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Alfalfa

Topic: Biology

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 25 min
Short description: Perennial flowering plant

Alfalfa
75 Medicago sativa L.jpg
Medicago sativa[1]
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae
Genus: Medicago
Section: M. sect. Medicago
Species:
M. sativa
Binomial name
Medicago sativa
Subspecies
  • M. sativa subsp. ambigua (Trautv.) Tutin
  • M. sativa subsp. microcarpa Urban
  • M. sativa subsp. sativa
  • M. sativa subsp. varia (T. Martyn) Arcang.
Synonyms[3]

Alfalfa (/ælˈfælfə/) (Medicago sativa), also called lucerne, is a perennial flowering plant in the legume family Fabaceae. It is cultivated as an important forage crop in many countries around the world. It is used for grazing, hay, and silage, as well as a green manure and cover crop. The name alfalfa is used in North America. The name lucerne is more commonly used in the United Kingdom , South Africa , Australia , and New Zealand. The plant superficially resembles clover (a cousin in the same family), especially while young, when trifoliate leaves comprising round leaflets predominate. Later in maturity, leaflets are elongated. It has clusters of small purple flowers followed by fruits spiralled in two to three turns containing 10–20 seeds. Alfalfa is native to warmer temperate climates. It has been cultivated as livestock fodder since at least the era of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

Etymology

The word alfalfa is a Spanish modification of the Arabic word al-faṣfaṣa.[4][5]

History

Alfalfa seems to have originated in south-central Asia, and was first cultivated in Central Asia.[6][7] According to Pliny (died 79 AD), it was introduced to Greece in about 490 BC when the Persians invaded Greek territory. Alfalfa cultivation is discussed in the fourth-century AD book Opus Agriculturae by Palladius, stating: "One sow-down lasts ten years. The crop may be cut four or six times a year ... A jugerum of it is abundantly sufficient for three horses all the year ... It may be given to cattle, but new provender is at first to be administered very sparingly, because it bloats up the cattle."[8]

The medieval Arabic agricultural writer Ibn al-'Awwam, who lived in Spain in the later 12th century, discussed how to cultivate alfalfa, which he called الفصفصة (al-fiṣfiṣa).[9] A 13th-century general-purpose Arabic dictionary, Lisān al-'Arab, says that alfalfa is cultivated as an animal feed and consumed in both fresh and dried forms.[10] It is from the Arabic that the Spanish name alfalfa was derived.[11]

In the 16th century, Spanish colonizers introduced alfalfa to the Americas as fodder for their horses.[12]

In the North American colonies of the eastern US in the 18th century, it was called "lucerne", and many trials at growing it were made, but generally without sufficiently successful results.[7] Relatively little is grown in the southeastern United States today.[13] Lucerne (or luzerne) is the name for alfalfa in Britain, Australia, France , Germany , and a number of other countries. Alfalfa seeds were imported to California from Chile in the 1850s. That was the beginning of a rapid and extensive introduction of the crop over the western US States[6] and introduced the word "alfalfa" to the English language. Since North and South America now produce a large part of the world's output, the word "alfalfa" has been slowly entering other languages.

Ecology

Alfalfa is a perennial forage legume which normally lives four to eight years, but can live more than 20 years, depending on variety and climate.[14] The plant grows to a height of up to 1 metre (3 feet 3 inches), and has a deep root system, sometimes growing to a depth of more than 15 m (49 ft) to reach groundwater. Typically the root system grows to a depth of 2–3 m (7–10 ft) depending on subsoil constraints.[14] Owing to this deep root system, it helps to improve soil nitrogen fertility and protect from soil erosion.[15] This depth of root system, and perenniality of crowns that store carbohydrates as an energy reserve, make it very resilient, especially to droughts. Alfalfa has a tetraploid genome.[16]

Alfalfa is a small-seeded crop, and has a slowly growing seedling, but after several months of establishment, forms a tough "crown" at the top of the root system. This crown contains shoot buds that enable alfalfa to regrow many times after being grazed or harvested; however, overgrazing of the buds will reduce the new leaves on offer to the grazing animal.

This plant exhibits autotoxicity, which means it is difficult for alfalfa seed to grow in existing stands of alfalfa.[17] Therefore, alfalfa fields are recommended to be rotated with other species (for example, corn or wheat) before reseeding.[18] The exact mechanism of auto-toxicity is unclear, with medicarpins and phenols both seeming to play a role.[19] Levels of autotoxicity in soil depends on soil type (clay soils maintain autotoxicity for longer), cultivar and age of the previous crop. A soil assay can be used to measure autotoxicity.[20] Resistant to autotoxicity also varies by cultivar, a tolerant one being 'WL 656HQ'.[21]

Culture

Lucerne fields in the Kalahari Desert (2017)
[ ⚑ ] 24°20′21.5″S 018°35′36.4″E / 24.339306°S 18.593444°E / -24.339306; 18.593444

Alfalfa is widely grown throughout the world as forage for cattle, and is most often harvested as hay, but can also be made into silage, grazed, or fed as greenchop.[22] Alfalfa usually has the highest feeding value of all common hay crops. It is used less frequently as pasture.[18] When grown on soils where it is well-adapted, alfalfa is often the highest-yielding forage plant, but its primary benefit is the combination of high yield per hectare and high nutritional quality.[23]

Its primary use is as feed for high-producing dairy cows, because of its high protein content and highly digestible fiber, and secondarily for beef cattle, horses, sheep, and goats.[24][25] Alfalfa hay is a widely used protein and fiber source for meat rabbits. In poultry diets, dehydrated alfalfa and alfalfa leaf concentrates are used for pigmenting eggs and meat, because of their high content in carotenoids, which are efficient for colouring egg yolk and body lipids.[26] Humans also eat alfalfa sprouts in salads and sandwiches.[27][28] Dehydrated alfalfa leaf is commercially available as a dietary supplement in several forms, such as tablets, powders and tea.[29] Fresh alfalfa can cause bloating in livestock, so care must be taken with livestock grazing on alfalfa because of this hazard.[30]

Like other legumes, its root nodules contain bacteria, Sinorhizobium meliloti, with the ability to fix nitrogen, producing a high-protein feed regardless of available nitrogen in the soil.[31] Its nitrogen-fixing ability (which increases soil nitrogen) and its use as an animal feed greatly improve agricultural efficiency.[32][33]

Alfalfa can be sown in spring or fall, and does best on well-drained soils with a neutral pH of 6.8–7.5.[34][35] Alfalfa requires sustained levels of potassium and phosphorus to grow well.[36] It is moderately sensitive to salt levels in both the soil and irrigation water, although it continues to be grown in the arid southwestern United States, where salinity is an emerging issue.[37][38][39] Soils low in fertility should be fertilized with manure or a chemical fertilizer, but correction of pH is particularly important.[40] Usually a seeding rate of 13–20 kg/ha (12–18 lb/acre) is recommended, with differences based upon region, soil type, and seeding method.[41] A nurse crop is sometimes used, particularly for spring plantings, to reduce weed problems and soil erosion, but can lead to competition for light, water, and nutrients.[42]

In most climates, alfalfa is cut three to four times a year, but it can be harvested up to 12 times per year in Arizona and southern California.[43][44] Total yields are typically around 8 tonnes per hectare (3 1⁄2 short tons per acre) in temperate environments, but yields have been recorded up to 20 tonnes per hectare (9 short tons per acre).[44] Yields vary with region, weather, and the crop's stage of maturity when cut. Later cuttings improve yield, but with reduced nutritional content.[45]

Beneficial insects

Honey bee (Apis mellifera), a pollinator on alfalfa flower

Alfalfa is considered an insectary, a place where insects are reared, and has been proposed as helpful to other crops, such as cotton, if the two are interplanted, because the alfalfa harbours predatory and parasitic insects that would protect the other crop.[46] Harvesting the alfalfa by mowing the entire crop area destroys the insect population, but this can be avoided by mowing in strips so that part of the growth remains.[46]

Pests and diseases

Main page: Biology:List of alfalfa diseases

Like most plants, alfalfa can be attacked by various pests and pathogens. Diseases often have subtle symptoms which are easily misdiagnosed and can affect leaves, roots, stems and blossoms.[47]

Some pests, such as the alfalfa weevil, aphids, and potato leafhopper,[48] can reduce alfalfa yields dramatically, particularly with the second cutting when weather is warmest.[49] Spotted alfalfa aphid, broadly spread in Australia, not only sucks sap but also injects salivary toxins into the leaves.[50] Registered insecticides or chemical controls are sometimes used to prevent this and labels will specify the withholding period before the forage crop can be grazed or cut for hay or silage.[49] Alfalfa is also susceptible to root rots, including Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, and Texas root rot.[51][52][53] Alfalfa is also susceptible to downy mildew caused by the oomycete species Peronospora aestivalis.[54]

Harvesting

Alfalfa hay on the way to Clayton, New Mexico, circa 1915.
Cylindrical bales of alfalfa

When alfalfa is to be used as hay, it is usually cut and baled.[55] Loose haystacks are still used in some areas, but bales are easier for use in transportation, storage, and feed.[56] Ideally, the first cutting should be taken at the bud stage, and the subsequent cuttings just as the field is beginning to flower, or one-tenth bloom because carbohydrates are at their highest.[57] When using farm equipment rather than hand-harvesting, a swather cuts the alfalfa and arranges it in windrows.[58] In areas where the alfalfa does not immediately dry out on its own, a machine known as a mower-conditioner is used to cut the hay.[55] The mower-conditioner has a set of rollers or flails that crimp and break the stems as they pass through the mower, making the alfalfa dry faster.[59] After the alfalfa has dried, a tractor pulling a baler collects the hay into bales.

Several types of bales are commonly used for alfalfa. For small animals and individual horses, the alfalfa is baled into small, two-string bales, commonly named by the strands of string used to wrap it. Other bale sizes are three-string, and so on up to half-ton (six-string) "square" bales – actually rectangular, and typically about 40 cm × 45 cm × 100 cm (16 in × 18 in × 39 in).[16] Small square bales weigh from 25 to 30 kg (55 to 66 lb) depending on moisture, and can be easily hand separated into "flakes". Cattle ranches use large round bales, typically 1.4 to 1.8 m (4 ft 7 in to 5 ft 11 in) in diameter and weighing from 500 to 1,000 kg (1,100 to 2,200 lb). These bales can be placed in stable stacks or in large feeders for herds of horses or unrolled on the ground for large herds of cattle.[16] The bales can be loaded and stacked with a tractor using a spike, known as a bale spear that pierces the center of the bale,[60] or they can be handled with a grapple (claw) on the tractor's front-end loader.

When used as feed for dairy cattle, alfalfa is often made into haylage by a process known as ensiling.[24] Rather than being dried to make dry hay, the alfalfa is chopped finely and fermented in silos, trenches, or bags, where the oxygen supply can be limited to promote fermentation.[61] The anaerobic fermentation of alfalfa allows it to retain high nutrient levels similar to those of fresh forage, and is also more palatable to dairy cattle than dry hay.[62] In many cases, alfalfa silage is inoculated with different strains of microorganisms to improve the fermentation quality and aerobic stability of the silage.[63][64]

Worldwide production

Worldwide alfalfa production

During the early 2000s, alfalfa was the most cultivated forage legume in the world.[65] Worldwide production was around 436 million tons in 2006.[65] In 2009, alfalfa was grown on approximately 30 million hectares (74 million acres) worldwide; of this North America produced 41% (11.9 million hectares (29 million acres)*), Europe produced 25% (7.12 million hectares (17.6 million acres)*), South America produced 23% (7 million hectares (17 million acres)*), Asia produced 8% (2.23 million hectares (5.5 million acres)*), and Africa and Oceania produced the remainder.[66] The US was the largest alfalfa producer in the world by area in 2009, with 9 million hectares (22 million acres), but considerable production area is found in Argentina (6.9 million hectares (17 million acres)*), Canada (2 million hectares (4.9 million acres)*), Russia (1.8 million hectares (4.4 million acres)*), Italy (1.3 million hectares (3.2 million acres)*), and China (1.3 million hectares; 3.2 million acres).[66]

United States

In the United States in 2012, the leading alfalfa-growing states were California, Idaho, and Montana.[13] Alfalfa is predominantly grown in the northern and western United States;[13] it can be grown in the southeastern United States, but leaf and root diseases, poor soils, and a lack of well-adapted varieties are often limitations.[67]

California

Varieties resistant to the spotted alfalfa aphid (Therioaphis maculata) are necessary there, but even that is not always enough due to constant resistance evolution.[68] See also § Varieties.[68]

Australia

New South Wales

New South Wales produces 40% of Australia's lucerne.[69] Due to the introduction of the spotted alfalfa aphid (Therioaphis maculata) in 1977 [70] all varieties grown there must be resistant to it (see also § Varieties).[69][71][72]

Alfalfa and bees

Alfalfa field

Alfalfa seed production requires the presence of pollinators when the fields of alfalfa are in bloom.[16] Alfalfa pollination is somewhat problematic, however, because western honey bees, the most commonly used pollinator, are less than ideal for this purpose; the pollen-carrying keel of the alfalfa flower trips and strikes pollinating bees on the head, which helps transfer the pollen to the foraging bee.[16] Western honey bees, however, do not like being struck in the head repeatedly and learn to defeat this action by drawing nectar from the side of the flower. The bees thus collect the nectar, but carry no pollen, so do not pollinate the next flower they visit.[73] Because older, experienced bees do not pollinate alfalfa well, most pollination is accomplished by young bees that have not yet learned the trick of robbing the flower without tripping the head-knocking keel.

When western honey bees are used to pollinate alfalfa, the beekeeper stocks the field at a very high rate to maximize the number of young bees.[73] However, Western honey bee colonies may suffer protein stress when working alfalfa only, because alfalfa pollen protein is deficient in isoleucine, one of the amino acids essential in the diet of honeybee larvae.

Today, the alfalfa leafcutter bee (Megachile rotundata) is increasingly used to circumvent these problems.[74] As a solitary but gregarious bee species, it does not build colonies or store honey, but is a very efficient pollinator of alfalfa flowers.[74] Nesting is in individual tunnels in wooden or plastic material, supplied by the alfalfa seed growers.[73] The leafcutter bees are used in the Pacific Northwest, while western honeybees dominate in California alfalfa seed production.[73]

M. rotundata was unintentionally introduced into the United States during the 1940s, and its management as a pollinator of alfalfa has led to a three-fold increase in seed production in the U.S. The synchronous emergence of the adult bees of this species during alfalfa blooming period in combination with such behaviors as gregarious nesting, and utilization of leaves and nesting materials that have been mass-produced by humans provide positive benefits for the use of these bees in pollinating alfalfa.[75]

A smaller amount of alfalfa produced for seed is pollinated by the alkali bee, mostly in the northwestern United States. It is cultured in special beds near the fields. These bees also have their own problems. They are not portable like honey bees, and when fields are planted in new areas, the bees take several seasons to build up.[73] Honey bees are still trucked to many of the fields at bloom time.

The rusty patched bumble bee, Bombus affinis, is important to the agricultural industry as well as for the pollination of alfalfa.[76] It is known that members of this species pollinate up to 65 different species of plants, and it is the primary pollinator of key dietary crops, such as cranberries, plums, apples, onions, and alfalfa.[77]

Varieties

Small square bales of alfalfa

Considerable research and development has been done with this important plant. Older cultivars such as 'Vernal' have been the standard for years, but many public and private varieties better adapted to particular climates are available.[78] Private companies release many new varieties each year in the US.[79]

Most varieties go dormant in the fall, with reduced growth in response to low temperatures and shorter days.[79] 'Nondormant' varieties that grow through the winter are planted in long-season environments such as Mexico, Arizona, and Southern California, whereas 'dormant' varieties are planted in the Upper Midwest, Canada, and the Northeast.[79] 'Nondormant' varieties can be higher-yielding, but they are susceptible to winter-kill in cold climates and have poorer persistence.[79]

Most alfalfa cultivars contain genetic material from sickle medick (M. falcata), a crop wild relative of alfalfa that naturally hybridizes with M. sativa to produce sand lucerne (M. sativa ssp. varia). This species may bear either the purple flowers of alfalfa or the yellow of sickle medick, and is so called for its ready growth in sandy soil.[80] Traits for insect resistance have also been introduced from M. glomerata and M. prostrata, members of alfalfa's secondary gene pool.[81]

Watering an alfalfa field

Most of the improvements in alfalfa over the last decades have consisted of better disease resistance on poorly drained soils in wet years, better ability to overwinter in cold climates, and the production of more leaves. Multileaf alfalfa varieties have more than three leaflets per leaf.[82]

Alfalfa growers or lucerne growers have a suite of varieties or cultivars to choose from in the seed marketplace and base their selection on a number of factors including the dormancy or activity rating, crown height, fit for purpose (i.e., hay production or grazing), disease resistance, insect pest resistance, forage yield, fine leafed varieties and a combination of many favourable attributes. Plant breeding efforts use scientific methodology and technology to strive for new improved varieties.

The L. Teweles Seed Company claimed it created the world's first hybrid alfalfa.[83]

Wisconsin and California and many other states publish alfalfa variety trial data. A complete listing of state variety testing data is provided by the North American Alfalfa Improvement Conference (NAAIC) State Listing, as well as additional detailed alfalfa genetic and variety data published by NAAIC.

Genetic modification

Roundup Ready alfalfa, a genetically modified variety, was released by Forage Genetics International in 2005. This was developed through the insertion of a gene owned by Monsanto Company that confers resistance to glyphosate, a broad-spectrum herbicide, also known as Roundup. Although most grassy and broadleaf plants, including ordinary alfalfa, are killed by Roundup, growers can spray fields of Roundup Ready alfalfa with the glyphosate herbicide and kill the weeds without harming the alfalfa crop.

Legal issues in the US

In 2005, after completing a 28-page environmental assessment (EA)[84] the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) granted Roundup Ready alfalfa (RRA) nonregulated status[85] under Code of Federal Regulations Title 7 Part 340,[86] which regulates, among other things, the introduction (importation, interstate movement, or release into the environment) of organisms and products altered or produced through genetic engineering that are plant pests or that there is reason to believe are plant pests. Monsanto had to seek deregulation to conduct field trials of RRA, because the RRA contains a promoter sequence derived from the plant pathogen figwort mosaic virus.[84] The USDA granted the application for deregulation, stating that the RRA with its modifications: "(1) Exhibit no plant pathogenic properties; (2) are no more likely to become weedy than the nontransgenic parental line or other cultivated alfalfa; (3) are unlikely to increase the weediness potential of any other cultivated or wild species with which it can interbreed; (4) will not cause damage to raw or processed agricultural commodities; (5) will not harm threatened or endangered species or organisms that are beneficial to agriculture; and (6) should not reduce the ability to control pests and weeds in alfalfa or other crops."[84] Monsanto started selling RRA and within two years, more than 300,000 acres were devoted to the plant in the US.[87]

The granting of deregulation was opposed by many groups, including growers of non-GM alfalfa who were concerned about gene flow into their crops.[84] In 2006, the Center for Food Safety, a US non-governmental organization that is a critic of biotech crops, and others, challenged this deregulation in the California Northern District Court.[88] Organic growers were concerned that the GM alfalfa could cross-pollinate with their organic alfalfa, making their crops unsalable in countries that ban the growing of GM crops.[89] The District Court ruled that the USDA's EA did not address two issues concerning RRA's effect on the environment,[90] and in 2007, required the USDA to complete a much more extensive environmental impact statement (EIS). Until the EIS was completed, they banned further planting of RRA but allowed land already planted to continue.[87][91] The USDA proposed a partial deregulation of RRA but this was also rejected by the District Court.[88] Planting of RRA was halted.

In June 2009, a divided three-judge panel on the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the District Court's decision.[92] Monsanto and others appealed to the US Supreme Court.[92]

On 21 June 2010, in Monsanto Co. v. Geertson Seed Farms, the Supreme Court overturned the District Court decision to ban planting RRA nationwide as there was no evidence of irreparable injury.[93] They ruled that the USDA could partially deregulate RRA before an EIS was completed. The Supreme Court did not consider the District Court's ruling disallowing RRA's deregulation and consequently RRA was still a regulated crop waiting for USDA's completion of an EIS.[88]

This decision was welcomed by the American Farm Bureau Federation, Biotechnology Industry Organization, American Seed Trade Association, American Soybean Association, National Alfalfa and Forage Alliance, National Association of Wheat Growers, National Cotton Council, and National Potato Council.[94] In July 2010, 75 members of Congress from both political parties sent a letter to Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack asking him to immediately allow limited planting of genetically engineered alfalfa.[95][96] However the USDA did not issue interim deregulatory measures, instead focusing on completing the EIS. Their 2,300-page EIS was published in December 2010.[97] It concluded that RRA would not affect the environment.

Three of the biggest natural food brands in the US lobbied for a partial deregulation of RRA,[98] but in January 2011, despite protests from organic groups, Secretary Vilsack announced that the USDA had approved the unrestricted planting of genetically modified alfalfa and planting resumed.[99][100][101] Secretary Vilsack commented, "After conducting a thorough and transparent examination of alfalfa ... APHIS [Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service] has determined that Roundup Ready alfalfa is as safe as traditionally bred alfalfa."[102] About 20 million acres (8 million hectares) of alfalfa were grown in the US, the fourth-biggest crop by acreage, of which about 1% were organic. Some biotechnology officials forecast that half of the US alfalfa acreage could eventually be planted with GM alfalfa.[103]

The National Corn Growers Association,[104] the American Farm Bureau Federation,[105] and the Council for Biotech Information[106] warmly applauded this decision. Christine Bushway, CEO of the Organic Trade Association, said, "A lot of people are shell-shocked. While we feel Secretary Vilsack worked on this issue, which is progress, this decision puts our organic farmers at risk."[103] The Organic Trade Association issued a press release in 2011 saying that the USDA recognized the impact that cross-contamination could have on organic alfalfa and urged them to place restrictions to minimize any such contamination.[107] However, organic farming groups, organic food outlets, and activists responded by publishing an open letter saying that planting the "alfalfa without any restrictions flies in the face of the interests of conventional and organic farmers, preservation of the environment, and consumer choice."[108] Senator Debbie Stabenow, Chairwoman of the Senate Agriculture Committee,[109] House Agriculture Committee Chairman Frank Lucas[109] and Senator Richard Lugar[110] issued statements strongly supporting the decision "... giving growers the green light to begin planting an abundant, affordable and safe crop" and giving farmers and consumers the choice ... in planting or purchasing food grown with GM technology, conventionally, or organically." In a joint statement, US Senator Patrick Leahy and Representative Peter DeFazio said the USDA had the "opportunity to address the concerns of all farmers", but instead "surrender[ed] to business as usual for the biotech industry."[111]

The non-profit Center for Food Safety appealed this decision in March 2011[112] but the District Court for Northern California rejected this motion in 2012.[113]

Phytoestrogens in alfalfa and effect on livestock fertility

Alfalfa, like other leguminous crops, is a known source of phytoestrogens,[114] including spinasterol,[115] coumestrol, and coumestan.[116] Because of this, grazing on alfalfa during breeding can cause reduced fertility in sheep and in dairy cattle if not effectively managed.[116][117]

Coumestrol levels in alfalfa have been shown to be elevated by fungal infection, but not significantly under drought stress[118] or aphid infestation.[119] Grazing management can be utilised to mitigate the effects of coumestrol on ewe reproductive performance, with full recovery after removal from alfalfa.[117] Coumestrol levels in unirrigated crops can be predicted practically using weather variables.[120]

Nutritional value

A close up of alfalfa sprouts, which are commonly used as a garnish on soups or as a filling in sandwiches and salads.

Raw alfalfa seed sprouts are 93% water, 2% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and contain negligible fat (table). In a 100-gram (3 1⁄2-ounce) reference amount, raw alfalfa sprouts supply 96 kilojoules (23 kilocalories) of food energy and 29% of the Daily Value of vitamin K. They are a moderate source of vitamin C, some B vitamins, phosphorus, and zinc (table).

Sprouts

Alfalfa seeds, sprouted, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy96 kJ (23 kcal)
2.1 g
Dietary fiber1.9 g
0.7 g
4 g
VitaminsQuantity %DV†
Thiamine (B1)
7%
0.076 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
11%
0.126 mg
Niacin (B3)
3%
0.481 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
11%
0.563 mg
Vitamin B6
3%
0.034 mg
Folate (B9)
9%
36 μg
Vitamin C
10%
8.2 mg
Vitamin K
29%
30.5 μg
MineralsQuantity %DV†
Calcium
3%
32 mg
Iron
7%
0.96 mg
Magnesium
8%
27 mg
Manganese
9%
0.188 mg
Phosphorus
10%
70 mg
Potassium
2%
79 mg
Sodium
0%
6 mg
Zinc
10%
0.92 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water93 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Sprouting alfalfa seeds is the process of germinating seeds at the immature stage for use as a garnish on various food preparations, such as salads. Although sprouts may be grown in soil, they are more commonly germinated in a soilless medium using drums, trays or racks.[121]

Safety concerns

Alfalfa sprouts may contain microbiological pathogens, mainly from Salmonella or E. coli, which have caused numerous food product recalls and illness outbreaks, putting sprouts into a "high risk" category for food safety.[121][122][123] People with weakened immune systems, such as the elderly, pregnant women, or those taking prescription drugs affecting the immune system, should not eat sprouts.[123]

With long-term human consumption of alfalfa seeds, several safety concerns and medication interactions may result, including possible reactions similar to the autoimmune disease, lupus erythematosus.[124]

Other concerns are for women during pregnancy or breast-feeding, hormone-sensitive conditions (such as breast, uterine, and ovarian cancers), and for people with diabetes.[124] Alfalfa may interact with warfarin (coumadin), birth control pills (contraceptive drugs), and estrogens.[124]

Toxicity of canavanine

Raw alfalfa seeds and sprouts are a source of the amino acid canavanine. Much of the canavanine is converted into other amino acids during germination, so sprouts contain much less canavanine than unsprouted seeds.[125] Canavanine competes with arginine, resulting in the synthesis of dysfunctional proteins. Raw unsprouted alfalfa has toxic effects in primates, including humans, which can result in lupus-like symptoms and other immunological diseases in susceptible individuals.[126][127] Stopping consumption of alfalfa seeds can reverse the effects.[128]

Gallery

  • Medicago sativa

  • M. sativa

  • Yellow flowers

  • M. sativa var. sativa, mature fruits

  • Seeds (actual size ≈ 2mm)

  • Lucerne field

References

  1. ↑ illustration from Amédée Masclef - Atlas des plantes de France. 1891
  2. ↑ "Medicago sativa – ILDIS LegumeWeb". ildis.org. http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb?sciname=Medicago+sativa. 
  3. ↑ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=medicago+sativa. 
  4. ↑ "Alfalfa". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper Inc.. 2019. https://www.etymonline.com/word/alfalfa. 
  5. ↑ "Alfalfa". Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alfalfa. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Westgate, J. M. (1908). Alfalfa. Washington: U. S. Department of Agriculture. p. 5. http://www.naaic.org/Resources/Alfalfa1908.pdf. Retrieved 28 July 2013. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Oakley, R. A.; Westover, H. L. (1922). How to Grow Alfalfa. United States Department of Agriculture. p. 3. OCLC 15432716. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc6202/m1/5/. 
  8. ↑ Palladius (1898). "Book V, § I". Opus Agriculturae. https://archive.org/details/opusagriculturae00pall.  Links to online copies are listed at the foot of the Wikipedia article Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus Palladius.
  9. ↑ Ibn al-'Awwam. "Chapter XXII, § VIII". Kitāb al-filāḥa.  Links to online copies in French, Spanish, and Arabic are listed at the foot of the Wikipedia article Ibn al-'Awwam.
  10. ↑ Lisān al-'Arab is online at Baheth.info . Search for فصفصة in the dictionary. (The dictionary is also downloadable at Archive.org but that version doesn't have searchable text).
  11. ↑ Dozy, R.; Engelmann, W. H. (1869) (in fr). Glossaire des mots espagnols et portugais dérivés de l'arabe (2nd ed.). Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 101. https://archive.org/stream/glossairedesmots00dozyuoft#page/101/mode/1up. Retrieved 28 July 2013.  "Alfalfa". Alfalfa. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/alfalfa. Retrieved 28 July 2013.  "Alfalfa". YourDictionary. http://www.yourdictionary.com/alfalfa. 
  12. ↑ Bilello, Stanley (2016-10-10) (in en). 21st Century Homestead: Nitrogen-Fixing Crops. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-365-45290-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=yZc_DQAAQBAJ&dq=Spanish+colonizers+introduced+alfalfa+to+the+Americas+as+fodder+for+their+horses&pg=PA1. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 "Crop Production: 2012 Summary". United States Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service. January 2013. p. 33. http://usda01.library.cornell.edu/usda/current/CropProdSu/CropProdSu-01-11-2013.pdf. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "alfalfa (plant) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/14595/alfalfa. Retrieved 29 June 2011. 
  15. ↑ LATRACH, Lahbib; FARISSI, Mohamed; MAURADI, Mohammed; MAKOUDI, Bouchra; BOUIZGAREN, Abdelaziz; GHOULAM, Cherki (2014). "Growth and nodulation of alfalfa-rhizobia symbiosis under salinity: electrolyte leakage, stomatal conductance, and chlorophyll fluorescence". Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 38: 320–326. doi:10.3906/tar-1305-52. ISSN 1300-011X. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 "CELL BIOLOGY & MOLECULAR GENETICS". Ddr.nal.usda.gov. http://ddr.nal.usda.gov/bitstream/10113/22014/1/IND23276500.pdf. 
  17. ↑ Jennings, John. "Understanding Autotoxicity in Alfalfa". University of Wisconsin Extension Service (Madison). https://fyi.extension.wisc.edu/forage/understanding-autotoxicity-in-alfalfa/. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE MANAGEMENT GUIDES". Kansas Rural Center. http://www.kansasruralcenter.org/publications/alfalfa.pdf. 
  19. ↑ Volenec, Jeff; Johnson, Keith. "Managing Alfalfa Autotoxicity". https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/AY/AY-324-W.pdf. 
  20. ↑ "Alfalfa autotoxicity remains a mystery" (in en). https://hayandforage.com/article-3422-alfalfa-autotoxicity-remains-a-mystery.html. 
  21. ↑ Zhang, Xiao-Yan; Shi, Shang-Li; Li, Xiao-Long; Li, Chang-Ning; Zhang, Cui-Mei; A, Yun; Kang, Wen-Juan; Yin, Guo-Li (21 May 2021). "Effects of Autotoxicity on Alfalfa (Medicago sativa): Seed Germination, Oxidative Damage and Lipid Peroxidation of Seedlings". Agronomy 11 (6): 1027. doi:10.3390/agronomy11061027. 
  22. ↑ "Alfalfa in the South". Caf.wvu.edu. http://www.caf.wvu.edu/~forage/library/forglvst/bulletins/salfalfa.pdf. 
  23. ↑ "A". UKY. http://www.uky.edu/Ag/AnimalSciences/pubs/id97.pdf. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "Alfalfa for Dairy Cattle". Uaex.edu. http://www.uaex.edu/Other_Areas/publications/PDF/FSA-4000.pdf. 
  25. ↑ "HayUSA, INC. Premium Quality – Alfalfa". Hayusa.net. http://www.hayusa.net/alfalfa.html. 
  26. ↑ Heuzé, V.; Tran, G.; Boval, M.; Lebas, F.; Lessire, M.; Noblet, J.; Renaudeau, D. (6 October 2013). "Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)". Feedipedia.org. A programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/275. 
  27. ↑ Spottiswood, John. "Alfalfa sprouts". CookEatShare. http://cookeatshare.com/ingredients/alfalfa-sprouts. 
  28. ↑ "Alfalfa for Industrial and Other Uses". Alfalfa.ucdavis.edu. http://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu/IrrigatedAlfalfa/pdfs/UCAlfalfa8305Industrial_free.pdf. 
  29. ↑ "Alfalfa: MedlinePlus Supplements". Nlm.nih.gov. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-alfalfa.html. 
  30. ↑ Medicago Sativa (Alfalfa) . Plantdex.com. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
  31. ↑ "Sinorhizobium meliloti genome home". Cmgm.stanford.edu. http://cmgm.stanford.edu/~mbarnett/genome.htm. 
  32. ↑ "Nitrogen Fixation in Crop Production". portal.sciencesocities.org. https://portal.sciencesocieties.org/Downloads/pdf/B40724.pdf. 
  33. ↑ "Commodity Fact Sheet Alfalfa Information compiled by the California Alfalfa and Forage Association". Alfalfa.ucdavis.edu. http://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu/-files/pdf/alfalfaFactSheet.pdf. 
  34. ↑ "UCANR Web Sites". Cestanislaus.ucdavis.edu. http://cestanislaus.ucdavis.edu/files/299.htm. 
  35. ↑ "Archived copy". http://forageresearch.tamu.edu/1985/CloverEstablishmentGrowth.pdf. 
  36. ↑ "Phosphorus and Potassium Fertilization of Alfalfa". Ces.purdue.edu. http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/AY/AY-331-W.pdf. 
  37. ↑ G4555 Managing Manure on Alfalfa Hay | University of Missouri Extension . Extension.missouri.edu. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
  38. ↑ "New Findings on Salinity in Streams and Ground Water in the Southwestern United States". Water.usgs.gov. http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/studies/mrb/salinity_briefing_sheet.pdf. 
  39. ↑ "Growing Alfalfa for Seed in Arizona". Ag.arizona.edu. http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/crops/az1129.pdf. 
  40. ↑ Fertilizing Alfalfa in Minnesota . Extension.umn.edu. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
  41. ↑ Alfalfa seeding rates: how much is too much? . Uwex.edu. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
  42. ↑ MT200504.indd . (PDF) . Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
  43. ↑ Alfalfa Cutting Height . Uwex.edu (9 April 1999). Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "California Agriculture in the Classroom". https://learnaboutag.org/. 
  45. ↑ Alfalfa: The High-Quality Hay for Horses. (PDF) . Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Thomas F. Leigh (n.d.). "Alfalfa as an insectary for beneficial insects". http://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu/+symposium/proceedings/1991/91-49.pdf. 
  47. ↑ GQ, L.; Huang, H.C.; Acharya, S.N.; Erickson, R.S. (2005). "Effectiveness of Coniothyrium minitans and Trichoderma atroviride in suppression of sclerotinia blossom blight of alfalfa.". Plant Pathol. 54 (2): 204–211. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2005.01119.x. 
  48. ↑ "Potato Leafhopper on Alfalfa (Department of Entomology)". https://ento.psu.edu/extension/factsheets/potato-leafhopper-alfalfa. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 "Insect Pest Management on Alfalfa, FC-ENT-0031-00". http://ohioline.osu.edu/ent-fact/0031.html. 
  50. ↑ Section, Government of Alberta, Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, Livestock and Crops Division, Crop Research and Extension Branch, Pest Surveillance (1983-03-01). "Spotted Alfalfa Aphid" (in en). https://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex728. 
  51. ↑ Phytophthora Root Rot of Alfalfa Key words: Plant Disease, Lucerne, black medic, birdsfoot trefoil, Phytophthora megasperma F. sp. medicaginis . Nu-distance.unl.edu (26 February 1997). Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
  52. ↑ "Rhizoctonia Root, Stem, and Crown Rot of Alfalfa AC-42-96". http://ohioline.osu.edu/ac-fact/0042.html. 
  53. ↑ "Phymatotrichum Root Rot". Pods.dasnr.okstate.edu. http://pods.dasnr.okstate.edu/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-2321/EPP-7621web.pdf. 
  54. ↑ Constantinescu, O. (1991). "An annotated list of Peronospora names". Thunbergia 15. 
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 "Har vesting Alfalfa Hay". Uaex.edu. http://www.uaex.edu/Other_Areas/publications/PDF/FSA-2005.pdf. 
  56. ↑ G4570 Reducing Losses when Feeding Hay to Beef Cattle | University of Missouri Extension . Extension.missouri.edu. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
  57. ↑ Alfalfa Management Guide—Harvest (3 of 3)[yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}]. (PDF) . Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
  58. ↑ Hay harvesting by Self-Propelled Swather compared with mowing and raking . (PDF) . Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
  59. ↑ hay mower-conditioner (agriculture) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Britannica.com. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
  60. ↑ "Washburn Company Auger, Hay bale spear & attachments, Grain Equipment, Fence Line Mower". http://www.washburncompany.com/. 
  61. ↑ "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite web}}". http://ucanr.org/alf_symp/1995/95-55.pdf. 
  62. ↑ [1]
  63. ↑ "The Ensiling Process and Additives". Extension.iastate.edu. http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM417H.pdf. 
  64. ↑ "Alfalfa control test with polymicrobial biofertilizer". http://explogrow.com/case-studies/growing-lucerne-with-organic-bio-fertilizer. 
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 M S Reddy; Rodolfo I. Ilao; Patricio S. Faylon (10 November 2014). Recent Advances in Biofertilizers and Biofungicides (PGPR) for Sustainable Agriculture. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 381. ISBN 978-1-4438-7105-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=BOumBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA381. 
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 Cash, Dennis, ed (2009). "Chapter 1. Global Status and Development Trends of Alfalfa". Alfalfa Management Guide for Ningxia. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. pp. 1–2. http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/doc/ningxia_guide/chapter1.pdf. Retrieved 3 August 2013. 
  67. ↑ "Alfalfa in the South". Certified Alfalfa Seed Council. p. 2. http://www.caf.wvu.edu/~forage/library/forglvst/bulletins/salfalfa.pdf. 
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Godfrey, L. D.; Natwick, E. T.; Goodell, P. B.; Long, R. F.; Barlow, V. M. (January 2017). "Spotted Alfalfa Aphid Therioaphis maculata Agriculture: Alfalfa Pest Management Guidelines". https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/alfalfa/Spotted-alfalfa-aphid/. 
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 "Lucerne". 2022-07-27. https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/species-varieties/lucerne. 
  70. ↑ Sunnucks, P.; Driver, F.; Brown, W. V.; Carver, M.; Hales, D. F.; Milne, W. M. (August 1997). "Biological and genetic characterization of morphologically similar Therioaphis trifolii (Hemiptera: Aphididae) with different host utilization" (in en). Bulletin of Entomological Research 87 (4): 425–436. doi:10.1017/S0007485300037433. ISSN 0007-4853. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0007485300037433/type/journal_article. 
  71. ↑ "Lucerne varieties". 2022-07-27. https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/species-varieties/pf/factsheets/lucerne-varieties. 
  72. ↑ "Lucerne". 2019-01-11. https://agrifutures.com.au/farm-diversity/lucerne/. 
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 73.2 73.3 73.4 Milius, Susan (6 January 2007). "Most Bees Live Alone: No hives, no honey, but maybe help for crops". Science News 171 (1): 11–3. doi:10.1002/scin.2007.5591710110. 
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 Alfalfa Leafcutter Bee in California. Pollination.com. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
  75. ↑ Pitts-Singer, Theresa L.; Cane, James H. (2011-01-01). "The alfalfa leafcutting bee, Megachile rotundata: the world's most intensively managed solitary bee". Annual Review of Entomology 56: 221–237. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-120709-144836. ISSN 1545-4487. PMID 20809804. 
  76. ↑ Evans, Elaine. "Status Review of Three Formerly Common Species of Bumble Bee in the Subgenus Bombus". http://www.xerces.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/03/xerces_2008_bombus_status_review.pdf. 
  77. ↑ Canada, Government of Canada, Environment (15 December 2010). "COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Rusty–patched Bumble Bee Bombus affinis in Canada – 2010 - Species at Risk Public Registry". http://registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=0F864E45-1. 
  78. ↑ "Alfalfa Variety Characteristics, AGF-014-92". http://ohioline.osu.edu/agf-fact/0014.html. 
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 79.2 79.3 "Alfalfa Variety Selection". Msuextension.org. http://msuextension.org/publications/AgandNaturalResources/MT199303AG.pdf. 
  80. ↑ Joseph Elwyn Wing, Alfalfa Farming in the U.S. 79 (Sanders Publishing Co. 1912)".
  81. ↑ Vincent HA, Wiersema J, Dobbie SL, Kell SP, Fielder H, Castañeda Alvarez NP, Guarino L, Eastwood R, Leόn B, Maxted N. 2012. A prioritised crop wild relative inventory to help underpin global food security.[yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}] (in preparation).
  82. ↑ [2] , Leaf Morphology, Shoot Growth, and Gas Exchange of Multifoliolate Alfalfa Phenotypes.
  83. ↑ "Kent Feeds Buys Seed Firm Here". The Milwaukee Journal. 21 July 1972. https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=1QcqAAAAIBAJ&pg=7348,214737&dq=teweles&hl=en. [yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 84.2 84.3 USDA/APHIS Environmental Assessment United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Biotechnology Regulatory Services, October 2004. Retrieved 13 November 2011
  85. ↑ Monsanto Co. and Forage Genetics International; Availability Determination of Nonregulated Status for Alfalfa Genetically Engineered for Tolerance to the Herbicide Glyphosate Federal Register, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, 27 June 2005. Retrieved 12 November 2011
  86. ↑ Code of Federal Regulations, Title 7: Agriculture Part 340—Introduction of Organisms and Products Altered or Produced Through Genetic Engineering Which Are Plant Pests or Which There Is Reason to Believe Are Plant Pests
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 Steve Orloff and Dan Putnam Roundup Ready Alfalfa—What Have We Learned to Date? Proceedings, 2011 Western Alfalfa & Forage Conference, Las Vegas, NV, 11–13 December 2011
  88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 88.2 Monsanto et al v Geertson Seed Farms et al , Supreme Court of the United States, Decision no 09-475, 21 June 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2011
  89. ↑ Supreme Court on Modified Foods: Who Won?, by Barry Estabrook, 'The Atlantic'. 22 June 2010. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
  90. ↑ These two issues were: 1) evaluation of the risk that complete deregulation of RRA would lead to cross-pollination or the transmission of the gene conferring glyphosate tolerance from RRA to conventional alfalfa 2) evaluation of the risk that growing RRA might lead to the development of Roundup-resistant weeds.
  91. ↑ Memorandum and Order Re: Permanent Injunction United States District Court for Northern California, Case No C 06-01075 CR, 3 May 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2011
  92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 Supreme Court Lifts Ban on Planting GM Alfalfa by Jennifer Koons, NYT, 21 June 2010 (Retrieved 21 June 2010)
  93. ↑ Monsanto Company v. Geertson Seed Farms at ScotusWiki – Briefs and Documents, etc.
  94. ↑ Staff (22 June 2010) Ag Groups Applaud Supreme Court Ruling On Biotech Alfalfa Medical News Today, Retrieved 1 November 2012
  95. ↑ Staff (2010) Supreme Court rules in favor of RR alfalfa Seed World, Retrieved 1 November 2012
  96. ↑ Letter by 75 Members of Congress to Vilsack Retrieved 1 November 2012
  97. ↑ Glyphosate-Tolerant Alfalfa Events J101 and J163: Request for Nonregulated Status Final Environmental Impact Statement , United States Department of Agriculture, December 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2011
  98. ↑ Staff (24 February 2011) Deregulation of genetically modified alfalfa stirs debate about 'coexistence' Ohio Farm Bureau Federation Inc., Retrieved 1 November 2011
  99. ↑ USDA - Roundup Ready® Alfalfa Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) , United States Department of Agriculture, December 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2011
  100. ↑ Gilla, Carey and Doering, Christopher UPDATE 3-U.S. farmers get approval to plant GMO alfalfa Reuters US Edition, 27 January 2011. Retrieved 28 April 2011
  101. ↑ Vilsack's USDA Officially Approves Controversial Genetifically Modified Alfalfa. Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 8 February 2011.
  102. ↑ USDA News Release No. 0035.11, 27 January 2011. USDA Announces Decision to Fully Deregulate Roundup Ready Alfalfa
  103. ↑ 103.0 103.1 Tomson, Bill and Kilman, Scott USDA Won't Impose Restrictions on Biotech Alfalfa Crop Wall Street Journal, 27 January 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2011
  104. ↑ Staff (20 January 2011) National Corn Growers Assn. supports deregulation of Roundup Ready alfalfa The Minnesota Farm Guide, Retrieved 1 November 2012
  105. ↑ Tannen, Benjamin (14 March 2011) USDA Fully Deregulates Genetically Modified Alfalfa University of Pennsylvania Law School, RegBlog News, Retrieved 1 November 2012
  106. ↑ Staff (27 January 2011) BIO Applauds USDA Decision to Deregulate Biotech Alfalfa Biotech Now, Retrieved 1 November 2012
  107. ↑ Organic Trade Association's Organic Newsroom: Organic industry wants farmers protected in the marketplace . Organicnewsroom.com (20 January 2011). Retrieved on 8 February 2011.
  108. ↑ "We Stand United in Opposition to GE Alfalfa". 31 January 2011. http://www.unfi.com/OpenLetter_GEAlfalfa.aspx. 
  109. ↑ 109.0 109.1 Staff (January 2011) Senate Ag's Stabenow, House Ag's Lucas welcome biotech alfalfa deregulation Agri-Pulse Communications Inc., Retrieved 1 November 2012
  110. ↑ Harsch, John H. (27 January 2011) Sen. Lugar strongly supports GE alfalfa deregulation, to avoid 'government control' Agri-Pulse Communications Inc., Retrieved 1 November 2012
  111. ↑ Press Release, Sem Patrick Leahy website. 27 January 2011 USDA’s Decision Thursday On Genetically Engineered Alfalfa – Leahy And DeFazio Warn About USDA Decision Lifting All Protections For Organic And Conventional Farmers
  112. ↑ Maria Rodale: We Stand in Opposition to GE Alfalfa. Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 8 February 2011.
  113. ↑ Staff (12 May 2012) Challenge to Genetically Engineered Alfalfa Rejected 31 Biotechnology Law Report 151, Number 2 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2012
  114. ↑ Saloniemi, Hannu; Wähälä, Kristiina; Nykänen-Kurki, Päivi; Kallela, Kaarlo; Saastamoinen, Ilkka (January 1995). "Phytoestrogen content and estrogenic effect of legume fodder". Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 208 (1): 13–7. doi:10.3181/00379727-208-43825. PMID 7892287. 
  115. ↑ "Chemical Substance - alpha-Spinasterol". Health Canada. 8 July 2013. http://webprod.hc-sc.gc.ca/nhpid-bdipsn/ingredReq.do?id=3052&lang=eng. 
  116. ↑ 116.0 116.1 "Notes on poisoning: alfalfa". Canadian Poisonous Plants Information System. Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility. 8 July 2014. http://www.cbif.gc.ca/eng/species-bank/canadian-poisonous-plants-information-system/all-plants-common-name/canadian-poisonous-plants-information-system-alfalfa-common-name/?id=1370403267050. 
  117. ↑ 117.0 117.1 Fields, R. L.; Moot, D. J.; Sedcole, J. R.; Barrell, G. K. (2019). "Recovery of ovulation rate in ewes following their removal from an oestrogenic lucerne forage" (in en). Animal Production Science 59 (3): 493. doi:10.1071/AN17586. ISSN 1836-0939. 
  118. ↑ Fields, R.L.,  D.J. Moot, and G.K. Barrell. 2017. Coumestrol content of lucerne under drought stress, Proceedings of the 18th Australian Society of Agronomy Conference, Ballarat, Australia.
  119. ↑ Fields, Rachel L.; Barrell, Graham K.; Gash, Alan; Zhao, Jenny; Moot, Derrick J. (2018). "Alfalfa Coumestrol Content in Response to Development Stage, Fungi, Aphids, and Cultivar" (in en). Agronomy Journal 110 (3): 910. doi:10.2134/agronj2017.09.0535. ISSN 0002-1962. Bibcode: 2018AgrJ..110..910F. 
  120. ↑ Fields, Rachel Lilian; Sedcole, J. Richard; Barrell, Graham Keith; Moot, Derrick Jan (2019-10-02). "Prediction of coumestrol content in unirrigated lucerne crops using weather variables" (in en). New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 62 (4): 528–542. doi:10.1080/00288233.2018.1519512. ISSN 0028-8233. Bibcode: 2019NZJAR..62..528F. 
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  122. ↑ "Salmonella Outbreak Linked to Alfalfa Sprouts". US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 28 February 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/typhimurium-12-22/index.html. 
  123. ↑ 123.0 123.1 "The Food Safety of Sprouts: Factsheet". Consumer Food Safety Program, Cooperative Extension, Clemson University. 1 December 2016. https://www.clemson.edu/extension/food/food2market/factsheets/7-the-food-safety-of-sprouts-factsheets.html. 
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