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List of organisms by chromosome count

Topic: Biology

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 20 min

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The list of organisms by chromosome count describes ploidy or numbers of chromosomes in the cells of various plants, animals, protists, and other living organisms. This number, along with the visual appearance of the chromosome, is known as the karyotype,[1][2][3] and can be found by looking at the chromosomes through a microscope. Attention is paid to their length, the position of the centromeres, banding pattern, any differences between the sex chromosomes, and any other physical characteristics.[4] The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of cytogenetics.

  Animals
  Plants
  Other Eukaryotes
S. No. Organism
(Scientific name) 		Chromosome number Picture Karyotype Notes Source
1 Jack jumper ant
(Myrmecia pilosula) 		02 2/1 2 for females, males are haploid and thus have 1; smallest number possible. Other ant species have more chromosomes.[5] [5]
2 Spider mite
(Tetranychidae) 		04 4–14


Spider mites (family Tetranychidae) are typically haplodiploid (males are haploid, while females are diploid)[6] [6]
3 Cricotopus sylvestris 04 4 [7]
4 Oikopleura dioica 06 6 [8]
5 Yellow fever mosquito
(Aedes aegypti) 		06 6


The 2n=6 chromosome number is conserved in the entire family Culicidae, except in Chagasia bathana, which has 2n=8.[9] [9]
6 Indian muntjac
(Muntiacus muntjak) 		06 6/7


2n = 6 for females and 7 for males. The lowest diploid chromosomal number in mammals.[10] [11]
7 Hieracium 08 8


8 Fruit fly
(Drosophila melanogaster) 		08 8


6 autosomal and 2 allosomic (sex) [12]
9 Macrostomum lignano 08 8


[13]
10 Marchantia polymorpha 09 9


Typically haploid with dominant gametophyte stage. 8 autosomes and 1 allosome (sex chromosome). The sex-determination system used by this species and most other bryophytes is called UV. Spores can carry either the U chromosome, which results in female gametophytes, or the V chromosome, which results in males. The chromosome number n = 9 is the basic number in many species of Marchantiales. In some species of Marchantiales, plants with various ploidy levels (having 18 or 27 chromosomes) were reported, but this is rare in nature. [14]
11 Thale cress
(Arabidopsis thaliana) 		10
12 Swamp wallaby
(Wallabia bicolor) 		10 10/11


11 for male, 10 for female [15]
13 Australian daisy
(Brachyscome dichromosomatica) 		12 12


This species can have more B chromosomes than A chromosomes at times, but 2n=4. [16]
14 Nematode
(Caenorhabditis elegans) 		11 12/11


Error creating thumbnail: Unable to save thumbnail to destination 12 for hermaphrodites, 11 for males
15 Spinach
(Spinacia oleracea) 		12 [17]
16 Broad bean
(Vicia faba) 		12 [18]
17 Yellow dung fly
(Scathophaga stercoraria) 		12 10 autosomal and 2 allosomic (sex) chromosomes. Males have XY sex chromosomes and females have XX sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes are the largest chromosomes and constitute 30% of the total length of the diploid set in females and about 25% in males.[19] [19]
18 Slime mold
(Dictyostelium discoideum) 		12 [20]
19 Cucumber
(Cucumis sativus) 		14 [21]
20 Tasmanian devil
(Sarcophilus harrisii) 		14
21 Rye
(Secale cereale) 		14 [22]
22 Pea
(Pisum sativum) 		14 [22]
23 Barley
(Hordeum vulgare) 		14 [23]
24 Aloe vera 14 The diploid chromosome number is 2n = 14 with four pair of long acrocentric chromosomes ranging from 14.4 μm to 17.9 μm and three pair of short sub metacentric chromosomes ranging from 4.6 μm to 5.4 μm.[24] [24]
25 Koala
(Phascolarctos cinereus) 		16
26 Kangaroo 16 This includes several members of genus Macropus, but not the red kangaroo (M. rufus, 20) [25]
27 Botryllus schlosseri 16 16 [26]
28 Schistosoma mansoni 16 2n=16. 7 autosomal pairs and ZW sex-determination pair.[27] [27]
29 Welsh onion
(Allium fistulosum) 		16 [28]
30 Garlic
(Allium sativum) 		16 [28]
31 Itch mite
(Sarcoptes scabiei) 		17 17/18


According to the observation of embryonic cells of egg, chromosome number of the itch mite is either 17 or 18. While the cause for the disparate numbers is unknown, it may arise because of an XO sex determination mechanism, where males (2n=17) lack the sex chromosome and therefore have one less chromosome than the female (2n=18).[29] [29]
32 Radish
(Raphanus sativus) 		18 [22]
33 Carrot
(Daucus carota) 		18 The genus Daucus includes around 25 species. D. carota has nine chromosome pairs (2n = 2x = 18). D. capillifolius, D. sahariensis and D. syrticus are the other members of the genus with 2n = 18, whereas D. muricatus (2n = 20) and D. pusillus (2n = 22) have a slightly higher chromosome number. A few polyploid species as for example D. glochidiatus (2n = 4x = 44) and D. montanus (2n = 6x = 66) also exist.[30] [30]
34 Cabbage
(Brassica oleracea) 		18 Broccoli, cabbage, kale, kohlrabi, brussels sprouts, and cauliflower are all the same species and have the same chromosome number.[22] [22]
35 Citrus
(Citrus) 		18 Chromosome number of the genus Citrus, which including lemons, oranges, grapefruit, pomelo and limes, is 2n = 18.[31] [32]
36 Passion fruit
(Passiflora edulis) 		18 [33]
37 Setaria viridis
(Setaria viridis) 		18 [34]
38 Maize
(Zea mays) 		20 [22]
39 Cannabis
(Cannabis sativa) 		20
40 Western clawed frog
(Xenopus tropicalis) 		20 [35]
41 Australian pitcher plant
(Cephalotus follicularis) 		20 [36]
42 Cacao
(Theobroma cacao) 		20 [37]
43 Eucalyptus
(Eucalyptus) 		22 Although some contradictory cases have been reported, the large homogeneity of the chromosome number 2n = 22 is now known for 135 (33.5%) distinct species among genus Eucalyptus.[38] [39]
44 Virginia opossum
(Didelphis virginiana) 		22 [40]
45 Bean
(Phaseolus sp.) 		22 All species in the genus Phaseolus have the same chromosome number, including common bean (P. vulgaris), runner bean (P. coccineus), tepary bean (P. acutifolius) and lima bean (P. lunatus).[22] [22]
46 Snail 24
47 Melon
(Cucumis melo) 		24 [41]
48 Rice
(Oryza sativa) 		24 [22]
49 Silverleaf nightshade
(Solanum elaeagnifolium) 		24 [42]
50 Sweet chestnut
(Castanea sativa) 		24 [43]
51 Tomato
(Solanum lycopersicum) 		24 [44]
52 European beech
(Fagus sylvatica) 		24 [45]
53 Bittersweet nightshade
(Solanum dulcamara) 		24
54 Cork oak
(Quercus suber) 		24 [46]
55 Edible frog
(Pelophylax kl. esculentus) 		26 Edible frog is the fertile hybrid of the pool frog and the marsh frog.[47] [48]
56 Axolotl
(Ambystoma mexicanum) 		28 [49]
57 Bed bug
(Cimex lectularius) 		29 29–47


26 autosomes and varying number of the sex chromosomes from three (X1X2Y) to 21 (X1X2Y+18 extra Xs).[50] [50]
58 Pill millipede
(Arthrosphaera magna attems) 		30 [51]
59 Giraffe
(Giraffa camelopardalis) 		30 [52]
60 American mink
(Neogale vison) 		30
61 Pistachio
(Pistacia vera) 		30 [53]
62 Japanese oak silkmoth (Antheraea yamamai) 31 [54]
63 Baker's yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) 		32
64 European honey bee
(Apis mellifera) 		32/16 32 for females (2n = 32), males are haploid and thus have 16 (1n =16).[55] [55]
65 American badger
(Taxidea taxus) 		32
66 Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa) 		32 Cultivated alfalfa is tetraploid, with 2n=4x=32. Wild relatives have 2n=16.[22]: 165  [22]
67 Red fox
(Vulpes vulpes) 		34 Plus 0-8 B chromosomes. [56]
68 Sunflower
(Helianthus annuus) 		34 [57]
69 Porcupine
(Erethizon dorsatum) 		34 [58]
70 Globe artichoke
(Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus) 		34 [59]
71 Yellow mongoose
(Cynictis penicillata) 		36
72 Tibetan sand fox
(Vulpes ferrilata) 		36
73 Starfish
(Asteroidea) 		36
74 Red panda
(Ailurus fulgens) 		36
75 Meerkat
(Suricata suricatta) 		36
76 Cassava
(Manihot esculenta) 		36 [60]
77 Long-nosed cusimanse
(Crossarchus obscurus) 		36
78 Earthworm
(Lumbricus terrestris) 		36
79 African clawed frog
(Xenopus laevis) 		36 [35]
80 Waterwheel plant
(Aldrovanda vesiculosa) 		38 [36]
81 Tiger
(Panthera tigris) 		38
82 Sea otter
(Enhydra lutris) 		38
83 Sable
(Martes zibellina) 		38
84 Raccoon
(Procyon lotor) 		38 [61]
85 Pine marten
(Martes martes) 		38
86 Pig
(Sus) 		38
87 Oriental small-clawed otter
(Aonyx cinerea) 		38
88 Lion
(Panthera leo) 		38
89 Fisher
(Pekania pennanti) 		38 a type of marten
90 European mink
(Mustela lutreola) 		38
91 Coatimundi 38
92 Cat
(Felis catus) 		38
93 Beech marten
(Martes foina) 		38
94 Baja California rat snake
(Bogertophis rosaliae) 		38 [62]
95 American marten
(Martes americana) 		38
96 Trans-Pecos ratsnake
(Bogertophis subocularis) 		40 [63]
97 Mouse
(Mus musculus) 		40 [64]
98 Mango
(Mangifera indica) 		40 [22]
99 Hyena
(Hyaenidae) 		40
100 Ferret
(Mustela furo) 		40
101 European polecat
(Mustela putorius) 		40
102 American beaver
(Castor canadensis) 		40
103 Peanut
(Arachis hypogaea) 		40 Cultivated peanut is an allotetraploid (2n = 4x = 40). Its closest relatives are the diploid (2n = 2x = 20).[65] [65]
104 Wolverine
(Gulo gulo) 		42
105 Wheat
(Triticum aestivum) 		42 This is a hexaploid with 2n=6x=42. Durum wheat is Triticum turgidum var. durum, and is a tetraploid with 2n=4x=28.[22] [22]
106 Rhesus monkey
(Macaca mulatta) 		42 [66]
107 Rat
(Rattus norvegicus) 		42 [67]
108 Oats
(Avena sativa) 		42 This is a hexaploid with 2n=6x=42. Diploid and tetraploid cultivated species also exist.[22] [22]
109 Giant panda
(Ailuropoda melanoleuca) 		42
110 Fossa
(Cryptoprocta ferox) 		42
111 European rabbit
(Oryctolagus cuniculus) 		44
112 Eurasian badger
(Meles meles) 		44
113 Moon jellyfish
(Aurelia aurita) 		44 [68]
114 Dolphin
(Delphinidae) 		44
115 Arabian coffee
(Coffea arabica) 		44 Out of the 103 species in the genus Coffea, arabica coffee is the only tetraploid species (2n = 4x = 44), the remaining species being diploid with 2n = 2x = 22.[69]
116 Reeves's muntjac
(Muntiacus reevesi) 		46
117 Human
(Homo sapiens) 		46 44 autosomal. and 2 allosomic (sex) [70]
118 Olive

(Olea Europaea)

46
119 Nilgai
(Boselaphus tragocamelus) 		46 [71]
120 Parhyale hawaiensis 46 [72]
121 Water buffalo (swamp type)
(Bubalus bubalis) 		48
122 Tobacco
(Nicotiana tabacum) 		48 Cultivated species N. tabacum is an amphidiploid (2n=4x=48) evolved through the interspecific hybridization of the ancestors of N. sylvestris (2n=2x=24, maternal donor) and N. tomentosiformis (2n=2x=24, paternal donor) about 200,000 years ago.[73] [73]
123 Potato
(Solanum tuberosum) 		48 This is for common potato Solanum tuberosum (tetraploid, 2n = 4x = 48). Other cultivated potato species may be diploid (2n = 2x = 24), triploid (2n = 3x = 36), tetraploid (2n = 4x = 48), or pentaploid (2n = 5x = 60).[74] Wild relatives mostly have 2n=24.[22] [74]
124 Orangutan
(Pongo) 		48
125 Hare
(Lepus) 		48 [75][76]
126 Gorilla
(Gorilla) 		48
127 Deer mouse
(Peromyscus maniculatus) 		48
128 Chimpanzee
(Pan troglodytes) 		48 [77]
129 Eurasian beaver
(Castor fiber) 		48
130 Zebrafish
(Danio rerio) 		50 [78]
131 Woodland hedgehogs
Erinaceus 		48 [79]
132 African hedgehogs
Atelerix 		48 [80]
133 Water buffalo (Riverine type)
(Bubalus bubalis) 		50
134 Striped skunk
(Mephitis mephitis) 		50
135 Pineapple
(Ananas comosus) 		50 [22]
136 Kit fox
(Vulpes macrotis) 		50
137 Spectacled bear
(Tremarctos ornatus) 		52
138 Platypus
(Ornithorhynchus anatinus) 		52 Ten sex chromosomes. Males have X1Y1X2Y2X3Y3X4Y4X5Y5, females have X1X1X2X2X3X3X4X4X5X5.[81] [82]
139 Upland cotton
(Gossypium hirsutum) 		52 This is for the cultivated species G. hirsutum (allotetraploid, 2n=4x=52). This species accounts for 90% of the world cotton production. Among 50 species in the genus Gossypium, 45 are diploid (2n = 2x = 26) and 5 are allotetraploid (2n = 4x = 52).[83] [83]
140 Sheep
(Ovis aries) 		54
141 Hyrax
(Hyracoidea) 		54 54


Hyraxes were considered to be the closest living relatives of elephants,[84] but sirenians have been found to be more closely related to elephants. [85]
142 Raccoon dog
(Nyctereutes procyonoides procyonoides) 		54 This number is for common raccoon dog (N. p. procyonoides), 2n=54+B(0–4). On the other hand, Japanese raccoon dog (N. p. viverrinus) with 2n=38+B(0–8). Here, B represents B chromosome and its variation in the number between individuals.[86][87] [86]
143 Capuchin monkey
(Cebinae) 		54 [88]
144 Silkworm
(Bombyx mori) 		56 This is for the species mulberry silkworm, B. mori (2n=56). Probably more than 99% of the world's commercial silk today come from this species.[89] Other silk producing moths, called non-mulberry silkworms, have various chromosome numbers. (e.g. Samia cynthia with 2n=25–28,[90] Antheraea pernyi with 2n=98.[91])
145 Strawberry
(Fragaria × ananassa) 		56 This number is octoploid, main cultivated species Fragaria × ananassa (2n = 8x = 56). In genus Fragaria, basic chromosome number is seven (x = 7) and multiple levels of ploidy, ranging from diploid (2n = 2x = 14) to decaploid (F. iturupensis, 2n = 10x = 70), are known.[92] [92]
146 Gaur
(Bos gaurus) 		56
147 Elephant
(Elephantidae) 		56
148 †Woolly mammoth
(Mammuthus primigenius) 		58 extinct; tissue from a frozen carcass
149 Domestic yak
(Bos grunniens) 		60
150 Goat
(Capra hircus) 		60
151 Cattle
(Bos taurus) 		60
152 American bison
(Bison bison) 		60
153 Sable antelope
(Hippotragus niger) 		60 [93]
154 Bengal fox
(Vulpes bengalensis) 		60
155 Gypsy moth
(Lymantria dispar dispar) 		62
156 Donkey
(Equus asinus) 		62
157 Scarlet macaw
(Ara macao) 		62–64 [94]
158 Mule 63 semi-infertile (odd number of chromosomes – between donkey (62) and horse (64) makes meiosis much more difficult)
159 Guinea pig
(Cavia porcellus) 		64
160 Spotted skunk
(Spilogale x) 		64
161 Horse
(Equus caballus) 		64
162 Fennec fox
(Vulpes zerda) 		64 [95]
163 Echidna
(Tachyglossidae) 		63/64 63 (X1Y1X2Y2X3Y3X4Y4X5, male) and 64 (X1X1X2X2X3X3X4X4X5X5, female)[96]
164 Chinchilla
(Chinchilla lanigera) 		64 [58]
165 Nine-banded armadillo
(Dasypus novemcinctus) 		64 [97]
166 Gray fox
(Urocyon cinereoargenteus) 		66 [95]
167 Red deer
(Cervus elaphus) 		68
168 Elk (wapiti)
(Cervus canadensis) 		68
169 Roadside hawk
(Rupornis magnirostris) 		68 [98]
170 White-tailed deer
(Odocoileus virginianus) 		70
171 Black nightshade
(Solanum nigrum) 		72 [99]
172 Tropical blue bamboo
(Bambusa chungii) 		64-72 [100]
173 Bat-eared fox
(Otocyon megalotis) 		72 [95]
174 Sun bear
(Helarctos malayanus) 		74
175 Sloth bear
(Melursus ursinus) 		74
176 Polar bear
(Ursus maritimus) 		74
177 Brown bear
(Ursus arctos) 		74
178 Asian black bear
(Ursus thibetanus) 		74
179 American black bear
(Ursus americanus) 		74
180 Bush dog
(Speothos venaticus) 		74
181 Maned wolf
(Chrysocyon brachyurus) 		76
182 Gray wolf
(Canis lupus) 		78
183 Golden jackal
(Canis aureus) 		78 [95]
184 Dove
(Columbidae) 		78 Based on African collared dove [101]
185 Dog
(Canis familiaris) 		78 Normal dog karyotype is composed of 38 pairs of acrocentric autosomes and two metacentric sex chromosomes.[102][103] [104]
186 Dingo
(Canis familiaris) 		78 [95]
187 Dhole
(Cuon alpinus) 		78
188 Coyote
(Canis latrans) 		78 [95]
189 Chicken
(Gallus gallus domesticus) 		78
190 African wild dog
(Lycaon pictus) 		78 - 191 Tropical pitcher plant
(Nepenthes rafflesiana) 		78 [36]
192 Turkey
(Meleagris) 		80
193 Sugarcane
(Saccharum officinarum) 		80 This is for S. officinarum (octoploid, 2n = 8× = 80).[105] About 70% of the world's sugar comes from this species.[106] Other species in the genus Saccharum, collectively known as sugarcane, have chromosome numbers in the range 2n=40–128.[107] [105]
194 Pigeon
(Columbidae) 		80 [108]
195 Azure-winged magpie
(Cyanopica cyanus) 		80 [109]
196 Great white shark
(Carcharodon carcharias) 		82 [110]
197 Bloody geranium
(Geranium sanguineum) 		84 [111]
198 Moonworts
(Botrychium) 		90
199 Grape fern
(Sceptridium) 		90
200 Pittier's crab-eating rat
(Ichthyomys pittieri) 		92 Previously thought to be the highest number in mammals, tied with Anotomys leander. [112]
201 Prawn
(Penaeus semisulcatus) 		86 86–92


[113]
202 Aquatic rat
(Anotomys leander) 		92 Previously thought to be the highest number in mammals, tied with Ichthyomys pittieri. [112]
203 Kamraj (fern)
(Helminthostachys zeylanica) 		94
204 Crucian carp
(Carassius carassius) 		100 [114]
205 Red viscacha rat
(Tympanoctomys barrerae) 		102 Highest number known in mammals, thought to be a tetraploid[115] or allotetraploid.[116] [117]
206 Walking catfish
(Clarias batrachus) 		104 [118]
207 American paddlefish
(Polyodon spathula) 		120 [119]
208 Limestone fern
(Gymnocarpium robertianum) 		160 Tetraploid (2n = 4x = 160) [120]
209 African baobab
(Adansonia digitata) 		168 Also known as the "tree of life". 2n = 4x = 168 [121]
210 Northern lampreys
(Petromyzontidae) 		174 [122]
211 Rattlesnake fern
(Botrypus virginianus) 		184 [123]
212 Red king crab
(Paralithodes camtschaticus) 		208
213 Field horsetail
(Equisetum arvense) 		216
214 Agrodiaetus butterfly
(Agrodiaetus shahrami) 		268 This insect has one of the highest chromosome numbers among all animals. [124]
215 Black mulberry
(Morus nigra) 		308 Highest ploidy among plants, 22-ploid (2n = 22x = 308)[125] [126]
216 Atlas blue
(Polyommatus atlantica) 		448 448-452


2n = c. 448–452. Highest number of chromosomes in the non-polyploid eukaryotic organisms.[127] [127]
217 Adders-tongue
(Ophioglossum reticulatum) 		1260 n=120–720 with a high degree of polyploidization[128] Ophioglossum reticulatum n=720 in hexaploid species, 2n=1260 in decaploid species [129]
218 Ciliated protozoa
(Tetrahymena thermophila) 		10 10 (in micronucleus)


50x = 12,500 (in macronucleus, except minichromosomes)
10,000x = 10,000 (macronuclear minichromosomes)[130]
219 Ciliated protozoa
(Sterkiella histriomuscorum) 		16,000[131] Macronuclear "nanochromosomes"; ampliploid. MAC chromosomes × 1900 ploidy level = 2.964 × 107 chromosomes [132][133][134]
  • Karyotype of a human being. It shows 22 homologous autosomal chromosome pairs, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the two sex chromosomes, as well as the mitochondrial genome (at bottom left). Further information: Karyotype
    Karyotype of a human being. It shows 22 homologous autosomal chromosome pairs, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the two sex chromosomes, as well as the mitochondrial genome (at bottom left).
    Further information: Karyotype
  • Fusion of ancestral chromosomes left distinctive remnants of telomeres, and a vestigial centromere. As other non-human extant hominidae have 48 chromosomes it is believed that the human chromosome 2 is the result of the merging of two chromosomes.[135]
    Fusion of ancestral chromosomes left distinctive remnants of telomeres, and a vestigial centromere. As other non-human extant hominidae have 48 chromosomes it is believed that the human chromosome 2 is the result of the merging of two chromosomes.[135]

References

  1. ↑ Concise Oxford Dictionary
  2. ↑ The chromosomes (6th ed.). London: Chapman & Hall. 1973. p. 28. https://archive.org/details/chromosomes01whit. 
  3. ↑ "Chapter XII: The Karyotype". Variation and evolution in plants. Columbia University Press. 1950. 
  4. ↑ A dictionary of genetics (7th ed.). Oxford University Press. 2006. p. 242. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Myrmecia pilosula, an Ant with Only One Pair of Chromosomes". Science 231 (4743): 1278. March 1986. doi:10.1126/science.231.4743.1278. PMID 17839565. Bibcode: 1986Sci...231.1278C. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Minimal chromosome number in false spider mites (Tenuipalpidae)". Experientia 28 (6): 707. 1972. doi:10.1007/BF01944992. 
  7. ↑ "Cytotaxonomical Diagnostics of Species from the Genus Cricotopus (Chironomidae, Diptera)". Caryologia 29 (3): 291–306. 1976. doi:10.1080/00087114.1976.10796669. 
  8. ↑ "Untersuchungen über die Gehäusebildung bei Appendicularien (Oikopleura dioica Fol)". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Ökologie der Tiere 41 (1): 1–53. 1952. doi:10.1007/BF00407623. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Advances in Genetics, Volume 41 (Advances in Genetics). Boston: Academic Press. 1999. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-12-017641-0. 
  10. ↑ "Rapid and parallel chromosomal number reductions in muntjac deer inferred from mitochondrial DNA phylogeny". Molecular Biology and Evolution 17 (9): 1326–33. September 2000. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026416. PMID 10958849. 
  11. ↑ "Indian muntjac, Muntiacus muntjak: a deer with a low diploid chromosome number". Science 168 (3937): 1364–6. June 1970. doi:10.1126/science.168.3937.1364. PMID 5444269. Bibcode: 1970Sci...168.1364W. 
  12. ↑ "Drosophila Genome Project". National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=genomeprj&cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=9554. 
  13. ↑ "Evidence for Karyotype Polymorphism in the Free-Living Flatworm, Macrostomum lignano, a Model Organism for Evolutionary and Developmental Biology". PLOS ONE 11 (10): e0164915. 2016. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0164915. PMID 27755577. Bibcode: 2016PLoSO..1164915Z. 
  14. ↑ Shimamura, Masaki (2016). "Marchantia polymorpha: Taxonomy, Phylogeny and Morphology of a Model System". Plant & Cell Physiology 57 (2): 230–256. doi:10.1093/pcp/pcv192. PMID 26657892. 
  15. ↑ "Comparative chromosome painting between two marsupials: origins of an XX/XY1Y2 sex chromosome system". Mammalian Genome 8 (6): 418–22. June 1997. doi:10.1007/s003359900459. PMID 9166586. 
  16. ↑ "Organisation and origin of a B chromosome centromeric sequence from Brachycome dichromosomatica". Chromosoma 103 (10): 708–14. July 1995. doi:10.1007/BF00344232. PMID 7664618. 
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  132. ↑ "Origin, structure and function of millions of chromosomes present in the macronucleus of unicellular eukaryotic ciliate, Oxytricha trifallax: a model organism for transgenerationally programmed genome rearrangements". Journal of Genetics 94 (2): 171–6. June 2015. doi:10.1007/s12041-015-0504-2. PMID 26174664. http://www.ias.ac.in/describe/article/jgen/094/02/0171-0176. 
  133. ↑ "The Oxytricha trifallax macronuclear genome: a complex eukaryotic genome with 16,000 tiny chromosomes". PLOS Biology 11 (1): e1001473. 2013-01-29. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001473. PMID 23382650. 
  134. ↑ "You Have 46 Chromosomes. This Pond Creature Has 15,600". National Geographic. 6 February 2013. http://phenomena.nationalgeographic.com/2013/02/06/you-have-46-chromsomes-this-pond-creature-has-15600/. 
  135. ↑ "Evidence for an ancestral alphoid domain on the long arm of human chromosome 2". Human Genetics 89 (2): 247–9. May 1992. doi:10.1007/BF00217134. PMID 1587535. 

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