Fracking

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Fracking in the U.S.
Energy policy in the U.S.
State fracking policy
State energy policy
Glossary of energy terms

Hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking, is a method of oil and natural gas extraction. The process involves injecting fluid into subterranean rock formations at high pressure. The high pressure fluid produces a fracture network that allows crude oil and natural gas inside dense rocks to flow into a wellbore and be extracted at the surface. The fluid (known as frac fluid) contains between 98 percent and 99.5 percent water and sand; between 0.5 percent and 2 percent of the fluid is composed of chemical additives, which are used to stop the growth of microorganisms, prevent well casing corrosion, increase the rate at which the fluid is injected, and reduce pressure, among other uses.^[1]

According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), there were approximately 23,000 hydraulically fractured wells in the United States in 2000. In 2015, the United States contained approximately 300,000 hydraulically fractured wells, which accounted for 67 percent of U.S. natural gas production and 51 percent of U.S. crude oil production.^[2][3][4]

This article outlines the history and process of hydraulic fracturing in oil and gas production. To learn more about fracking policies in the United States and the economic and environmental impacts of fracking, see this article.

Background[edit]

Horizontal drilling[edit]

An example of a horizontally drilled well

Drillers use horizontal wells to access oil and gas resources that span horizontally underground. These resources are inaccessible with vertical wells, which are used to access oil and gas resources directly below a drilling site. To determine how far a driller must go to access energy-intensive reserves, a vertical well is first drilled. Geologists then examine the rock fragments at different depths to determine the area where horizontal drilling should begin, which is known as a kickoff point. Drillers then turn the drill bit to create a horizontally curved hole to access oil or natural gas within the rock formation. This process increases the underground reach of each oil and gas well. The first horizontal well was drilled in 1929 in Texas. Horizontal drilling technology was modified in the 1970s with the invention of the downhole motor (also known as a mud motor). A mud motor contains a pump powered by drilling fluid. The fluid is pumped down the drill string (which consists of a drill pipe and other devices used to turn a drill bit). The pump allows the drill bit to rotate independently of the drill string. After a vertical well is drilled, the drill operator adjusts the drill string in order to drill directionally. ^[5][6][7]

History of fracking[edit]

The process of fracking was first studied by the Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation in the 1940s. Fracturing was used experimentally in Kansas in 1947 to extract natural gas from limestone. Beginning in 1949, this experimental technology was used commercially by Halliburton, an oilfield service company. Fracking applications increased during the 1950s as fracked wells reached over 3,000 per month in the mid-1950s. In 1970, downhole motors (mud motors) were developed to allow drill operators to adjust the drill string in order to drill wells horizontally. By the 1970s, natural gas extraction began to decline. Additionally, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) imposed a ban on petroleum exports to the United States and cut oil production, leading to rising gasoline prices in the United States. In response, Congress passed the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA), which banned crude oil exports to facilitate increased domestic crude oil production. During this time, the U.S. Department of Energy initiated funding for microseismic mapping and data accumulation projects related to the production of unconventional natural gas sources. In the 1980s and 1990s, George Mitchell, head of Mitchell Energy & Development Corp., invested between $7 million and $8 million to research and develop fracking and horizontal drilling and to extract natural gas in the Barnett Shale of Texas.^[8][9][10]

Overview of the fracking process

Aerial view of a hydraulic fracturing site

Fracking process[edit]

The following section outlines the general process of fracturing and completing a well. The specific process of fracking may vary from well to well depending on the geological features near a well. Additionally, the amounts of water, chemicals, and proppants used during a well may differ depending on the well's features.^[5][11]

Surveying and permitting

1. Oil and gas operators first determine if there are sufficient recoverable resources in a given area to justify the investment of time and resources.
2. Private land leases are negotiated with local landowners. Federal and state lands are leased through federal and state land agencies.
3. Seismic surveys are conducted to identify the location of water and oil and gas resources. In some cases, explosives are used to create sound waves that are read by geophones. Large trucks known as thumper trucks can also be used to generate sound waves.
4. Computers read sound wave information and generate images that geoscientists interpret to locate oil and gas resources.
5. Other studies are conducted at the proposed drilling site before drilling occurs. These studies include research and data on surface quality, the environmental impact of drilling at the proposed site, logistical and technical concerns, and more. The studies are generally reviewed and approved by state regulators and committees.
6. Oil and gas operators apply for a permit to drill a well. In general, permits are valid for a specified period time, such as five years or less.

Site preparation

1. Roads are built to allow trucks and other machinery access to the well site.
2. The site is flattened and covered with crushed stone and plastic liners to protect the land underneath from heavy machinery.
3. Pits are constructed to hold water; some companies use steel tanks instead of storage pits. States can regulate the type of storage pits and tanks allowed at a drilling site.^[5]

Drilling and casing of the well

The goal of casing a well is to isolate oil and natural gas resources from any freshwater resources or land and to prevent leaks.^[5]

1. Pilot holes are drilled to help guide the drilling rig (the structure that encompasses all equipment for drilling a well).
2. Trucks bring in the drilling rig, which is built on site. Once the rig is operating, work at the site continues 24 hours a day for approximately three to four weeks.
3. A vertical well is drilled.
4. During well drilling, operators put nested steel casings into place. These casings keep fluids in the well from contaminating water and vice versa. The first part of the well is drilled 50 feet to 80 feet wide; the well is then protected with conductor casing.
5. These casings extend beyond a freshwater zone, which is typically up to 800 feet beneath the Earth's surface. Some states may require predetermined depths for casings.
6. During the drilling process, rocks, dirt, and other debris are brought to the Earth's surface. Federal and state laws regulate the disposal of this debris.
7. After sufficient surface and conductor casing is installed, operators install blowout preventers. A blowout preventer includes specialized valves or similar devices used to monitor and prevent the uncontrolled release of natural gas or crude oil from a well. Some operators install a series of high pressure valves and seals that control the pressure in the well and prevent leaks to the surface.
8. After measures are taken to prevent blowouts, operators drill beyond the installed casing to a few hundred feet above the desired rock formation. During this phase, drilling mud composed of bentonite clay and other thickeners is used to keep the drill bit cool.
9. A new drill bit is used to allow the operator to move horizontally after the drill reaches the kickoff point, which is the depth at which the horizontal curve begins.
10. Additional casing is installed along the full length of the well.
11. Cement is pumped into the well to hold the casing in place. This cement is tailored to meet the needs of each different rock formation.
12. Before oil or gas is extracted, a series of pressure tests are completed to check the integrity of the well.

Example of the fissures made during fracking

Fracking

The entire fracturing process can take from two days to one week.^[5]

1. A fracturing crew, high pressure pumps, and blending equipment are brought to the site.
2. Water stored at the site is pumped into a hydration unit where it is gelled.
3. This water is mixed with proppants and chemicals designed to meet the needs of each formation and well. These additives are used to stop the growth of microorganisms, prevent well casing corrosion, increase the rate at which the fluid is injected, and reduce pressure.
4. A perforating tool is temporarily lowered into the well. The perforating tool creates small holes in the casing and cement. A conduit is created between the wellbore and the oil or natural gas resources.
5. Frac fluid is pumped down into the well. The sand or proppant in the fluid remains behind to hold the fractures open. The water used during this process then returns to the surface.

A reclaimed well site

1. Bridge plugs that allow parts of the well to be isolated from one another are inserted. The fracturing crew repeats the above steps across the entire well until all the fractures have been completed. A typical well goes through between 10 stages and 30 stages of the fracturing process.
2. The bridge plugs are removed and oil and gas flows to the surface of the well.
3. After the fracking process is completed, produced water is released. Produced water is found in the hydrocarbon-filled formation and contains the chemical features of the formation where it is located.^[5]

Well site reclamation

1. After the well has no more recoverable resources, site reclamation begins. Multiple states have regulations covering oil and gas well site reclamation.
2. Reclamation includes closing the well, removing all storage tanks, vehicles, and other equipment, returning the land to its previous form, and planting seeds to restore vegetation.^[5]

Safety measures[edit]

Oil and gas operators that use fracking adopt the following safety measures before and during drilling:^[18]

• Safety managers and instructors are employed to oversee fracking activities at the drilling site.
• Operators conduct studies of the proposed drilling site before drilling occurs. These studies include research and data on surface quality, the environmental impact of drilling at the proposed site, logistical and technical concerns, and more. The studies are generally reviewed and approved by state regulators and committees.
• Oil and gas wells are fitted with blowout preventer technologies to reduce the potential risk of unexpected blowouts. These technologies utilize valves to shut off a well as well as the flow of chemicals and water. This is meant to deter explosions and thus potential damage to the well or injury to workers.
• All wells must have cement or similar casing to prevent leaks into surrounding aquifers or land. This casing also holds the well open. Several states implement casing requirements as part of their fracking regulations.
• Routine testing prior to and during the drilling process occurs to ensure well integrity and safety. These tests are used to identify potential areas of concern. If a leak occurs, operators use the test results to identify the source of the leak so it can be plugged. Specialized well surveys (also known as bond logs) are conducted to ensure the strength of the well casing. Monitors are also used by operators to measure pressure, temperature, and air systems to ensure these variables remain at safe levels.

Regulation[edit]

The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 required the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to devise national drinking water standards, which are primarily enforced by state governments authorized by the EPA. Part C of the act required the EPA to establish underground injection control programs “to prevent underground injection which endangers drinking water sources.” At the time, the EPA interpreted the act to exclude fracking from underground injection regulation, arguing that the purpose of fracking is to extract natural gas and not to inject fluids into a well.^[19][20]

The Energy Policy Act of 2005 modified federal law to exclude “the underground injection of fluids or propping agents (other than diesel fuels) pursuant to hydraulic fracturing operations related to oil, gas, or geothermal production activities” from the EPA’s underground injection control program. The 2005 act effectively permitted state governments to regulate fracking as the process relates to underground drinking water sources, though state regulations must meet the minimum requirements outlined in applicable federal regulations.^[20]

31 states had natural gas production as of 2013. States with fracking regulate the location and spacing of wells, drilling methods, lining of wells, the process of fracking itself, plugging wells, waste disposal, and site reclamation. States can allow their environmental regulatory agency to regulate fracking; other states regulate fracking through their oil and gas commissions.^[21]

For more information on state-specific fracking regulations, click here.

Fracking at the ballot box[edit]

State:

Ballotpedia has tracked the following statewide ballot measure(s) related to fracking.

1. Colorado Right to Local Self-Government Amendment (2014)

Local:

Ballotpedia has tracked the following local ballot measure(s) related to fracking.

1. San Benito County Fracking Ban Initiative, Measure J (November 2014)
2. Santa Barbara County Fracking Ban Initiative, Measure P (November 2014)
3. Mendocino County Community Bill of Rights Fracking and Water Use Initiative, Measure S (November 2014)
4. City of Hermosa Beach E&B Oil Drilling and Production Project, Measure O (March 2015)
5. Butte County, California, Fracking Ban Initiative, Measure E (June 2016)
6. Monterey County, California, Ban on Oil and Gas Drilling, Measure Z (November 2016)
7. San Luis Obispo County, California, Measure G-18, Petroleum Extraction and Well Stimulation Regulation Initiative (November 2018)
8. City of Loveland Two Year Fracking Suspension Initiative, Question 1 (June 2014)
9. Johnson County Fracking Ban Referendum (March 2014)
10. Youngstown "Community Bill of Rights" Fracking Ban Charter Amendment (May 2014)
11. City of Athens Fracking Ban Initiative, Issue 7 (November 2014)
12. City of Niles "Community Bill of Rights" Fracking Ban Initiative (November 2014)
13. Village of Gates Mills "Community Bill of Rights" Fracking Ban, Issue 51 (November 2014)
14. Youngstown "Community Bill of Rights" Frack Ban, Issue 4 (November 2014)
15. City of Kent "Community Bill of Rights" Fracking Ban Initiative, Issue 21 (November 2014)
16. Athens County Home Rule Charter, Community Bill of Rights and Fracking Waste Prohibition Initiative (November 2015)
17. Medina County Home Rule Charter, Community Bill of Rights and Fracking Prohibition Initiative (November 2015)
18. Meigs County Home Rule Charter, Community Bill of Rights and Fracking Prohibition Initiative (November 2015)
19. City of Youngstown "Community Bill of Rights" and Fracking Ban Initiative Charter Amendment (November 2015)
20. Fulton County Home Rule Charter, Community Bill of Rights and Fracking Prohibition Initiative (November 2015)
21. Portage County Home Rule Charter, Community Bill of Rights and Fracking Waste Prohibition Initiative (November 2015)
22. City of Columbus Community Bill of Rights Fracking Ban Initiative Charter Amendment (November 2016)
23. Athens County, Ohio, Oil and Gas Restrictions and Home Rule Charter Initiative (November 2017)
24. City of Denton Fracking Ban Initiative (November 2014)

See also[edit]

• Oil
• Natural gas
• Horizontal drilling
• Glossary of energy terms

Footnotes[edit]

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