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Moth

Topic: Biology

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 22 min

Short description: Group of mostly-nocturnal insects in the order Lepidoptera
For other uses, see Biology:Moth (disambiguation).

Moths
Temporal range: Early Jurassic–Present, 200–0 Ma
Possible Late Triassic records
Autographa gamma
Arctia caja
Scientific classification e
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
(unranked): Amphiesmenoptera
Order: Lepidoptera
Latreille, 1802
Major divisions

Aglossata

Glossata

Heterobathmiina

Zeugloptera

Synonyms

Heterocera

Moths are a group of winged insect of the order Lepidoptera, the other well-known members of which are butterflies, they are characterized by dark or dull patterned wings.[1] They were previously classified as suborder Heterocera, but the group is paraphyletic with respect to butterflies (suborder Rhopalocera) and neither subordinate taxon is used in modern classifications. Moths make up the vast majority of the order. There are approximately 160,000 species of moth,[2] many of which have yet to be described. Most species of moth are nocturnal, although there are also crepuscular and diurnal species.

Moths have a multi-stage life cycle, and undergo metamorphosis. Winged adults generally lay eggs on or near plant foliage on which their larvae, known as caterpillars, will feed. Although most feed on plant matter, some species such as Eupithecia orichloris are carnivorous insectivores.[3][4] The caterpillars grow, sometimes very rapidly, and when fully developed will pupate, often after constructing a cocoon from silk. When metamorphosis is complete, the pupal skin splits, the adult insect climbs out and slowly expands its wings to dry and harden, before flying off.

Moths are commonly thought to eat clothes and fabrics, however it is only their larvae, caterpillars, which may consume natural fibres.[5]: 1–3 

Moths are very widely distributed across diverse terrestrial habitats and are found on all continents except Antarctica.[6][7][8]

Etymology

The modern English word moth comes from Old English moððe (cf. Northumbrian mohðe) from Common Germanic (compare Old Norse motti, Dutch mot, and German Motte all meaning 'moth'). Its origins are possibly related to the Old English maða meaning 'maggot' or from the root of midge which until the 16th century was used mostly to indicate the larva, usually in reference to devouring clothes.

Taxonomy

Basic moth identification features
Main article: Taxonomy of the Lepidoptera

Among the Lepidoptera, moths comprise about 90% (remaining 10% being butterflies). There are around 160,000 described species.[9][10] There is estimated to be tens of thousands of unidentified species, especially from tropical regions. The name Heterocera is no longer used in modern classification, however the name is often used to refer to moths; as Rhopalocera is like-wise used as the name for butterflies.[11]

Among the 125 known families, moths make up 118 of the Lepidoptera families, comprising all but the seven butterfly families.[11][needs update]

While there are 160,000 species described currently, the total number is estimated to be around 500,000. On average, over 1,000 species of Lepidoptera is described annually in recent years.[12][13][needs update]

Some of the largest moth families include Erebidae, Noctuidae, Geometroidea, and Pyralidae.[14][15]

Differences between butterflies and moths

Main article: Biology:Comparison of butterflies and moths

While the butterflies form a monophyletic group, the moths, comprising the rest of the Lepidoptera, do not. Many attempts have been made to group the superfamilies of the Lepidoptera into natural groups, most of which fail because one of the two groups is not monophyletic: Microlepidoptera and Macrolepidoptera, Heterocera and Rhopalocera, Jugatae and Frenatae, Monotrysia, and Ditrysia.[16]

Although the rules for distinguishing moths from butterflies are not well established, one very good guiding principle is that butterflies have thin antennae and (with the exception of the family Hedylidae) have small balls or clubs at the end of their antennae. Moth antennae are usually feathery with no ball on the end. The divisions are named by this principle: "club-antennae" (Rhopalocera) or "varied-antennae" (Heterocera). Lepidoptera first evolved during the Carboniferous period, but only evolved their characteristic proboscis alongside the rise of angiosperms in the Cretaceous period.[17]

Moths also tend to have far more hair-like scales than butterflies.[15]

Moths are usually nocturnal flyers in contrast to butterflies which fly by day, however there are many exceptions such as the Cinnabar moth.[18][19]

Life cycle and description

Being oviparous, moth larva hatch as eggs. Female moths will usually nurture the eggs with a layer of nutrients, sometimes providing a protective chemical layer, or covering with urticating hairs (such as in Lymantriinae). Eggs vary in shape and size, some being very elongated, and in colour, some being well camouflaged, others being brightly coloured to indicate a chemical defence (aposematism).[5]

Caterpillar

Ardices canescens, eating a leaf

Moth larvae, or caterpillars, are the first life stage after emergence from the egg. During emergence from the egg larva will consume the egg shell. Larvae have sclerotized heads, and mouthparts adapted for chewing. They have very short antennae and stemmata, mainly used for food detection. They possess a spinneret for producing silk. The larval stage varies in duration depending on temperature and food availability, but usually takes from four to eight weeks, sometimes as short as two weeks. Species which enter diapause during the winter may take up to 10 months, some species may take years. Larvae have three pairs of thoracic legs, and multiple proleg with gripping hooks called crochets, and will walk in order to reach a suitable spot for pupation, and to reach food.[20][5]: 242 [21]

The larval stage is the main feeding stage, where the larva will in most species consume plant matter.[22]

At the end of their life stage, caterpillars will seek out a location to enter the pupal stage. Usually this will be underground, or beneath plant debris. Most species are quite specific around where they will choose to pupate. Some species will pupate without constructing a cocoon, others will construct a cocoon from silk, often also incorporating plant debris, such as Cerura vinula which may incorporate pieces of chewed bark into the silk cocoon.[23][5]: 50 [24]

Curoba sangarida pupa

Pupa

During the pupal stage, the pupa will undergo metamorphosis and will be immobile for the duration of the life stage. The outer shell of the Pupa is sclerotised, and usually shiny and smooth.[15] At the end of this life stage, the pupa will emerge usually at specific times of the day, for instance in night flying moths usually late afternoon, in day flying usually early morning. To break free from the cocoon some species may secrete potassium hydroxide from their mouth to weaken the silk.[5]: 53 

Adult

The adult stage of the moth is primarily for reproduction and for dispersing from the location of pupation. Emerged moths will spend a few hours opening its wings for the first time, and allowing them to dry and harden. Usually emergence is specific to a certain time of the day, in night flying moths late afternoon, in day flying early morning. Moth wings are made of small overlapping scales. While providing insulation, the scales are also responsible for enabling the varied patterns seen on moths, each scale having a different pigment to make up the overall visible pattern. Moth scales can vary greatly in shape between families, from Filamentous and hairlike to club or paddle shaped.[5]: 66 [25]

Grey dagger, extruding proboscis from mouth

Almost all adult moths have a distinct coiled proboscis used to pull in fluids such as plant sap or water, and in many species is used to feed on flower nectar.[26] Adult moths have two large compound eyes, which can each range from 200 to 27,000 facets. most adult moths also possess ocelli, above their compound eyes; likely for orientation purposes.[5] Moths have two sensory antennae, which take a branch like shape and have no bulge on the end but taper to a point.[27]: 559–560 

Moths are able to produce sound for communication in a variety of ways, some species possessing tymbal organs, for the purpose of warning others to the presence of predators such as bats. Moths possess excellent hearing, from organs usually located on their abdomen, and can detect the sound of bats' wings.[28][29][30]

Moths use their dark and varied colouration which may resemble bark, stones, or dead leaves, for camouflage, avoiding the detection of predators. This is often in contrast to the caterpillar stage, which are often green to resemble the leaves which they must feed from.[31]

Females utilise pheromones to attract males of same species, remaining stationary while males locate them. Male moths have extremely acute capacity to detect scent, and can reliably track a female who is releasing pheromones up to a kilometre away, due to their highly sensitive antennae.[32][33][34] Since moths are usually quite dispersed, scent is more reliable a means of mate attraction than sound as is seen in many other insects.[16]

Some of the largest known moths can be found in the family Saturniidae, among which Attacus atlas of Southeast Asia attains a wingspan of up to 300 mm.[35] The smallest moths have wing-spans as small as 2.5 mm, such as Nepticulidae. The average among all moths is around 25 mm.[15]

Evolution

Thaumetopoea pityocampa. Notice the bristle springing from the underside of the hindwing (frenulum) and running forward to be held in a small catch of the forewing, whose function is to link the wings together.
See also: Lepidoptera § Evolution_and_systematics

Moths evolved long before butterflies; moth fossils have been found that may be 190 million years old. Both types of Lepidoptera are thought to have co-evolved with flowering plants, mainly because most modern species, both as adults and larvae, feed on flowering plants. One of the earliest known species that is thought to be an ancestor of moths is Archaeolepis mane. Its fossil fragments show scaled wings that are similar to caddisflies in their veining.[36]

Industrial melanism in modern moths

A phenomenon associated with human industrialisation has been observed in species such as the peppered moth, in which the occurrence of individuals which are darker than the typical form have increased in number.[37][31] Increases of melanism in moths was first observed in the mid nineteenth century in Britain, and was associated with industrialized areas of the country where tree trunks were blackened with soot from coal burning. The phenomenon has been widely described as a classical example of natural selection, in which the darker moths gained better camouflage against the blackened tree bark, and therefore had a higher rate of survival and subsequently reproductive success.[38][39][40][41]

Predators and parasites

Manduca sexta parasitised by braconid wasps

Nocturnal insectivores often feed on moths; these include some bats, some species of owls and other species of birds. Moths also are eaten by some species of lizards, amphibians, cats, dogs, rodents, and some bears.[42] Moth larvae are vulnerable to being parasitised by Ichneumonidae.[43][44][45]


There is evidence that ultrasound in the range emitted by bats causes flying moths to make evasive maneuvers. Ultrasonic frequencies trigger a reflex action in the noctuid moth that causes it to drop a few centimetres or inches in its flight to evade attack,[46] and tiger moths can emit clicks to foil bats' echolocation.[47][48]

The fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis infects the larvae of many different species of moths.[49]

Ecology

A hummingbird hawk-moth feeding off flower nectar

Moths, like butterflies, bees and other more popularly recognised pollinating insects, serve an essential role as pollinators for many flowering plants, including species that bees do not visit. Nocturnal moths fly from flower to flower to feed on nectar during the night much as their diurnal relatives do during the day. A study conducted in the UK found moths dusted with pollen from 47 different plant species, including seven species largely ignored by bees.[50] Some studies indicate that certain species of moths, such as those belonging to the families Erebidae and Sphingidae, may be the key pollinators for some flowering plants in the Himalayan ecosystem.[51][52] The roles of moths as pollinators have been studied less frequently than those of diurnal pollinators, but recent studies have established that moths are important, but often overlooked, nocturnal pollinators of a wide range of plants.[53][54][55][56] Some researchers say it is likely that many plants thought to be dependent on bees for pollination also rely on moths, which have historically been less observed because they pollinate mainly at night.[57]

Both as caterpillars and adult, moths are a substantial part of the insect biomass available to insectivorous vertebrates, they are also an important dietary source for many bats and passerines.[58][59]

Behaviour

See also: Lepidoptera § Behavior

Attraction to light

Moths circling an electric light bulb

Moths frequently appear to circle artificial lights. The reason for this behaviour (positive phototaxis) has not been solved, however there is widespread speculation that it is a result of orientating instincts, which in the natural environment of night flying moths would cause them to fly upward towards the moon, and may be a part of dispersal behaviour.[60][61][62][63]

One hypothesis is called celestial or transverse orientation. By maintaining a constant angular relationship to a bright celestial light, such as the moon, they can fly in a straight line. Celestial objects are so far away that, even after travelling great distances, the change in angle between the moth and the light source is negligible; further, the moon will always be in the upper part of the visual field, or on the horizon. When a moth encounters a much closer artificial light and uses it for navigation, the angle changes noticeably after only a short distance, in addition to being often below the horizon. The moth instinctively attempts to correct by turning toward the light, thereby causing airborne moths to come plummeting downward, and resulting in a spiral flight path that gets closer and closer to the light source.[64]

Studies have found that light pollution caused by increasing use of artificial lights has either led to a severe decline in moth population in some parts of the world[65][66][67] or has severely disrupted nocturnal pollination.[68][69]

Relationship to humans

Some moths, particularly their caterpillars, can be major agricultural pests in many parts of the world. Examples include corn borers and bollworms.[70] The caterpillar of the spongy moth (Lymantria dispar) causes severe damage to forests in the northeastern United States, where it is an invasive species. In temperate climates, the codling moth causes extensive damage, especially to fruit farms. In tropical and subtropical climates, the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) is perhaps the most serious pest of brassicaceous crops. Also in sub-Saharan Africa, the African sugarcane borer is a major pest of sugarcane, maize, and sorghum.[71]

Several moths in the family Tineidae are commonly regarded as pests because their larvae eat fabric such as clothes and blankets made from natural proteinaceous fibers such as wool or silk.[72] They are less likely to eat mixed materials containing some artificial fibers. There are some reports that they may be repelled by the scent of wood from juniper and cedar, by lavender, or by other natural oils; however, many consider this unlikely to prevent infestation. Naphthalene (the chemical used in mothballs) is considered more effective, but there are concerns over its effects on human health. Despite being commonly thought to be undertaken by all moths,[73][74] only the larvae of several moth species eat animal fibres, creating holes in articles of clothing, in particular those made of wool. Most species do not eat fabrics, and some moth adults do not even eat at all. Some, like the Luna, Polyphemus, Atlas, Promethea, cecropia, and other large moths do not have mouth parts. This is possible because they live off the food stores from when they were a caterpillar, and only live a short time as an adult (roughly a week for some species).[75] Many species of adult moths do however eat: for instance, many will drink nectar.[72]

Items of fabric infested by clothes moth larvae may be treated by freezing them for several days at a temperature below −8 °C (18 °F).[76]

Some moths are farmed for their economic value. The most notable of these is the silkworm, the larva of the domesticated moth Bombyx mori. It is farmed for the silk with which it builds its cocoon. As of 2002, the silk industry produces more than 130 million kilograms of raw silk, worth about 250 million U.S. dollars, each year.[77][78][79]


The larvae of many species are used as food, particularly in Africa, where they are an important source of nutrition. The mopane worm, the caterpillar of Gonimbrasia belina, from the family Saturniidae, is a significant food resource in southern Africa. Another saturniid used as food is the cavorting emperor (Usta terpsichore). In one country alone, Congo, more than 30 species of moth larvae are harvested. Some are sold not only in the local village markets, but are shipped by the ton from one country to another.[80]

Moth traps are often used by amateur collectors, entomologists, or in pest control, to capture moths.[81]

See also

  • Iich'aa
  • Insect tea
  • Lists of moths
  • Lepidopterism
  • Mothman
  • Mothra

References

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  2. ↑ "Moths". Smithsonian Institution. http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmnh/buginfo/moths.htm. 
  3. ↑ Montgomery, Steven L. (1983). "Carnivorous caterpillars: the behavior, biogeography and conservation of Eupithecia (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) in the Hawaiian Islands"". Biogeography an Plate Tectonics in the Pacific 7: 549-556. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41143203. 
  4. ↑ Bassi, Margherita. "Researchers Discover a Rare, Carnivorous Caterpillar That Wears Dead Insect Parts to Fool Spiders". https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/researchers-discover-a-rare-carnivorous-caterpillar-that-wears-dead-insect-parts-to-fool-spiders-180986506/. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Majerus, Michael (2002). Moths (1st ed.). Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-220141-4. 
  6. ↑ Capinera, John L (2004). Encyclopedia of Entomology. p. 2493. ISBN 978-1-4020-6242-1. 
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  44. ↑ Viet, Bui Tuan (2017-02-23). "Ichneumonid Wasps (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae) Parasitizee a Pupae of the Rice Insect Pests (Lepidoptera) in the Hanoi Area". JSM Anatomy and Physiology 2 (1): 1–0. doi:10.47739/2573-1262/1008. ISSN 2573-1262. https://www.jscimedcentral.com/jounal-article-info/JSM-Anatomy-and-Physiology/Ichneumonid-Wasps-(Hymenoptera,-Ichneumonidae)-Parasitizee-a-Pupae-of-the-Rice-Insect-Pests-(Lepidoptera)-in-the-Hanoi-Area-107. 
  45. ↑ "Friends of Heene Cemetery". https://www.heenecemetery.org.uk/species/ichneumon-wasp-unnamed-3. 
  46. ↑ Jones, G; D A Waters (2000). "Moth hearing in response to bat echolocation calls manipulated independently in time and frequency". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 267 (1453): 1627–32. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1188. PMID 11467425. 
  47. ↑ Kaplan, Matt (17 July 2009). "Moths Jam Bat Sonar, Throw the Predators Off Course". http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/07/090717-moths-jam-bat-sonar.html. 
  48. ↑ "Some Moths Escape Bats By Jamming Sonar". 17 July 2009. https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=106733884. 
  49. ↑ Baral, B (Feb 2017). "Entomopathogenicity and biological attributes of Himalayan treasured fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Yarsagumba)". Journal of Fungi 3 (1): 4. doi:10.3390/jof3010004. PMID 29371523. 
  50. ↑ Fox, Alex. "Moths Work the Pollination Night Shift, Visiting Some Flowers Bees Skip". https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/moths-work-pollination-night-shift-visiting-some-flowers-bees-skip-180974884/. 
  51. ↑ "National Mission on Himalayan Studies". https://nmhs.org.in/MG_24_2017_18.php. 
  52. ↑ Singh, Shiv Sahay (28 October 2018). "Moths are key to pollination in Himalayan ecosystem". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/moths-are-key-to-pollination-in-himalayan-ecosystem/article25354080.ece. 
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  54. ↑ Matt McGrath (13 May 2020). "Nature crisis: Moths have 'secret role' as crucial pollinators". BBC. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-52630991. 
  55. ↑ Macgregor, Callum J.; Pocock, Michael J. O.; Fox, Richard; Evans, Darren M. (2015). "Pollination by nocturnal Lepidoptera, and the effects of light pollution: a review". Ecological Entomology 40 (3): 187–198. doi:10.1111/een.12174. ISSN 1365-2311. PMID 25914438. Bibcode: 2015EcoEn..40..187M. 
  56. ↑ Hahn, Melanie; Brühl, Carsten A. (25 January 2016). "The secret pollinators: an overview of moth pollination with a focus on Europe and North America". Arthropod-Plant Interactions 10 (1): 21–28. doi:10.1007/s11829-016-9414-3. ISSN 1872-8855. Bibcode: 2016APInt..10...21H. 
  57. ↑ Kuta, Sarah. "Moths are the Unsung Heroes of Pollination". https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/moths-are-the-unsung-heroes-of-pollination-180980491/. 
  58. ↑ Wagner, David L.; Fox, Richard; Salcido, Danielle M.; Dyer, Lee A. (2021-01-12). "A window to the world of global insect declines: Moth biodiversity trends are complex and heterogeneous". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 118 (2). doi:10.1073/pnas.2002549117. ISSN 1091-6490. PMID 33431565. PMC 7812805. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7812805/. 
  59. ↑ Scoble, Malcolm J. (1995). The Lepidoptera: Form, Function and Diversity. Natural History Museum. ISBN 978-0-19-854952-9. 
  60. ↑ Christine Truxa and Konrad Fiedler (2012). "Attraction to light – from how far do moths (Lepidoptera) return to weak artificial sources of light? ISSN: 1802-8829". European Journal of Entomology 109. https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/43453436/Truxa_Fiedler_EurJEntomol_2012-libre.pdf?1457379145=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DAttraction_to_light_from_how_far_do_moth.pdf&Expires=1774277041&Signature=SZbvVuBsJKj28n9UK0Q-Ax3~78WRZRNErHTzkn2MtRZATWDlHWybxTxYpG8tQardXSjgNjiNbkDSUD4krvqjm3oRQr2-~4nXUCszUvFHcAOMKjcmluzv~bg6BhD-qND36XlEznCKsFJYEBqxDSmLYyokk5YyenlbQslAQbt3wAyE7qI8J4UV~YizLbiS34PZjGOkuuM2NwM4O-ok0KjOYgJylfMpQcoZEIQc69gQsYPcjS8ThOXOjgq-IlDJQeeCT0V8qMWQrwh2eJt1ItwGU983qAU8wXgcxOoWorcHVgcOko~yhbFbs5nkFvQ0V7z2ZR8q8gCXGuDull3yxRZ9QQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA. 
  61. ↑ Fabian, Samuel T.; Sondhi, Yash; Allen, Pablo E.; Theobald, Jamie C.; Lin, Huai-Ti (2024-01-30). "Why flying insects gather at artificial light". Nature Communications 15 (1): 689. doi:10.1038/s41467-024-44785-3. ISSN 2041-1723. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-44785-3. 
  62. ↑ "Why are moths attracted to light?". https://www.birminghammuseums.org.uk/stories/why-are-moths-attracted-to-light. 
  63. ↑ "Why are moths attracted to light?". 2025-12-01. https://butterfly-conservation.org/news-and-blog/why-are-moths-attracted-to-light. 
  64. ↑ "Why Are Moths Attracted to Flame?". npr.org. 18 August 2007. https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12903572. 
  65. ↑ van Langevelde, Frank; Braamburg-Annegarn, Marijke; Huigens, Martinus E.; Groendijk, Rob; Poitevin, Olivier; van Deijk, Jurriën R.; Ellis, Willem N.; van Grunsven, Roy H. A. et al. (4 January 2018). "Declines in moth populations stress the need for conserving dark nights". Global Change Biology 24 (3): 925–932. doi:10.1111/gcb.14008. ISSN 1354-1013. PMID 29215778. Bibcode: 2018GCBio..24..925V. 
  66. ↑ "The State Of Britain's Moths". https://butterfly-conservation.org/moths/the-state-of-britains-moths. 
  67. ↑ Boyes, Douglas H.; Evans, Darren M.; Fox, Richard; Parsons, Mark S.; Pocock, Michael J. O. (August 2021). "Street lighting has detrimental impacts on local insect populations". Science Advances 7 (35). doi:10.1126/sciadv.abi8322. PMID 34433571. Bibcode: 2021SciA....7.8322B. 
  68. ↑ Macgregor, Callum J.; Evans, Darren M.; Fox, Richard; Pocock, Michael J. O. (12 July 2016). "The dark side of street lighting: impacts on moths and evidence for the disruption of nocturnal pollen transport". Global Change Biology 23 (2): 697–707. doi:10.1111/gcb.13371. ISSN 1354-1013. PMID 27251575. 
  69. ↑ Knop, Eva; Zoller, Leana; Ryser, Remo; Gerpe, Christopher; Hörler, Maurin; Fontaine, Colin (2 August 2017). "Artificial light at night as a new threat to pollination". Nature 548 (7666): 206–209. doi:10.1038/nature23288. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 28783730. Bibcode: 2017Natur.548..206K. https://hal.science/hal-03947729/file/nature23288.pdf. Retrieved 13 June 2023. 
  70. ↑ Fernandez-Cornejo, Jorge; Caswell, Margriet (April 2006). "The First Decade of Genetically Engineered Crops in the United States". USDA. http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib11/eib11.pdf. 
  71. ↑ Conlong, D.E. (February 1994). "A review and perspectives for the biological control of the African sugarcane stalkborer Eldana saccharina Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 48 (1): 9–17. doi:10.1016/0167-8809(94)90070-1. Bibcode: 1994AgEE...48....9C. 
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 Scott, Thomas (1995). Concise Encyclopedia Biology . Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-010661-2.
  73. ↑ Cohen, Arianne (January 27, 2010). "When Moths Make a Home in Yours". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/28/garden/28fix.html. 
  74. ↑ Zwick, Andreas; Luo, Ying (January 5, 2022). "Moths eating your clothes? It's actually their hungry little caterpillars – here's how to get rid of them". https://www.csiro.au/en/news/all/articles/2022/january/clothes-eating-moths. 
  75. ↑ Konkel, Lindsey (28 July 2012). "7 Things You Don't Know About Moths, But Should". https://www.livescience.com/21933-moth-week-facts.html. 
  76. ↑ Choe, D.-H. (21 June 2016). "How to Manage Pests | Pests of Homes, Structures, People, and Pets | Clothes Moths". University of California, Davis. http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7435.html. 
  77. ↑ "Table 74. Raw silk: production (including waste)". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/AD452E/ad452e2a.htm. "Table lists worldwide raw silk production 132,400 metric tonnes in 2002" 
  78. ↑ "Silk Exchanges of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh". Central Silk Board of India. http://www.indiansilk.kar.nic.in/csb/Statistics/forexchg_tasar/forexchg_tasar_Local/SilkFlash/RawSilkPrice_tnap.asp.  gives silk prices in rupees. Exchange rate is about 50 RS to dollar.
  79. ↑ "Silk Worm Farming". Vegan Society. http://www.vegansociety.com/html/animals/exploitation/silk_worm.php. "World Raw Silk Production in 1996 is listed as 83,670 metric tonnes" 
  80. ↑ "Some Edible Species". http://www.food-insects.com/edible%20species.htm. 
  81. ↑ Waring, Paul (2001). A Guide to Moth Traps and Their Use. ISBN 978-1-8380246-1-1. 

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