of Malaga.[123][125] The Taifa of Granada was eventually conquered by the Almoravids of North Africa in 1090, putting an end to the independent kingdom.[117]

### Hammadid dynasty[edit]

Main article: Hammadid dynasty

Hammad ibn Buluggin, the son of Buluggin and uncle of Badis ibn al-Mansur, was appointed governor of 'Ashir in 997 and given a great deal of autonomy, even going so far as to build a new capital for himself, known as the Qal'a Bani Hammad.[58] The split between Hammad and his nephew came when Badis declared his son as heir and attempted to designate a part of Hammad's territory as a new principality to be governed by the crown prince. Hammad refused to let this happen and responded by ordering the name of the Fatimid caliph to be replaced with the Abbasid caliph in the khutba (Friday sermon) in mosques, a clear departure from Zirid political allegiances.[126] A closely-fought war ended with Hammad and al-Mu'izz ibn Badis concluding a peace agreement which allowed Hammad to retain his effective independence.[126]

The Hammadid state reached its apogee under the reign of al-Nasir ibn 'Alannas (r. 1062-1088) during which it was briefly the most important state in the Maghreb.[127] The Hammadid capital attracted scholars and artists from Kairouan, growing its cultural and economic importance.[128] The Hammadids initially weathered the Banu Hilal invasions much better than their Zirid counterparts to the east and sometimes even allied with the new Arab tribes.[129] Al-Nasir exploited the partial collapse of Zirid rule in Ifriqiya to have his own authority recognized in many of the main cities there, including Sfax, Kairouan, and Tunis.[128] Pressures from the Banu Hilal tribes eventually forced al-Nasir's successor, al-Mansur (r. 1088-1105), to move the capital to Bijaya (Béjaïa or Bougie), a city founded earlier by al-Nasir.[129][130] Hammadid rule was eventually ended by the Almohads, led by 'Abd al-Mu'min, who captured Bijaya in 1152. Soon after, 'Abd al-Mu'min's son captured Constantine, where the last Hammadid ruler, Yahya, had fled. Yahya was given a pension and allowed to retire in Marrakesh and then Sala (Salé), where he died in 1161 or 1162.[60]

## See also[edit]

* List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
* Ar-Raqiq, a courtier, poet and historian, secretary to al-Muizz ibn Badis.

## References[edit]

### Notes[edit]

1. ^ Different historical sources give different dates for the occurrence of this decision, ranging from 1041 and 1051.[18]

### Citations[edit]

1. ^ Phillip C. Naylor (15 January 2015). North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present. University of Texas Press. p. 84\. ISBN 978-0-292-76190-2.
2. ^ a b "Zirid Dynasty | Muslim dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 February 2020. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
3. ^ a b c d e Idris, Hady Roger (1968). "L'invasion hilālienne et ses conséquences". Cahiers de civilisation médiévale. 11 (43): 353–369. doi:10.3406/ccmed.1968.1452. ISSN 0007-9731.
4. ^ a b Julien, Charles-André (1 January 1994). Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord: des origines à 1830 (in French). Payot. p. 295\. ISBN 9782228887892.
5. ^ "Qantara - Les Zirides et les Hammadides (972-1152)". www.qantara-med.org. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
6. ^ Hrbek, Ivan; Africa, Unesco International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of (1 January 1992). Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. J. Currey. p. 172\. ISBN 9780852550939.
7. ^ a b Meynier, Gilbert (1 January 2010). L'Algérie, coeur du Maghreb classique: de l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (698-1518) (in French). La Découverte. p. 158\. ISBN 9782707152312.
8. ^ Simon, Jacques (1 January 2011). L'Algérie au passé lointain: de Carthage à la régence d'Alger (in French). Harmattan. p. 165\. ISBN 9782296139640.
9. ^ Trudy Ring; Noelle Watson; Paul Schellinger (5 March 2014). Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. p. 36\. ISBN 978-1-134-25986-1.
10. ^ a b c d Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 67.
11. ^ a b Fehérvári, Géza (2002). Excavations at Surt (Medinat Al-Sultan) Between 1977 and 1981. Department of Antiquities. p. 17\. ISBN 978-1-900971-00-3.
12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Kennedy, Hugh (1996). Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus. Routledge. pp. 141–142. ISBN 9781317870418.
13. ^ a b c d e f g h Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1996). "The Zirids and Hammadids". The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 35–36. ISBN 9780748696482.
14. ^ Sénac, Philippe; Cressier, Patrice (2012). "Zirides, Badisides, et Hammadides". Histoire du Maghreb médiéval: VIIe-XIe siècle (in French). Armand Colin. ISBN 978-2-200-28342-1.
15. ^ a b Abun-Nasr 1987, pp. 69–70.
16. ^ a b c d e f g Rizzitano, U. (1960–2007). "Kalbids". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill. ISBN 9789004161214.
17. ^ Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1996). The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. p. 17\. ISBN 9780748696482.
18. ^ a b Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 68-69.
19. ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 69-70.
20. ^ a b c Tibi 2002, p. 514.
21. ^ a b Baadj 2015, p. 56-57.
22. ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 64.
23. ^ Ilahiane, Hsain (2006). Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen). Scarecrow Press. p. 149\. ISBN 978-0-8108-6490-0.
24. ^ Brett 2017, p. 54, 63.
25. ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 19.
26. ^ a b c d e Brett, Michael (2009). "Ashīr". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. Brill. ISBN 9789004161658. "It consisted of two palatial citadels on the separate sites called Yashīr and Bénia (Banya). The first was founded in 324/936 by Zīrī b. Manād, the Talkāta ally of the Fāṭimid caliph al-Qāʾim (r. 322–34/934–45), to secure the central Maghrib against the Zanāta allies of Córdoba; a substantial palace was built after the suppression of the rebellion of the Zanāta Abū Yazīd in 336/947. The second, with the remains of a mosque, was built by Zīrī's son Buluggīn (Ar. Buluqqīn, the founder of the Zīrid dynasty, r. 362–73/972–83) after his appointment in 362/972 as Fāṭimid viceroy of Ifrīqiya. After the departure of Buluggīn's son al-Manṣūr to take up residence at al-Qayrawān in 381/991, Ashīr remained the Zīrid capital of the central Maghrib until the foundation of the Qalʿa (Fortress) of the Banū Ḥammād in 398/1007, when it became the second city of the Ḥammādids. In ruins between 440/1048–9 and 455/1063 following a dynastic quarrel, it was repopulated as a market town before its desertion sometime after al-Idrīsī wrote in the mid-sixth/twelfth century."
27. ^ a b Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 66.
28. ^ Brett 2017, p. 54.
29. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Tibi 2002.
30. ^ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 188.
31. ^ Halm 1996, p. 399.
32. ^ Messier, Ronald A.; Miller, James A. (2015). The Last Civilized Place: Sijilmasa and Its Saharan Destiny. University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292766655
33. ^ Pellat, Charles (1991). "Midrār". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VI: Mahk–Mid. Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-08112-3
34. ^ Brett 2017, p. 75.
35. ^ Kennedy, Hugh (2014). Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus. Routledge. p. 103\. ISBN 978-1-317-87041-8.
36. ^ Halm 1996, p. 418.
37. ^ Talbi, M. (1995). "Ṣabra or al-Manṣūriyya". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. & Lecomte, G. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume VIII: Ned–Sam. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 688–689. ISBN 978-90-04-09834-3.
38. ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 75.
39. ^ a b c Brett 1975, p. 624.
40. ^ Brett 2017, p. 85.
41. ^ a b Golvin, Lucien (1966). "Le Palais de Zīrī à Achîr (Dixième Siècle J. C.)". Ars Orientalis. 6: 47–76. ISSN 0571-1371. JSTOR 4629221.
42. ^ Georges Marçais (1955). L'architecture musulmane d'occident: Tunisie, Algérie, Maroc, Espagne et Sicile. Arts et métiers graphiques. p. 64\. "Leur rôle était double et double leur domaine, avec ses deux capitales d'Achir, donjon du territoire héréditaire, et Kairouan, centre de l'administration. Ce domaine était trop grand: il se brisa. Les parents, auxquels les nouveaux maitres de l'Ifriqya avaient confié la tâche de continuer la lutte contre les Zenâta, se déclarèrent indépendants dans les provinces qu'ils défendaient. Dès lors la Berbérie fâtimite compta deux royaumes çanhâjiens: à l'Est, le royaume des BeniZirî de Kairouan, à l'Ouest le royaume des Beni Hammâd de la Qal'a."
43. ^ Naylor, Phillip C. (2015). North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present. University of Texas Press. p. 84\. ISBN 978-0-292-76190-2.
44. ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 67, 75.
45. ^ Idris 1962, pp. 57–58.
46. ^ Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong; Henry Louis Gates (2 February 2012). Dictionary of African Biography. OUP USA. p. 9\. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5.
47. ^ Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (2014). Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-25986-1.
48. ^ Brett 1975, pp. 624–626.
49. ^ Brett 1975, p. 626.
50. ^ a b Handler, Andrew (1974). The Zirids of Granada. University of Miami Press. pp. 8–14. ISBN 0870242164.
51. ^ Catlos, Brian A. (2014). Infidel Kings and Unholy Warriors: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusade and Jihad. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 27\. ISBN 978-0-374-71205-1.
52. ^ a b c d e Rodgers, Helen; Cavendish, Stephen (2021). City of Illusions: A History of Granada. Oxford University Press. pp. 11–15. ISBN 978-0-19-764406-5.
53. ^ Oman, G.; Christides, V.; Bosworth, C.E. (1960–2007). "Ṭarābulus al-G̲h̲arb". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill. ISBN 9789004161214.
54. ^ Lewicki, T. (1960–2007). "Mag̲h̲rāwa". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill. ISBN 9789004161214.
55. ^ Garnier, Sébastien (2020). "Libya until 1500". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. Brill. ISBN 9789004161658.
56. ^ Brett 2017, p. 128, 142.
57. ^ Brett 2017, p. 174.
58. ^ a b Baadj 2015, p. 40.
59. ^ a b c d Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 69.
60. ^ a b Idris, Hady Roger (1971). "Ḥammādids". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 137–138. OCLC 495469525.
61. ^ a b Brill, E.J. (1987). "Fatamids". Libya: Encyclopedia of Islam. Library of Congress. ISBN 9004082654. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
62. ^ Baadj 2015, p. 12.
63. ^ Brett, Michael (3 May 2019). The Fatimids and Egypt. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-76474-5.
64. ^ Berry, LaVerle. "Fatamids". Libya: A Country Study. Library of Congress. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
65. ^ a b c d e f g Granara, William (2019). Narrating Muslim Sicily: War and Peace in the Medieval Mediterranean World. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 32–33. ISBN 978-1-78673-613-0.
66. ^ Granara, William (201). Ibn Hamdis the Sicilian: Eulogist for a Falling Homeland. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-78607-847-6.
67. ^ a b Brett 2017, p. 174-175.
68. ^ Brett 2017, p. 175.
69. ^ El Hareir, Idris; Mbaye, Ravane, eds. (2011). The Spread of Islam Throughout the World. UNESCO. p. 407\. ISBN 978-92-3-104153-2.
70. ^ Hrbek, Ivan (1975). "Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts". In Fage, J. D.; Oliver, Roland Anthony (eds.). The Cambridge History of Africa: From c. 1050 to c. 1600. Vol. 3\. Cambridge University Press. p. 15\. ISBN 978-0-521-20981-6.
71. ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 68, 76.
72. ^ a b Idris, Hady Roger (24 April 2012), "Ḥaydarān", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Brill, retrieved 26 September 2021
73. ^ Schuster, Gerald (2009). "Reviewed work: Die Beduinen in der Vorgeschichte Tunesiens. Die « Invasion » der Banū Hilāl, Gerald Schuster". Arabica. Brill. 56 (4/5): 487–492. doi:10.1163/057053909X12475581297885. JSTOR 25651679.
74. ^ Sebag, P. (1960–2007). "Tūnis". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill. ISBN 9789004161214.
75. ^ Valérian, Dominique (2021). "Khurāsān, Banū". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. Brill. ISBN 9789004161658.
76. ^ a b c Talbi, M. (1960–2007). "Ḳābis". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill. ISBN 9789004161214.
77. ^ a b Baadj 2015, p. 38.
78. ^ Baadj 2015, p. 39.
79. ^ Baadj 2015, p. 31.
80. ^ Baadj 2015, p. 31-32.
81. ^ Brown, Gordon S. (2015). The Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily. McFarland. p. 176\. ISBN 978-0-7864-5127-2.
82. ^ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 210.
83. ^ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 302.
84. ^ a b c d e Baadj 2015, p. 32.
85. ^ a b Baadj 2015, p. 32-33.
86. ^ a b Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 92.
87. ^ Oman, G.; Christides, V.; Bosworth, C.E. (1960–2007). "Ṭarābulus al-G̲h̲arb". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill. ISBN 9789004161214.
88. ^ a b Baadj 2015, p. 35.
89. ^ a b Sénac, Philippe; Cressier, Patrice (10 October 2012). Histoire du Maghreb médiéval: VIIe-XIe siècle (in French). Armand Colin. p. 150\. ISBN 9782200283421.
90. ^ "Islamic art from museums around the world". Arab News. 18 May 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
91. ^ a b c d e f M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Zirid". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195309911.
92. ^ a b Talbi, M. (24 April 2012). "Ibn S̲h̲addād". Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition.
93. ^ a b Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, pp. 285–286.
94. ^ Bloom 2020, p. 83.
95. ^ L. Hadda, Zirid and Hammadid palaces in North Africa and its influence on Norman architecture in Sicily, in Word, Heritage and Knowledge, a cura di C. Gambardella, XVI Forum International di Studi-Le vie dei Mercanti, Napoli-Capri 14-16 giugno 2018, Roma 2018, pp. 323-332
96. ^ Bloom 2020, p. 100.
97. ^ Arnold 2017, p. 53.
98. ^ a b Arnold 2017, p. 123.
99. ^ Bloom 2020, p. 86.
100. ^ a b Bloom 2020, p. 87.
101. ^ Bloom 2020, pp. 86–87.
102. ^ Bloom 2020, pp. 87–88.
103. ^ Hippone. Xavier Delestre. Édisud.
104. ^ Marçais, Georges (1954). L'architecture musulmane d'Occident. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques. pp. 108–109.
105. ^ Marçais, Georges; Golvin, Lucien (1960). La Grande Mosquée de Sfax (in French). Imprimerie La Rapide.
106. ^ Arnold 2017, p. 125.
107. ^ Bush, Olga (2013). "Granada art and architecture". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. Brill. ISSN 1873-9830. `{{cite book}}`: `|journal=` ignored (help)
108. ^ a b Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, pp. 274–275.
109. ^ Dodds, Jerrilynn D., ed. (1992). Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870996371.
110. ^ M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Maqsura". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195309911.
111. ^ a b "Qantara - Maqsūra of al-Mu 'izz". www.qantara-med.org. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
112. ^ a b c "Bifolium from the "Nurse's Qur'an" (Mushaf al-Hadina)". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
113. ^ Rammah, Mourad. "Page from a Qur'an". Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
114. ^ "The so-called 'Nanny's Quran'". www.bardomuseum.tn. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
115. ^ "Calligraphy - The David Collection". www.davidmus.dk. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
116. ^ a b Idris 1962, pp. 831–833.
117. ^ a b c García-Arenal, Mercedes (2014). "Granada". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. Brill. ISSN 1873-9830.
118. ^ Rodgers, Helen; Cavendish, Stephen (2021). City of Illusions: A History of Granada. Oxford University Press. pp. 11–15. ISBN 978-0-19-764406-5.
119. ^ Carvajal López, José C. (2020). "Material culture". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Muslim Iberia. Routledge. pp. 490, 505 (see note 18). ISBN 978-1-317-23354-1.
120. ^ Catlos, Brian A. (2018). Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain. New York: Basic Books. pp. 200–201. ISBN 9780465055876.
121. ^ Tibi, Amin (1960–2007). "Zāwī b. Zīrī". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill. ISBN 9789004161214.
122. ^ Catlos, Brian A. (2014). Infidel Kings and Unholy Warriors: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusade and Jihad. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 29\. ISBN 978-0-374-71205-1.
123. ^ a b Sarr-Marroco, Bilal (2021). "The Founding of Madinat Gharnata by the Banu Ziri (5th/11th Century)". In Boloix-Gallardo, Bárbara (ed.). A Companion to Islamic Granada. Brill. p. 93\. ISBN 978-90-04-42581-1.
124. ^ Adang, Camilla; Fierro, Maribel; Schmidtke, Sabine (2012). Ibn Hazm of Cordoba: The Life and Works of a Controversial Thinker. Brill. p. 47\. ISBN 978-90-04-23424-6.
125. ^ Robinson, Cynthia (1992). "Arts of the Taifa Kingdoms". In Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (ed.). Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 49–52. ISBN 0870996371.
126. ^ a b Baadj 2015, p. 44.
127. ^ Baadj 2015, p. 42-43.
128. ^ a b Baadj 2015, p. 43.
129. ^ a b Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 70.
130. ^ Baadj 2015, p. 46.

### Sources[edit]

* Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521337674.
* Arnold, Felix (2017). Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190624552.
* Baadj, Amar S. (2015). Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-29857-6.
* Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300218701.
* Brett, Michael (1975). "The Fatimid revolution (861-973) and its aftermath in North Africa". In Fage, J.D.; Oliver, Roland Anthony (eds.). The Cambridge History of Africa. Vol. 2\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 589–636. ISBN 978-0-521-21592-3.
* Brett, Michael (2017). The Fatimid Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9781474421522.
* Halm, Heinz (1996). The Empire of the Mahdi: The Rise of the Fatimids. Brill. ISBN 90-04-10056-3.
* Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn, eds. (2001). Islamic Art and Architecture, 650-1250. Yale University Press.
* Idris, Hady Roger (1962). La berbérie orientale sous les Zīrīdes: Xe-XIIe siècles (PDF) (in French). Paris: Librarie d'Amérique et d'Orient.
* Tibi, Amin (2002). "Zīrids". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. & Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume XI: W–Z. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 513–516. ISBN 978-90-04-12756-2.
* Zirid Dynasty Encyclopædia Britannica
* Historical map showing location of Zirid Kingdom c. 1000

## Further reading[edit]

* King, Matt (2022). Dynasties Intertwined: The Zirids of Ifriqiya and the Normans of Sicily. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9781501763472.

* v
* t
* e

Islamic dynasties in Maghreb region

* Salihids (710–1019)
* Midrarids (757–976)
* Muhallabids (771–793)
* Rustamids (777–909)
* Idrisids (788–985)
* Ifranids (790–1066)
* Aghlabids (800–909)
* Sulaymanids (814–922)
* Fatimids (909–973)
* Zirids (973–1148)
* Hammadids (1008–1152)
* Almoravids (1040–1147)
* Khurasanids (1059–1158)
* Almohads (1147–1269)
* Hafsids (1229–1574)
* Zayyanids (1235–1556)
* Marinids (1269–1465)
* Wattasids (1472–1554)
* Sa'dids (1549–1659)
* 'Alawids (1666–present)
* Husaynids (1705–1957)
* Karamanlids (1711–1835)
* Senussids (1837–1969)

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF

National|

* France
* BnF data
* Germany
* Israel
* Czech Republic

Other|

* IdRef
* İslâm Ansiklopedisi

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template