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Coprates quadrangle

Topic: Astronomy

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 17 min
Short description: Map of Mars
Coprates quadrangle
USGS-Mars-MC-18-CopratesRegion-mola.png
Map of Coprates quadrangle from Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) data. The highest elevations are red and the lowest are blue.
Coordinates [ ⚑ ] : 15°00′S 67°30′W / 15°S 67.5°W / -15; -67.5
Image of the Coprates Quadrangle (MC-18). The prominent Valles Marineris chasma system intersects the moderately cratered northern part and the faulted highland ridged plains in the southern part.

The Coprates quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Research Program. The Coprates quadrangle is also referred to as MC-18 (Mars Chart-18).[1] The Coprates quadrangle contains parts of many of the old classical regions of Mars: Sinai Planum, Solis Planum, Thaumasia Planum, Lunae Planum, Noachis Terra, and Xanthe Terra.

The name Coprates refers to Coprates Chasma, a central trough of the Valles Marineris, named after the Greek name of the Dez River in Persia.[2]

The Coprates quadrangle goes from 45° to 90° west longitude and 0° to 30° south latitude on Mars. Coprates quadrangle is famous for depicting the "Grand Canyon of Mars", the Valles Marineris Canyon System. Signs of water exist in this quadrangle, with ancient river valleys and networks of stream channels showing up as inverted terrain and lakes inside of Valles Marineris.[3]

Origin of Name

Coprates is the name of a telescopic albedo feature located at 15° S and 60° W on Mars. It is named after the Coprates River, an ancient name for the Dez, a tributary of the Karun in modern Iran which empties into the Shatt al-Arab near its Persian Gulf estuary. The name was approved by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1958.[4][5]

Valles Marineris canyon system

Valles Marineris is the largest canyon system in the solar system; this great canyon would go almost all the way across the United States. The name for the whole system of canyons is Valles Marineris. Starting at the west with Noctis Labyrinthus in the Phoenicis Lacus quadrangle, the canyon system ends in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle with Capri Chasma and Eos Chasma (in the south). The word Chasma has been designated by the International Astronomical Union to refer to an elongate, steep-sided depression. Valles Marineris was discovered by and named for the Mariner 9 mission. Moving east from Noctis Labyrinthus, the canyon splits into two troughs, Tithonium Chasma and Ius Chasma (in the south). In the middle of the system are the very wide valleys of Ophir Chasma (north), Candor Chasma, and Melas Chasma (south). Going farther to the east, one comes to Coprates Chasma. At the end of Coprates Chasma, the valley gets wider to form Capri Chasma in the north and Eos Chasma in the south. The walls of the canyons often contain many layers. The floors of some of the canyons contain large deposits of layered materials. Some researchers believe that the layers were formed when water once filled the canyons.[3][6][7][8] The canyons are deep as well as long; in places they are 8-10 kilometers deep, much deeper than the Earth's Grand Canyon, which is only 1.6 kilometers deep.[9]

In a study published in the journal Geology in August 2009, a group of scientists led by John Adams of the University of Washington in Seattle proposed that Valles Marineris may have formed from a giant collapse when salts were heated up, thereby releasing water which rushed out carrying mud through underground plumbing. One point that supports this idea is that sulfate salts have been found in the area. These salts contain water which comes off when heated. Heat may have been generated by volcanic processes. After all, a number of huge volcanoes are nearby.[10] Other ideas have been advanced by others to explain the origin of the system.[3]

  • Wide view of Mars centered on Valles Marineris, taken with Viking images Note, this picture will greatly enlarge by clicking on it several times.

  • Map of Coprates quadrangle showing details of Valles Marineris, the largest canyon system in the solar system. Some of the canyons may have once been filled with water.

  • Melas Chasma, as seen by THEMIS. Click on image to see relationship of Melas Chasma to other features.

  • Cliff in Candor Chasma Plateau, as seen by THEMIS. Click on image to see relationship with other features in Coprates quadrangle.

  • Cliff in northern wall of Ganges Chasma, as seen by THEMIS. Click on image to see relationship with other features in the Coprates quadrangle.

Interior layered deposits and sulfate

Parts of the floors of Candor Chasma and Juventae Chasma contain layered deposits that have been termed interior layered deposits (ILD's) and Equatorial Layered Deposits (ELD's). These layers may have formed when the whole area was a giant lake. However, many other ideas have been advanced to explain them.[3] High-resolution structural and geologic mapping in west Candor Chasma, presented in March 2015, showed that the deposits on the floor of the Candor chasma are basin filling sediments that were deposited in a wet playa like setting; hence water was involved in their formation.[11]

Some places on Mars contain hydrated sulfate deposits, including ILD's. Sulfate formation involves the presence of water. The European Space Agency's Mars Express found possible evidence of the sulfates epsomite and kieserite. Scientists want to visit these areas with robotic rovers.[12]

These deposits have been found to contain ferric oxides in the form of crystalline grey hematite.[3][13][14]

Layers

Images of rocks in the canyon walls almost always show layers.[15] Some layers appear tougher than others. In the image below of Ganges Chasma Layers, as seen by HiRISE, one can see that the upper, light-toned deposits are eroding much faster than the lower darker layers. Some cliffs on Mars show a few darker layers standing out and often breaking into large pieces; these are thought to be hard volcanic rock instead of soft ash deposits. An example of hard layers is shown below in the picture of layers in the canyon wall in Coprates, as seen by Mars Global Surveyor. Because of its closeness to the Tharsis volcanic region, the rock layers may be made of layer after layer of lava flows, probably mixed with deposits of volcanic ash that fell out of the air following big eruptions. It is likely the rock strata in the walls preserve a long geological history of Mars.[16] Dark layers may be due to dark lava flows. The dark volcanic rock basalt is common on Mars. However, light-toned deposits may have resulted from rivers, lakes, volcanic ash, or wind blown deposits of sand or dust.[17] The Mars Rovers found light-toned rocks to contain sulfates. Probably having been formed in water, sulfate deposits are of great interest to scientists because they may contain traces of ancient life.[18] The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) instrument found opaline silica in certain strata along and within the Valles Marineris canyon system.[19] Because Iron sulfates were sometimes found near the opaline silica, it is thought that the two deposits were formed with an acid fluid.[20]

  • Ganges Chasma Layers, as seen by HiRISE.

  • Layers in the canyon wall in Coprates, as seen by Mars Global Surveyor, under the MOC Public Targeting Program.

  • Wide view of layers in wall of Valles Marineris, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.

  • Close-up of layers in wall of Valles Marineris, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.

  • Part of wall of Valles Marineris, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.

  • Close-up of part of previous image of wall of Valles Marineris, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.

  • Layers in trough south of Ius Chasma, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close up of layers in trough south of Ius Chasma, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note: this is enlargement of the previous image using HiView

  • Layers in Monument Valley. These are accepted as being formed, at least in part, by water deposition. Since Mars contains similar layers, water remains as a major cause of layering on Mars.

  • Layers west of Juventae Chasma, as seen by HiRISE. Scale bar is 500 meters long.

  • Orson Welles Crater, as seen by HiRISE. Layered, light-toned rocks seem to be under a dark mantling material. Layers may be sandstone, volcanic ash, or lakebed deposits.

  • Coprates Chasma Fault, as seen by HiRISE. Layers in the rock face may be from volcanic, lacustrine, and/or aeolian sediments deposited in Valles Marineris.

  • Ritchey Crater layers, as seen by HiRISE. The dark cap layer seems to be resistant to erosion, while the white middle layer is weak. Click on image to see more details. Scale bar is 500 meters long.

  • Light colored layers in Eos Chaos, as seen by HiRISE.

  • Two views of Melas Chasma Layered Deposits, as seen by HiRISE. Left picture lies north of other picture on the right. Pictures are not the same scale. Click on image to see details of layers.

  • Tithonium Chasma Layers, as seen by HiRISE.

  • Layers and dark dunes on the floor of a crater, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program. Groundwater may have risen up in the crater and cemented sediments with minerals.

  • Wide view of layers south of Ius Chasma, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of layers south of Ius Chasma, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note: this is an enlargement of the previous wide view.

  • Close view of layers south of Ius Chasma, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note: this is an enlargement of a previous wide view.

  • Layers near top of crater wall, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of layers near top of crater wall, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Wide view of layers in Louros Valles, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Louros Valles is part of the Ius Chasma.

  • Close view of layers in Louros Valles, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note this is an enlargement of a previous image.

  • Close view of layers in Louros Valles, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note this is an enlargement of a previous image.

  • Close view of layers in Louros Valles, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note this is an enlargement of a previous image.

  • Close view of layers in Louros Valles, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note this is an enlargement of a previous image.

  • Wide view of layers in a crater and light-toned material, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Light-toned materials often contain water bearing minerals like sulfates.

  • Layers,as seen by HiRISE A double crater is also visible--the impacting body may have broke up as it entered the Martian atmosphere.

  • Layers in crater, as seen by HiRISE Light toned material is visible also. Light-toned materials often contain water bearing minerals like sulfates. Only part of the image is in color because the camera only takes a color strip in the center.

  • Layers in crater, as seen by HiRISE Light toned material is visible also. Light-toned materials often contain water bearing minerals like sulfates.

  • Layers in crater, as seen by HiRISE

  • Wide view of layers in Candor, as seen by HiRISE. This picture was named HiRISE picture of the day for November 9, 2023.

  • Close view of layers in Candor. Image has been processed in color to bring out more detail. It was named HiRISE picture of the day for November 9, 2023.

Hebes Chasma and hydrated deposits

Hebes Chasma, a large enclosed valley, may have once held water. Hydrated minerals have been found there. It is thought that large-scale underground springs of groundwater at different times burst to the surface to form deposits called Light Toned Deposits (LTD's). Some suggest present or fossilized life forms may be found there because the deposits are relatively young.[21]

Nirgal Vallis and sapping

Nirgal Vallis is one of the longest valley networks on Mars. It is so large that it is found on more than one quadrangle. Scientists do not know how all the ancient river valleys were formed. There is evidence that instead of rain or snow, the water that formed the valleys originated underground. One mechanism that has been advanced is sapping.[22] In sapping, the ground just gives away as water comes out. Sapping is common in some desert areas in America's Southwest. Sapping forms alcoves and stubby tributaries. These features are visible in the picture below of Nigal Vallis taken with Mars Odyssey's THEMIS.

Water from Nirgal Vallis contributed to a great flood that went through the rim of Holden Crater and helped form a lake in the crater. It's estimated that Nirgal Vallis had a discharge of 4800 cubic meters/second.[23] Water from Nirgal Vallis was inbounded in Uzboi Vallis because the rim of Holden Crater blocked the flow. At a certain point the stored water broke through the rim of Holden and created a lake 200–250 m deep.[24] Water with a depth of at least 50 m entered Holden at a rate that 5-10 times the discharge of the Mississippi River.[25][26][27][28] Terraces and the presence of large rocks (tens of meters across) support these high discharge rates.[24][25][29][30][31]

Inverted relief

Some areas of Mars show inverted relief, where features that were once depressions, like streams, are now instead above the surface. These may have been formed when materials, like large rocks, were deposited in low-lying areas, then left behind after erosion (perhaps wind which can not move large rocks) removed much of the surface layers. Other ways of making inverted relief might be lava flowing down a stream bed or materials being cemented by minerals dissolved in water. On Earth, materials cemented by silica are highly resistant to all kinds of erosional forces. Inverted relief in the shape of streams are further evidence of water flowing on the Martian surface in past times. There are many examples of inverted channels near Juventae Chasma; some are shown in the image of Juventae Chasma below.[32][33][34]

  • Inverted Channels near Juventae Chasma, as seen by HiRISE. Channels were once regular stream channels. Scale bar is 500 meters long.

  • Inverted Streams near Juventae Chasma, as seen by Mars Global Surveyor. These streams begin at the top of a ridge then run together.

Vallis

Vallis (plural valles) is the Latin word for valley. It is used in planetary geology for the naming of landform features on other planets.

Vallis was used for old river valleys that were discovered on Mars, when probes were first sent to Mars. The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas. Space craft cameras showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers.[9][35][36]

  • Her Desher Vallis, as seen by HiRISE.

  • Her Desher Vallis close-up, as seen by HiRISE.

Craters

  • Crater showing layers and a bench, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of layers in crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Wide view of crater showing dark dunes on floor and gullies on southern wall, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.

  • Close-up of dark dunes on floor of a crater, as seen by HiRISE, under HiWish program. Dunes are made up of basalt sand.

  • Layers in crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Recurrent slope lineae

Recurrent slope lineae (RSL) are small dark streaks on slopes that elongate in warm seasons. They may be evidence of liquid water.[37][38][39]

  • Wide view of part of Valles Marineris, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Box shows location of recurrent slope lineae that are enlarged in next image.

  • Close, color view of recurrent slope lineae, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Arrows point to some of the recurrent slope lineae

  • Recurrent slope lineae elongate when the slopes are at their warmest. Near the equator, RSL elongate on northern slopes in the northern summer and on the southern slopes in the southern summer.

Water Ice

Deposits of water ice have been found in Candor Chaos in the middle area of Valles Marineris. The neutron telescope on EXoMars found that up to 40.3 wt% of the top meter of soil is probably water ice.[40][41] The instrument involved is called the Fine-Resolution Epithermal Neutron Detector (FREND). Candor Chaos is about the size of the a Netherlands. [42]

Other features in the Coprates quadrangle

  • False color image of Candor Chasma showing locations of hydrated sulfate deposits, as seen by THEMIS. Red colors show rocky places. Greens and blues show sandy, dusty areas.

  • Channels in Candor plateau, as seen by HiRISE. Location is Coprates quadrangle. Click on image to see many small, branched channels which are strong evidence for sustained precipitation.

  • Melas Chasma Fluvial Channels, as seen by HiRISE. Click on image to see meandering and branching channels made with running water in the past.

  • Branching channels on floor of Melas Chasma. Image taken with THEMIS.

  • Ganges Mensa, as seen by HiRISE.

  • Capri Mensa, as seen by HiRISE. Click on image to see buttes and layers.

  • Ophir Chasma Wall, as seen by HiRISE.

  • Ius Chasma, as seen by HiRISE. Click on image to see layers.

  • Ius Chasma Floor Layers, as seen by HiRISE. Scale bar is 500 meters long.

  • Ius Chasma Mesa, as seen by HiRISE. Scale bar is 500 meters long.

  • Channels near the rim of Ius Chasma, as seen by HiRISE. The pattern and high density of these channels support precipitation as the source of the water. Location is Coprates quadrangle.

  • Juventae Chasma Troughs, as seen by HiRISE.

  • Channels West of Echus Chasma. The fine pattern of branching stream beds were probably formed from water moving across the surface. Image taken with THEMIS.

  • Dendritic channels on mesa of Echus Chasma. Image is 20 miles wide. Image taken with THEMIS.

  • Layers in Echus Chasma, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.

  • Part of wall of Valles Marineris, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.

  • Close-up of part of previous image of wall of Valles Marineris, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.

  • Landslide in a trough just south of Ius Chasma, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Trough cutting a wrinkle ridge, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Latitude dependent mantle, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program This smooth appearing material is rich in ice and falls from the sky at times.

  • Band, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Other Mars quadrangles

Mars Quad Map
Mars Quad Map
The image above contains clickable linksClickable image of the 30 cartographic quadrangles of Mars, defined by the USGS.[43][44] Quadrangle numbers (beginning with MC for "Mars Chart")[45] and names link to the corresponding articles. North is at the top; [ ⚑ ] 0°N 180°W / 0°N 180°W / 0; -180 is at the far left on the equator. The map images were taken by the Mars Global Surveyor.

Interactive Mars map

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See also


References

  1. ↑ Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. "Geodesy and Cartography" in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. Mars. University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.
  2. ↑ Blunck, J. 1982. Mars and its Satellites. Exposition Press. Smithtown, N.Y.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Cabrol, N. and E. Grin (eds.). 2010. Lakes on Mars. Elsevier. NY
  4. ↑ "Coprates quadrangle". Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. USGS Astrogeology Research Program.
  5. ↑ Smith, William, ed (1854). "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography". Tufts University. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:entry=choaspes-geo&highlight=coprates. 
  6. ↑ McCauley, J.F. (1978). Geologic map of the Coprates Quadrangle of Mars. doi:10.3133/i897. 
  7. ↑ Nedell, S. (1987). "Origin and evolution of the layered deposits in the Valles Marineris, Mars". Icarus 70 (3): 409–441. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(87)90086-8. Bibcode: 1987Icar...70..409N. 
  8. ↑ Weitz, C.; Parker, T. (2000). "New evidence that the Valles Marineris interior deposits formed in standing bodies of water". Lunar and Planetary Science XXXI: 1693. Bibcode: 2000LPI....31.1693W. http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2000/pdf/1693.pdf. 
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  10. ↑ "Mars Canyon Formed When Plug Was Pulled, Study Suggests". Space.com. 2009-08-25. http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/090825-st-mars-brine.html. 
  11. ↑ Okubo, C. H. (March 2015). "High-Resolution Structural and Geologic Mapping in Candor Chasma". 46th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. pp. 1210. Bibcode: 2015LPI....46.1210O. 
  12. ↑ "Bath Salts in Candor Chasma? | Mars Odyssey Mission THEMIS". Themis.asu.edu. http://themis.asu.edu/features/candorchasma. 
  13. ↑ Christensen, P. (2001). "Global mapping of Martian hematite mineral deposits: Remnants of water-driven processes onearly Mars". J. Geophys. Res. 106 (E10): 23873–23885. doi:10.1029/2000je001415. Bibcode: 2001JGR...10623873C. 
  14. ↑ Weitz, C. (2008). "Gray hematite distribution and formation in Ophir and Candor Chasmata". J. Geophys. Res. 113 (E2): E02016. doi:10.1029/2007je002930. Bibcode: 2008JGRE..113.2016W. 
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  16. ↑ "Landslides and Debris in Coprates Chasma | Mars Odyssey Mission THEMIS". Themis.asu.edu. http://themis.asu.edu/features/coprateschasma. 
  17. ↑ "HiRISE | Light-toned Layers in Eos Chaos (PSP_005385_1640)". Hirise.lpl.arizona.edu. http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/PSP_005385_1640. 
  18. ↑ "Stratigraphy Exposed in Ius Chasma (PSP_007430_1725)". 8 October 2008. https://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/PSP_007430_1725. 
  19. ↑ Murchie, Scott L.; Mustard, John F.; Ehlmann, Bethany L.; Milliken, Ralph E.; Bishop, Janice L.; McKeown, Nancy K.; Noe Dobrea, Eldar Z.; Seelos, Frank P. et al. (22 September 2009). "A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars year of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter". Journal of Geophysical Research 114 (E2): E00D06. doi:10.1029/2009JE003342. Bibcode: 2009JGRE..114.0D06M. https://authors.library.caltech.edu/43957/. Retrieved 18 December 2021. 
  20. ↑ Milliken, R.E.; Swayze, G.A.; Arvidson, R.E.; Bishop, J.L.; Clark, R.N.; Ehlmann, B.L.; Green, R.O.; Grotzinger, J.P. et al. (2008). "Opaline silica in young deposits on Mars". Geology 36 (11): 847. doi:10.1130/G24967A.1. Bibcode: 2008Geo....36..847M. 
  21. ↑ May Have Played Important Role in Shaping Mars
  22. ↑ "Nirgal Vallis". http://themis.asu.edu/zoom-20030916a. 
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  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Grant, John A.; Irwin, Rossman P.; Wilson, Sharon A. (2010). "Aqueous depositional settings in Holden crater, Mars". Lakes on Mars. pp. 323–346. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-52854-4.00012-X. ISBN 978-0-444-52854-4. 
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  30. ↑ Grant, John A. (1 June 1987). "Part 1: The geomorphic evolution of Eastern Margaritifer Sinus, Mars". Advances in Planetary Geology 2. Bibcode: 1987apg..nasa.....G. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19870015823. 
  31. ↑ Parker, Timothy Jay (1985). Geomorphology and geology of the southwestern margaritifer sinus - northern argyre region of mars (Thesis). Los Angeles: California State University. OCLC 939419012.
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  33. ↑ Malin, Michael C.; Edgett, Kenneth S.; Cantor, Bruce A.; Caplinger, Michael A.; Danielson, G. Edward; Jensen, Elsa H.; Ravine, Michael A.; Sandoval, Jennifer L. et al. (1 January 2010). "An overview of the 1985-2006 Mars Orbiter Camera science investigation". International Journal of Mars Science and Exploration 4: 1–60. doi:10.1555/mars.2010.0001. Bibcode: 2010IJMSE...5....1M. 
  34. ↑ Sefton-Nash, E.; Catling, D. C.; Wood, S. E.; Grindrod, P. M.; Teanby, N. A. (1 September 2012). "Topographic, spectral and thermal inertia analysis of interior layered deposits in Iani Chaos, Mars". Icarus 221 (1): 20–42. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2012.06.036. Bibcode: 2012Icar..221...20S. 
  35. ↑ Raeburn, Paul (1998). Mars: Uncovering the Secrets of the Red Planet. National Geographic Society. ISBN 978-0-7922-7373-8. [page needed]
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  38. ↑ McEwen, Alfred S.; Ojha, Lujendra; Dundas, Colin M.; Mattson, Sarah S.; Byrne, Shane; Wray, James J.; Cull, Selby C.; Murchie, Scott L. et al. (5 August 2011). "Seasonal Flows on Warm Martian Slopes". Science 333 (6043): 740–743. doi:10.1126/science.1204816. PMID 21817049. Bibcode: 2011Sci...333..740M. 
  39. ↑ "Recurring slope lineae | Red Planet Report". http://redplanet.asu.edu/?tag=recurring-slope-lineae. 
  40. ↑ Mitrofanov, I.; Malakhov, A.; Djachkova, M.; Golovin, D.; Litvak, M.; Mokrousov, M.; Sanin, A.; Svedhem, H. et al. (1 March 2022). "The evidence for unusually high hydrogen abundances in the central part of Valles Marineris on Mars". Icarus 374: 114805. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114805. Bibcode: 2022Icar..37414805M. 
  41. ↑ "ExoMars Discovers Hidden Water in Mars' Grand Canyon – the Largest Canyon in the Solar System". 16 December 2021. https://scitechdaily.com/exomars-discovers-hidden-water-in-mars-grand-canyon-the-largest-canyon-in-the-solar-system/. 
  42. ↑ "Giant reservoir of 'hidden water' discovered on Mars". 17 December 2021. https://www.livescience.com/water-found-beneath-mars. 
  43. ↑ Morton, Oliver (2002). Mapping Mars: Science, Imagination, and the Birth of a World. New York: Picador USA. p. 98. ISBN 0-312-24551-3. 
  44. ↑ "Online Atlas of Mars". http://ralphaeschliman.com/id30.htm. Retrieved December 16, 2012. 
  45. ↑ "PIA03467: The MGS MOC Wide Angle Map of Mars". NASA / Jet Propulsion Laboratory. February 16, 2002. http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA03467. Retrieved December 16, 2012. 

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