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Basil

Topic: Biology

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 17 min

Basil[lower-alpha 1] (Ocimum basilicum[lower-alpha 2]), also called great basil, is a culinary herb of the family Lamiaceae (mints). It is a tender plant, and is used in cuisines worldwide. In Western cuisine, the generic term "basil" refers to the variety also known as Genovese basil or sweet basil. Basil is native to tropical regions from Central Africa to Southeast Asia.[5] In temperate climates basil is treated as an annual plant, but it can be grown as a short-lived perennial or biennial in warmer horticultural zones with tropical or Mediterranean climates.[5]

There are many varieties of basil including sweet basil, Thai basil (O. basilicum var. thyrsiflora), and Mrs. Burns' Lemon (O. basilicum var. citriodora). O. basilicum can cross-pollinate with other species of the Ocimum genus, producing hybrids such as lemon basil (O. × citriodorum) and African blue basil (O. × kilimandscharicum).

Description

File:Timelapse-Basil-growing.ogv

Desiccated basil showing seed dispersal

Basil is an annual, or sometimes perennial, herb. Depending on the variety, plants can reach heights of between 30 and 150 centimetres (1 and 5 feet).[6] Basil leaves are glossy and ovulate, with smooth or slightly toothed edges that typically cup slightly; the leaves are arranged oppositely along the square stems.[7] Leaves may be green or purple. Its flowers are small and white, and grow from a central inflorescence, or spike, that emerges from the central stem atop the plant. Unusual among Lamiaceae, the four stamens and the pistil are not pushed under the upper lip of the corolla, but lie over the inferior lip. After entomophilous pollination, the corolla falls off and four round achenes develop inside the bilabiate calyx.{{citation needed|date=April 2019}

Phytochemistry

The various basils have such distinct scents because the volatile aromatic compounds vary with cultivars.[5] The essential oil from European basil contains high concentrations of linalool and methyl chavicol (estragole), in a ratio of about 3:1.[5][8] Other constituents include: 1,8-cineole, eugenol, and myrcene, among others.[5][9] The clove scent of sweet basil is derived from eugenol.[10] The aroma profile of basil includes 1,8-cineole[11][12] and methyl eugenol.[11][13] In this species eugenol is synthesised from coniferyl acetate and NADPH.[14]

Similar species

Some similar species in the same genus may be commonly called "basil", although they are not varieties of Ocimum basilicum.

Taxonomy

The exact taxonomy of basil is uncertain due to the immense number of cultivars, its ready polymorphy, and frequent cross-pollination (resulting in new hybrids) with other members of the genus Ocimum and within the species. Ocimum basilicum has at least 60 varieties, which further complicates taxonomy.[5]

Cultivars

Thai basil growing at a school in Thailand

Most basils are cultivars of sweet basil. Most basil varieties have green leaves, but a few are purple, such as, 'Purple Delight'.

  • Anise basil, Licorice basil, or Persian basil (O. basilicum 'Liquorice')
  • Cinnamon basil (Ocimum basilicum 'Cinnamon')
  • Dark opal basil (Ocimum basilicum 'Dark Opal')
  • Genovese basil or Sweet Basil (Ocimum basilicum)
  • Greek basil (Ocimum basilicum var. minimum)
  • Globe basil, dwarf basil, French basil (Ocimum basilicum 'Minimum')[18]
  • Lettuce leaf basil (Ocimum basilicum 'Crispum')
  • Napolitano basil, also known as Napoletano basil, Neapolitan basil, Mammoth basil, Bolloso Napoletano basil, Napolitano Mammoth-Leafed basil, or Italian Large-Leaf basil (Ocimum basilicum)
  • Purple basil (Ocimum basilicum 'Purpurescens')
  • Rubin basil (Ocimum basilicum 'Rubin')
  • Thai basil (Ocimum basilicum var. thyrsifolium)

Hybrids

  • African blue basil (Ocimum basilicum × O. kilimandscharicum)
  • Lemon basil (Ocimum basilicum × O. americanum)[19][20]
  • Spice basil (Ocimum basilicum × O. americanum), which is sometimes sold as holy basil

Etymology

The name "basil" comes from the Latin basilius, and the Greek βασιλικόν φυτόν (basilikón phytón), meaning "royal/kingly plant", possibly because the plant was believed to have been used in production of royal perfumes.[21] Basil is likewise sometimes referred to in French as "l'herbe royale" ('the royal herb').[22] The Latin name has been confused with basilisk, as it was supposed to be an antidote to the basilisk's venom.[21]

Distribution and habitat

Basil is native to India and other tropical regions stretching from Africa to South East Asia, but has now become globalized due to human cultivation.[5]

Cultivation

Growing conditions

Basil is sensitive to cold, with best growth in hot, dry conditions. Basil prefers high light conditions and grows best under full sun conditions. Increasing light intensity, particularly the photosynthetic photon flux density, can significantly enhance the plant's fresh weight, dry matter content, and height.[23]

However, due to its common use, basil is cultivated in many countries around the world. Production areas include countries in the Mediterranean area, those in the temperate zone, and others in subtropical climates.[24] In Northern Europe, Canada, the northern states of the U.S., and the South Island of New Zealand, basil grows best if sown under glass in a peat pot, then planted out in late spring/early summer[25] (when there is little chance of a frost); however, it can also thrive when planted outside in these climates. Additionally, it may be sown in soil once chance of frost is past. It fares best in well-drained soil with direct exposure to the sun. Although basil grows best outdoors, it can be grown indoors in a pot and, like most herbs, will do best on a sun-facing windowsill, kept away from cold drafts. A greenhouse or row cover is ideal if available. It can, however, even be grown in a basement under fluorescent lights. Supplemental lighting produces greater biomass and phenol production, with red + blue specifically increasing growth and flower bud production. UV-B increases the volatiles in O. basilicum essential oil, which has not been reproducible in other plants, and so may be unique to the genus or even to this species.[26]

Basil prefers well-drained organic soils, as adequate oxygen availability in the root zone is essential for optimal plant growth. Poor soil drainage can lead to root hypoxia, which negatively affects overall plant development and essential oil yield.[27]

Pruning, flowering, and seeding

Female carpenter bee foraging
Flowers of Italian Basil


Propagation methods

Seeds

The optimal germination temperature for basil seeds ranges between 34.5–39.0°C, while the base germination temperature lies between 9.8–13.2°C.[citation needed] No significant variation in optimal germination temperature has been observed among different basil cultivars.[28] Prior to sowing, basil (Ocimum basilicum) seeds can be hydroprimed by soaking in water for 12 hours, which effectively enhances germination rates and seedling vigor.[29]

Cuttings

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is commonly propagated through cuttings. Compared to seed propagation, basil cuttings tend to result in earlier harvest and higher yield. The typical propagation method involves selecting healthy, non-lignified stem segments approximately 5–10 cm in length, preferably apical shoots that retain 2 to 5 leaves, which are then inserted into moist soil until root development occurs. After rooting, the plantlets are transplanted into the field.[30] Exposing basil cuttings to blue light significantly accelerates root formation, thereby shortening the growth period.[31]

Diseases

Basil suffers from several plant pathogens that can ruin the crop and reduce yield. Fusarium wilt is a soil-borne fungal disease that will quickly kill younger basil plants. Seedlings may be killed by Pythium damping off. A common foliar disease of basil is gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea; it can cause infections post-harvest and is capable of killing the entire plant. Black spot can be seen on basil foliage and is caused by the fungi genus Colletotrichum. Downy mildew caused by Peronospora belbahrii is a significant disease, as first reported in Italy in 2003.[32] It was reported in the Florida in 2007 and by 2008 had spread along the eastern United States, reaching Canada.[33][34] Basil cultivars resistant to P. belbahrii have been developed.[35]

Non-pathogenic bacteria found on basil include Novosphingobium species.[36]

Uses

Basil, fresh
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy94 kJ (22 kcal)
2.65 g
Sugars0.30 g
Dietary fiber1.6 g
0.64 g
3.15 g
VitaminsQuantity %DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
33%
264 μg
29%
3142 μg
Thiamine (B1)
3%
0.034 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
6%
0.076 mg
Niacin (B3)
6%
0.902 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
4%
0.209 mg
Vitamin B6
12%
0.155 mg
Folate (B9)
17%
68 μg
Choline
2%
11.4 mg
Vitamin C
22%
18.0 mg
Vitamin E
5%
0.80 mg
Vitamin K
395%
414.8 μg
MineralsQuantity %DV†
Calcium
18%
177 mg
Copper
19%
0.385 mg
Iron
24%
3.17 mg
Magnesium
18%
64 mg
Manganese
55%
1.148 mg
Phosphorus
8%
56 mg
Potassium
6%
295 mg
Selenium
0%
0.3 μg
Sodium
0%
4 mg
Zinc
9%
0.81 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water92.06 g
Betaine0.4 mg
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Dried basil leaves

Culinary

Basil is most commonly used fresh in recipes. In general, it is added last, as cooking quickly destroys the flavor. The fresh herb can be kept for a short time in plastic bags in the refrigerator, or for a longer period in the freezer, after being blanched quickly in boiling water. It has a flavor resembling that of liquorice.[37]

Leaves and flowers

The most commonly used Mediterranean basil cultivars are "Genovese", "Purple Ruffles", "Mammoth", "Cinnamon", "Lemon", "Globe", and "African Blue". Basil is one of the main ingredients in pesto, an Italian sauce with olive oil and basil as its primary ingredients, and is used in other sauces and salad dressings.[37] Many national cuisines use fresh or dried basils in soups and other foods, such as to thicken soups. Basil is commonly steeped in cream or milk to create flavor in ice cream or chocolate truffles.{{citation needed|date=October 202 ls and vinegars.[37]

Lemon basil has a strong lemony smell and flavor due to the presence of citral. It is widely used in Indonesia, where it is called kemangi and served raw as an accompaniment to meat or fish.

Seeds

When soaked in water, the seeds of several basil varieties become gelatinous, and are used in Asian drinks and desserts such as the Indian faluda, the Iranian sharbat-e-rihan, or hột é. In Kashmir, the Ramadan fast is often broken with babre beole, a sharbat made with basil seeds.[38]

Folk medicine

Basil is used in folk medicine practices, such as those of Ayurveda or traditional Chinese medicine.[39]

Insecticide and insect repellent

Studies of the essential oil have shown insecticidal and insect-repelling properties,[40] including potential toxicity to mosquitos.[41] The essential oil is found by Huignard et al. 2008 to inhibit electrical activity by decreasing action potential amplitude, by shortening the post hyperpolarization phase, and reducing the action frequency of action potentials. In Huignard's opinion this is due to the linalool and estragole, the amplitude reduction due to linalool, and the phase shortening due to both.[42]

Callosobruchus maculatus, a pest which affects cowpea, is repelled by the essential oil.[42] The essential oil mixed with kaolin is both an adulticide and an ovicide, effective for three months against C. maculatus in cowpea.[42] The thrips Frankliniella occidentalis and Thrips tabaci are repelled by O. basilicum, making this useful as an insect repellent in other crops.[43] The pests Sitophilus oryzae, Stegobium paniceum, Tribolium castaneum, and Bruchus chinensis are evaluated by Deshpande et al. 1974 and '77.[42]

Nematicide

The essential oil is found by Malik et al. 1987 and Sangwan et al. 1990 to be nematicidal against Tylenchulus semipenetrans, Meloidogyne javanica, Anguina tritici, and Heterodera cajani.[44]

Bacterial and fungal inhibition

The essential oil of the leaf and terminal shoot is effective against a large number of bacterial species including Lactiplantibacillus plantarum and Pseudomonas spp.[45] The essential oil of the leaf and terminal shoot is also effective against a large number of fungal species including Aspergillus spp., Candida spp., Mucor spp., and Geotrichum candidum.[40][45]

In culture

Religion

Isabella and the Pot of Basil, William Holman Hunt, 1868

There are many rituals and beliefs associated with basil. The ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks believed basil would open the gates of heaven for a person passing on.[46] However, Herbalist Nicholas Culpeper saw basil as a plant of dread and suspicion. [47]

In Portugal, dwarf bush basil is traditionally presented in a pot, together with a poem and a paper carnation, to a sweetheart, on the religious holidays of John the Baptist (see Saint John's Eve § Portugal) and Saint Anthony of Padua. Basil has religious significance in the Greek Orthodox Church, where it is used to sprinkle holy water.[48] The Bulgarian Orthodox Church, Serbian Orthodox Church, Macedonian Orthodox Church and Romanian Orthodox Church use basil (Bulgarian: босилек, bosilek; Serbian: босиљак, bosiljak; Macedonian: босилек, bosilek) to prepare holy water and pots of basil are often placed below church altars.[49] Some Greek Orthodox Christians avoid eating it due to its association with the legend of the Elevation of the Holy Cross.[50]

Art and literature

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ /ˈbæzəl/, BAZ-əl;[1] US also /ˈbeɪzəl/, BAY-zəl;[2]
  2. ↑ /ˈɒsɪməm bəˈzɪlɪkəm/, OS-ih-məm bə-ZIL-ih-kəm[3][4]

References

  1. ↑ "British: Basil". http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/basil?showCookiePolicy=true. 
  2. ↑ "American: Basil". http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/basil?showCookiePolicy=true. 
  3. ↑ "Ocimum". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Ocimum. 
  4. ↑ "Basilica". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/basilica. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Simon, James E (23 February 1998). "Basil". Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Department of Horticulture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN. https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/basil.html. 
  6. ↑ Kandil, M. A. M.; Khatab, M. E.; Ahmed, S. S.; Schnug, E (2009). "Herbal and essential oil yield of Genovese basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) grown with mineral and organic fertilizer sources in Egypt". Journal für Kulturpflanzen 61 (12): 443–449. 
  7. ↑ Britannica, ((The Editors of Encyclopaedia)). "basil (herb)". https://www.britannica.com/plant/basil. 
  8. ↑ Lee, Seung-Joo; Umano, Katumi; Shibamoto, Takayuki; Lee, Kwang-Geun (2005). "Identification of Volatile Components in Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and Thyme Leaves (Thymus vulgaris L.) and Their Antioxidant Properties". Food Chemistry 91: 131–137. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.05.056. 
  9. ↑ Eberhard Breitmaier (22 September 2006). Terpenes: Flavors, Fragrances, Pharmaca, Pheromones. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 11–. ISBN 978-3-527-31786-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=9yrbR2WZ8bwC&pg=PA11. Retrieved 2 August 2013. "Acyclic monoterpenoid trienes such as p-myrcene and configurational isomers of p- ocimene are found in the oils of basil (leaves of Ocimum basilicum, Labiatae), bay (leaves of Fimenta acris, Myrtaceae), hops (strobiles of Humulus lupulus, ..." 
  10. ↑ Md Shahidul Islam (4 February 2011). Transient Receptor Potential Channels. Springer. pp. 50–. ISBN 978-94-007-0265-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=TCMnYLLb758C&pg=PA50. Retrieved 2 August 2013. "Eugenol is a vanilloid contained in relatively high amounts in clove oil from Eugenia caryophyllata, as well as cinnamon leaf oil (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) and oil from the clove basil Ocimum gratissimum. While eugenol is often referred to as ..." 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Johnson, B. Christopher (1999). "Substantial UV-B-mediated induction of essential oils in sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.)". Phytochemistry 51 (4): 507–510. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(98)00767-5. Bibcode: 1999PChem..51..507J. 
  12. ↑ Baritaux, O. et al. (1992). "Effects of drying and storage of herbs and spices on the essential oil. Part I. Basil, Ocimum basilicum L.". Flavour and Fragrance Journal 7 (5): 267–271. doi:10.1002/ffj.2730070507. 
  13. ↑ Miele, Mariangela et al. (2001). "Methyleugenol in Ocimum basilicum L. Cv. 'Genovese Gigante'". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49 (1): 517–521. doi:10.1021/jf000865w. PMID 11170620. Bibcode: 2001JAFC...49..517M. 
  14. ↑ Lin, Jerry; Massonnet, Mélanie; Cantu, Dario (2019-07-01). "The genetic basis of grape and wine aroma". Horticulture Research (Nature + Nanjing Agricultural University) 6 (1): 1–24. doi:10.1038/s41438-019-0163-1. ISSN 2052-7276. PMID 31645942. Bibcode: 2019HorR....6...81L. 
  15. ↑ Fandohan, P. et al. (2008). "Toxicity and gastric tolerance of essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus, Ocimum gratissimum and Ocimum basilicum in Wistar rats". Food and Chemical Toxicology 46 (7): 2493–2497. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2008.04.006. PMID 18511170. 
  16. ↑ Pessoa, L. M.; Morais, SM; Bevilaqua, CM; Luciano, JH (2002). "Anthelmintic activity of essential oil of Ocimum gratissimum Linn. and eugenol against Haemonchus contortus". Veterinary Parasitology 109 (1–2): 59–63. doi:10.1016/S0304-4017(02)00253-4. PMID 12383625. 
  17. ↑ "Ocimum tenuiflorum L., Synonyms". The Plant List, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Gardens. 23 March 2012. http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-137105. 
  18. ↑ "Ocimum minimum information from NPGS/GRIN". http://www.ars-grin.gov/~sbmljw/cgi-bin/taxon.pl?70463. 
  19. ↑ "Ocimum africanum Lour. taxonomy detail from NPGS/GRIN". https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=463843. 
  20. ↑ Ocimum × africanum Lour. in 'The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species', http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-136798, retrieved 3 December 2016 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Basil". Etymology Online, Douglas Harper. 2018. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Basil. 
  22. ↑ Anstice Carroll; Embree De Persiis Vona; Gianna De Persiis Vona (2006). The Dictionary of Wholesome Foods: A Passionate A-to-Z Guide to the Earth's Healthy Offerings, with More Than 140 Delicious, Nutritious Recipes. Da Capo Press. pp. 16–. ISBN 978-1-56924-395-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=RNZGgvsspMUC&pg=PA16. Retrieved 2 August 2013. "The name "basil" comes from the Greek word for "king" – so greatly did the Greeks esteem this king of herbs. Herbe royale, the French respectfully call it. In Italy basil serves the goddess Love; a sprig of it worn by a suitor bespeaks his loving ..." 
  23. ↑ Larsen, Dorthe H.; Woltering, Ernst J.; Nicole, Celine C. S.; Marcelis, Leo F. M. (2020-12-04). "Response of Basil Growth and Morphology to Light Intensity and Spectrum in a Vertical Farm". Frontiers in Plant Science 11. doi:10.3389/fpls.2020.597906. ISSN 1664-462X. PMID 33424894. Bibcode: 2020FrPS...1197906L. 
  24. ↑ Hiltunen, Raimo; Holm, Yvonne (2003-09-02) (in en). Basil: The Genus Ocimum. CRC Press. ISBN 9780203303771. https://books.google.com/books?id=fLxiMFPvAfUC&q=basil+medicinal+uses&pg=PA56. 
  25. ↑ Petetti, Silvia (2024-04-30). "Orto, ecco cosa piantare a maggio: saranno tra gli alimenti estivi più buoni" (in it-IT). https://www.biopianeta.it/2024/04/orto-ecco-cosa-piantare-a-maggio-saranno-tra-gli-alimenti-estivi-piu-buoni/. 
  26. ↑ Marondedze, Claudius; Liu, Xinyun; Huang, Shihui; Wong, Cynthia; Zhou, Xuan; Pan, Xutong; An, Huiting; Xu, Nuo et al. (2018-11-01). "Towards a tailored indoor horticulture: a functional genomics guided phenotypic approach". Horticulture Research (Nature + Nanjing Agricultural University) 5 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1038/s41438-018-0065-7. ISSN 2052-7276. PMID 30393542. Bibcode: 2018HorR....5...68M. 
  27. ↑ Khater, El-Sayed; Bahnasawy, Adel; Abass, Wael; Morsy, Osama; El-Ghobashy, Hossam; Shaban, Yousry; Egela, Mohsen (2021-06-17). "Production of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) under different soilless cultures" (in en). Scientific Reports 11 (1). doi:10.1038/s41598-021-91986-7. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 34140544. Bibcode: 2021NatSR..1112754K. 
  28. ↑ Lange, Diana D.; Cameron, Arthur C. (1994-02-01). "Postharvest Shelf Life of Sweet Basil (Ocimum basilicum)". HortScience 29 (2): 102–103. doi:10.21273/hortsci.29.2.102. ISSN 0018-5345. https://doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.29.2.102. 
  29. ↑ Noorhosseini, Seyyed Ali; Jokar, Nargesh Khatun; Damalas, Christos A. (2017-08-01). "Improving Seed Germination and Early Growth of Garden Cress (Lepidium sativum) and Basil (Ocimum basilicum) with Hydro-priming". Journal of Plant Growth Regulation 37 (1): 323–334. doi:10.1007/s00344-017-9728-0. ISSN 0721-7595. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-017-9728-0. 
  30. ↑ Haijie, D.; Mengmeng, G.; Genhua, N. (2018-09-01). "Are cuttings a viable alternative to seeds for sweet basil production?". Acta Horticulturae (1212): 303–306. doi:10.17660/actahortic.2018.1212.70. ISSN 0567-7572. https://doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.2018.1212.70. 
  31. ↑ Bai, Tuanhui; Ma, Ping; Li, Cuiying; Yin, Rong; Ma, Fengwang (2013-12-01). "Role of ascorbic acid in enhancing hypoxia tolerance in roots of sensitive and tolerant apple rootstocks" (in en). Scientia Horticulturae 164: 372–379. doi:10.1016/j.scienta.2013.10.003. Bibcode: 2013ScHor.164..372B. 
  32. ↑ Garibaldi, A.; Minuto, A.; Minuto, G.; Gullino, M. L. (March 2004). "First Report of Downy Mildew on Basil ( Ocimum basilicum ) in Italy". Plant Disease 88 (3): 312. doi:10.1094/PDIS.2004.88.3.312A. PMID 30812374. Bibcode: 2004PlDis..88..312G. 
  33. ↑ Roberts, P. D.; Raid, R. N.; Harmon, P. F.; Jordan, S. A.; Palmateer, A. J. (February 2009). "First Report of Downy Mildew Caused by a Peronospora sp. on Basil in Florida and the United States". Plant Disease 93 (2): 199. doi:10.1094/PDIS-93-2-0199B. PMID 30764112. Bibcode: 2009PlDis..93..199R. 
  34. ↑ Wick, R. L.; Brazee, N. J. (March 2009). "First Report of Downy Mildew Caused by a Peronospora Species on Sweet Basil ( Ocimum basilicum ) in Massachusetts". Plant Disease 93 (3): 318. doi:10.1094/PDIS-93-3-0318B. PMID 30764191. Bibcode: 2009PlDis..93..318W. 
  35. ↑ "Maryland Grows Blog". 21 February 2020. https://marylandgrows.umd.edu/2020/02/21/basil-bounces-back-with-downy-mildew-resistant-cultivars/. 
  36. ↑ Ceuppens, Siele; Delbeke, Stefanie; De Coninck, Dieter; Boussemaere, Jolien; Boon, Nico; Uyttendaele, Mieke (21 August 2015). "Characterization of the Bacterial Community Naturally Present on Commercially Grown Basil Leaves: Evaluation of Sample Preparation Prior to Culture-Independent Techniques". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12 (8): 10171–10197. doi:10.3390/ijerph120810171. PMID 26308033. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 The Culinary Institute of America (2011). The Professional Chef (9th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-470-42 135-2. 
  38. ↑ "Traditional Summer Drinks of India: Beat the Heat with Refreshing Recipes" (in en). 2022-03-09. https://www.thebetterindia.com/278433/traditional-summer-drinks-of-india-how-to-make-refreshing-recipes/. 
  39. ↑ Ambrose, Dawn C. P.; Manickavasagan, Annamalai; Naik, Ravindra (2016). Leafy Medicinal Herbs: Botany, Chemistry, Postharvest Technology and Uses. CABI. pp. 33–34. ISBN 9781780645599. https://books.google.com/books?id=wwLpDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 "Antifungal, physicochemical, and insect-repelling activity of the essential oil of Ocimum basilicum". Canadian Journal of Botany 67 (7): 2085–2087. 1989. doi:10.1139/b89-264. Bibcode: 1989CaJB...67.2085D. 
  41. ↑ Maurya, Prejwltta et al. (2009). "Evaluation of the toxicity of different phytoextracts of Ocimum basilicum against Anopheles stephensi and Culex quinquefasciatus". Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology 12 (2): 113–115. doi:10.1016/j.aspen.2009.02.004. Bibcode: 2009JAsPE..12..113M. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 Regnault-Roger, Catherine; Vincent, Charles; Arnason, John Thor (2012-01-07). "Essential Oils in Insect Control: Low-Risk Products in a High-Stakes World". Annual Review of Entomology (Annual Reviews) 57 (1): 405–424. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100554. ISSN 0066-4170. PMID 21942843. 
  43. ↑ Kirk, William D. J.; de Kogel, Willem Jan; Koschier, Elisabeth H.; Teulon, David A. J. (2021-01-07). "Semiochemicals for Thrips and Their Use in Pest Management". Annual Review of Entomology (Annual Reviews) 66 (1): 101–119. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-022020-081531. ISSN 0066-4170. PMID 33417819. https://eprints.keele.ac.uk/7806/1/Kirk%20et%20al%20Ann%20Rev%20Ent%2066%20semiochemicals%202020%20jan%2013.docx. 
  44. ↑ Chitwood, David J. (2002). "Phytochemical Based Strategies for Nematode Control". Annual Review of Phytopathology (Annual Reviews) 40 (1): 221–249. doi:10.1146/annurev.phyto.40.032602.130045. ISSN 0066-4286. PMID 12147760. Bibcode: 2002AnRvP..40..221C. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Davidson, P. Michael; Critzer, Faith J.; Taylor, T. Matthew (2013-02-28). "Naturally Occurring Antimicrobials for Minimally Processed Foods". Annual Review of Food Science and Technology (Annual Reviews) 4 (1): 163–190. doi:10.1146/annurev-food-030212-182535. ISSN 1941-1413. PMID 23244398. 
  46. ↑ Nelson-Shellenbarger, Robin (25 February 2013). Family Herbal Wellness. Booktango. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-1-4689-2481-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=8kS1kIC1IhcC&pg=PT38. Retrieved 2 August 2013. 
  47. ↑ Bill Neal (1992). Gardener's Latin. London: Robert Hale. p. 16. ISBN 0709051069. 
  48. ↑ "Blessing of the Waters known as Agiasmos conducted by a Greek Orthodox priest". http://www.completely-crete.com/blessing-of-the-waters.html. 
  49. ↑ Mercia MacDermott (1998). Bulgarian Folk Customs. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. pp. 114–. ISBN 978-1-85302-485-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=gh4IE6toGJMC&pg=PA114. Retrieved 2 August 2013. 
  50. ↑ The Complete Book of Greek Cooking. HarperPerennial. 1991. pp. 7. ISBN 9780060921293. 

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