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Soil ecology

Topic: Biology

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 19 min

Short description: Study of the interaction of soil and life

Soil ecology studies interactions among soil organisms and their environment. It is a branch of ecology particularly concerned with the cycling of nutrients, soil aggregate formation, and soil biodiversity. Soils are a complex environment made of physical, chemical, and biological entities that frequently interact. Soils support a wide range of bacteria, plants, fungi, and other organisms, making it an essential ecosystem of terrestrial biodiversity.[1]

Abiotic Components

Soil is a heterogenous mixture of minerals and organic matter with variations in structure, nutrients, moisture, temperature, and pH that support different organisms depending on such combinations.[2] Soil is formed through a process known as pedogenesis, the development of which is influenced by five soil forming factors identified by Hans Jenny.[3] These factors are described in an equation known as the Jenny Equation, where climate (cl), organisms (o), relief (r), parent material (p), and time (t) are a function of soil formation.[3]

s=f(cl,o,r,p,t)

Structure

Soil aggregation is the process of clay, silt, and sand combining together with organic matter over time.[4] Soil structure is influenced by the size, shape, and arrangement of these solid particles.[5] Porosity is affected by minerals and organic matter found in the soil, and aggregation is vital for maintaining it.[6][7] Moisture levels, root growth, and organisms influence aggregate size and stability in the face of environmental stress.[4][8] Aggregate formation is also important for protecting soil against excessive erosion and organismal decomposition.[7] Recent research suggests that soil aggregation, which can be impacted in agricultural systems from tilling, affects the bacterial communities present in the soil.[9]

Nutrients

Soils are sources of plant nutrients that are necessary for plant growth. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (known as NPK) are the three main nutrients required for plant life.[10] Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur are also important nutrients important for microbial life, as well as other micronutrients such as iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, and molybdenum.[10][11]

Nutrient cycling impacts soil fertility through a number of biogeochemical processes.[12] These cycles help regulate the availability and exchange of nutrients between plants and soils, helping to maintain ecosystem productivity and health.[13] Ecosystem resilience and biodiversity can also be attributed to the availability and diversity of nutrients due to greater plant diversity, which in turn supports more complex food webs.[13] Human land use changes such as farming and urbanization can significantly affect nutrient cycling and microbial communities within soils.[14] Additionally, the overuse of synthetic fertilizers and subsequent runoff from agricultural lands can lead to declines in soil health and fertility and contribute to the eutrophication of adjacent freshwater systems.[13]

Microclimate

Moisture is a significant limiting factor in terrestrial ecosystems and especially in the soil.[15] Soil organisms are constantly confronted with the problem of dehydration.[16] Soil microbial communities experience shifts in the diversity and composition during dehydration and rehydration cycles.[17] Soil moisture also affects carbon cycling, a phenomenon known as the Birch effect.[18][19]

Air is vital for respiration in soil organisms and in plant growth.[20] Both wind and atmospheric pressure play critical roles in soil aeration.[21] In addition, convection and diffusion also influence the rates of soil aeration[20]

Temperature variations in soil are influenced by factors such as seasonality, environmental conditions, vegetation, and soil composition.[22][23] Soil temperature also varies with depth; upper soil layers are majorly influenced by air temperature, while deeper soil layers experience less temperature fluctuation.[24][25] Soil temperature influences biological and biochemical processes in soil, playing an important role in microbial and enzymatic activities, mineralization, and organic matter decomposition.[26]

Soil Fauna

Soil fauna is crucial to soil formation, litter decomposition, nutrient cycling, biotic regulation, and promotion of plant growth. Yet, soil organisms remain underrepresented in studies on soil processes and existing modeling exercises. This is a consequence of assuming that much below ground diversity is ecologically redundant and that soil food webs exhibit a higher degree of omnivory.[27] However, there is growing evidence on the strong influence of abiotic filters, such as temperature, moisture and soil pH, as well as soil habitat characteristics in controlling their spatial and temporal patterns.[28]

Soils are complex systems and their complexity resides in their heterogeneous nature; they are a mixture of air, water, minerals, organic compounds, and living organisms. The horizontal and vertical spatial variation of all these constituents is related to soil forming agents varying from micro to macro scales.[29] Consequently, the horizontal patchy distribution of soil properties (soil temperature, moisture, pH, litter/nutrient availability, etc.) also drives the patchiness of the soil organisms across the landscape[30] and has been one of the main arguments for explaining the great diversity observed in soil communities.[31] Because soils also show vertical stratification of their elemental constituents along the soil profile as result of microclimate, soil texture, and resource quantity and quality differing between soil horizons, soil communities also change in abundance and structure with soil depth.[32][28]

The majority of these organisms are aerobic, so the amount of porous space, pore-size distribution, surface area, and oxygen levels are crucial to their life cycles and activities. The smallest creatures (microbes) use the micropores filled with air to grow, whereas other bigger animals require larger macropores or the water film surrounding the soil particles to move in search for food. Therefore, soil textural properties together with water table depth are also important factors regulating their diversity, population sizes, and their vertical stratification. Ultimately, the structure of the soil communities strongly depends on both natural soil forming factors and human activities (agriculture, forestry, urbanization). This helps determine the shape of landscapes in terms of healthy or contaminated, pristine or degraded soils.[28]

Macrofauna

Soil macrofauna, climatic gradients and soil heterogeneity [28]
Historical factors, such as climate and soil parent materials, shape landscapes above and below ground, but the regional/local abiotic conditions constraint biological activities. These operate at different spatial and temporal scales and can switch on and off different organisms at different microsites resulting in a hot moment in a particular hotspot.[33] As a result, trophic cascades can occur up and down the food web.
Soil invertebrates are shown. Ellipses indicate hot (red) or cold spots (blue), with the curved arrows giving some examples of the factors that could switch on/off a hot moment and the straight black arrows (continuous black line = on, dashed = off) showing the implications for soil processes along the soil profile. In the boxes, the main ecosystem characteristics are listed.

Since all these drivers of biodiversity changes also operate above ground, it is thought that there must be some concordance of mechanisms regulating the spatial patterns and structure of both above and below ground communities.[34] In support of this, a small-scale field study revealed that the relationships between environmental heterogeneity and species richness might be a general property of ecological communities.[31] In contrast, the molecular examination of 17,516 environmental 18S rRNA gene sequences representing 20 phyla of soil animals covering a range of biomes and latitudes around the world indicated otherwise, and the main conclusion from this study was that below-ground animal diversity may be inversely related to above-ground biodiversity.[35][28]

The lack of distinct latitudinal gradients in soil biodiversity contrasts with those clear global patterns observed for plants above ground and has led to the assumption that they are indeed controlled by different factors.[36] In 2007, Lozupone and Knight found salinity was the major environmental determinant of bacterial diversity composition across the globe, rather than extremes of temperature, pH, or other physical and chemical factors.[37] In another global scale study in 2014, Tedersoo et al. concluded fungal richness is causally unrelated to plant diversity and is better explained by climatic factors, followed by edaphic and spatial patterns.[38] Global patterns of the distribution of macroscopic organisms are far poorer documented. However, the little evidence available appears to indicate that, at large scales, soil metazoans respond to altitudinal, latitudinal, or area gradients in the same way as those described for above-ground organisms.[39] In contrast, at local scales, the great diversity of microhabitats commonly found in soils provides the required niche portioning to create hot spots of diversity in just a gram of soil.[36][28]

Spatial patterns of soil biodiversity are difficult to explain, and its potential linkages to many soil processes and the overall ecosystem functioning are debated. For example, while some studies have found that reductions in the abundance and presence of soil organisms results in the decline of multiple ecosystem functions,[40] others concluded that above-ground plant diversity alone is a better predictor of ecosystem multi-functionality than soil biodiversity.[41] Soil organisms exhibit a wide array of feeding preferences, life-cycles and survival strategies and they interact within complex food webs.[42] Consequently, species richness per se has very little influence on soil processes and functional dissimilarity can have stronger impacts on ecosystem functioning.[43] Therefore, besides the difficulties in linking above and below ground diversities at different spatial scales, gaining a better understanding of the biotic effects on ecosystem processes might require incorporating a great number of components together with several multi-trophic levels [44] as well as the much less considered non-trophic interactions such as phoresy, passive consumption.[45]) In addition, if soil systems are indeed self-organized, and soil organisms concentrate their activities within a selected set of discrete scales with some form of overall coordination,[46] there is no need for looking for external factors controlling the assemblages of soil constituents. Instead we might just need to recognize the unexpected and that the linkages between above and below ground diversity and soil processes are difficult to predict.[28]

Microfauna

Recent advances are emerging from studying sub-organism level responses using environmental DNA. [47] Various omics approaches, such as metagenomics, metatranscriptomics, proteomics and proteogenomics, are rapidly advancing, at least for the microbial world.[48] Metaphenomics has been proposed recently as a better way to encompass the omics and the environmental constraints.[49][28]

Soil microbes

Soil harbors many microbes: bacteria, archaea, protist, fungi, and viruses.[50] A majority of these microbes have not been cultured and remain undescribed.[51] Development of next generation sequencing technologies open up the avenue to investigate microbial diversity in soil.[52] One feature of soil microbes is spatial separation, which influences microbe to microbe interactions and ecosystem functioning in the soil habitat.[53] Microorganisms in soil are found to be concentrated in specific sites called 'hot spots,' which are characterized by an abundance of resources such as moisture or nutrients.[54] Examples include the rhizosphere and areas with accumulated organic matter such as the detritusphere.[55] These areas are characterized by the presence of decaying root litter and exudates released from plant roots which regulates the availability of carbon and nitrogen and in consequence modulate microbial processes.[55]

Apart from labile organic carbon, spatial separation of microbes in soil may be influenced by other environmental factors such as temperature and moisture.[56] Other abiotic factors like pH and mineral nutrient composition may also influence the distribution of microorganisms in soil.[57] Variability of these factors make soil a dynamic system.[58] Interactions between members of the soil microhabitat take place via chemical signaling, which is mediated by soluble metabolites and volatile organic compounds in addition to extracellular polysaccharides.[59] Chemical signals enable microbes to interact; for example, bacterial peptidoglycans stimulate growth of Candida albicans.[60] Reciprocally, C. albicans production of farnesol modulates the expression of virulence genes and influences bacterial quorum sensing.[61] Trophic interactions by microbes in the same environment is driven by molecular communication.[62] Microbes may also exchange metabolites to support each other's growth, e.g. the release of extracellular enzymes by ectomycorrhiza decomposes organic matter, and release nutrients which then benefit other members of the population. In exchange, organic acids from bacteria stimulate fungal growth [63] These examples of trophic interactions, especially metabolite dependencies, drive species interactions and are important in the assembly of soil microbial communities.[64]

Soil food web

Diverse organisms make up the soil food web. They range in size from one-celled bacteria, algae, fungi, and protozoa, to more complex nematodes and micro-arthropods, to the visible earthworms, insects, small vertebrates, and plants. As these organisms eat, grow, and move through the soil, they make it possible to have clean water, clean air, healthy plants, and moderated water flow.

There are many ways that the soil food web is an integral part of landscape processes. Soil organisms decompose organic compounds, including manure, plant residues, and pesticides, preventing them from entering water and becoming pollutants.[65] They sequester nitrogen and other nutrients that might otherwise enter groundwater, and they fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, making it available to plants. Many organisms enhance soil aggregation and porosity, thus increasing infiltration and reducing surface runoff. Soil organisms also prey on crop pests and are food for above-ground animals.

Research

Research interests span many aspects of soil ecology and microbiology. Fundamentally, researchers are interested in understanding the interplay among microorganisms, fauna, and plants; the biogeochemical processes they carry out; and the physical environment in which their activities take place. Researchers apply this knowledge to address environmental problems. Notable scientific journals publishing current scientific research on soil ecology include Applied Soil Ecology, Soil Ecology Letters, and npj Soil Ecology.

Current research in soil ecology is investigating the biogeochemistry and microbial ecology of septic drain field soils used to treat domestic wastewater, the role of anecic earthworms in controlling the movement of water and nitrogen cycle in agricultural soils, and the assessment of soil quality in turf production.[66]

As of 2006, one research topic of particular interest is understanding the roles and functions of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in natural ecosystems. The effect of anthropic soil conditions on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and the production of glomalin by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are both of interest due to their roles in sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide.

References

  1. ↑ Wardle, D. A. (2002). Communities and ecosystems: linking the aboveground and belowground components.
  2. ↑ Wardle, D. A. (2002). Communities and ecosystems: linking the aboveground and belowground components.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 R. C. C. (September 1941). "Factors of Soil Formation, a System of Quantitative Pedology: By Hans Jenny. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. XII + 281 pages, illus. $3.50" (in en). Agronomy Journal 33 (9): 857–858. doi:10.2134/agronj1941.00021962003300090016x. ISSN 0002-1962. https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2134/agronj1941.00021962003300090016x. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Tisdall, J.M. (1995). "Formation of Soil Aggregates and Accumulation of Soil Organic Matter". Structure and Organic Matter Storage in Agricultural Soils (1st ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press (published 16 December 2020). ISBN 978-1-003-07556-1. 
  5. ↑ Letey, J (1991). "The study of soil structure - Science or art" (in en). Soil Research 29 (6): 699. doi:10.1071/SR9910699. ISSN 1838-675X. Bibcode: 1991SoilR..29..699L. http://www.publish.csiro.au/?paper=SR9910699. 
  6. ↑ Leuther, Frederic (2023-05-15). "Soil structure – a dynamic soil property which effects multiple soil functions". Egu General Assembly Conference Abstracts. doi:10.5194/egusphere-egu23-15721. Bibcode: 2023EGUGA..2515721L. https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU23/EGU23-15721.html. Retrieved 2024-11-17. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Ali, N.; Abbas, S. A. A. A.; Sharif, L.; Shafiq, M.; Kamran, Z.; Masah; Haseeb, M.; Shahid, M. A. (13 October 2023). "Microbial Extracellular Polymeric Substance and Impacts on Soil Aggregation". Bacterial Secondary Metabolites: Synthesis and Applications in Agroecosystems. Nanobiotechnology for Plant Protection. pp. 221–237. doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-95251-4.00021-1. ISBN 978-0-323-95251-4. 
  8. ↑ Hillel, Daniel (1980), "Soil Structure and Aggregation" (in en), Fundamentals of Soil Physics (Elsevier): pp. 93–119, doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-091870-9.50011-x, ISBN 978-0-08-091870-9, https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B978008091870950011X, retrieved 2024-11-17 
  9. ↑ Peixoto, R. S.; Coutinho, H. L. C.; Madari, B.; Machado, P. L. O. A.; Rumjanek, N. G.; Van Elsas, J. D.; Seldin, L.; Rosado, A. S. (2006-11-01). "Soil aggregation and bacterial community structure as affected by tillage and cover cropping in the Brazilian Cerrados". Soil and Tillage Research 90 (1): 16–28. doi:10.1016/j.still.2005.08.001. ISSN 0167-1987. Bibcode: 2006STilR..90...16P. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167198705002229. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Hillel, Daniel (2008). Soil in the environment: crucible of terrestrial life. Amsterdam ; Boston: Elsevier/Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-348536-6. 
  11. ↑ "Essential Nutrients for Plants" (in en-US). https://agrilifeextension.tamu.edu/library/gardening/essential-nutrients-for-plants/. 
  12. ↑ Schröder, J. J.; Schulte, R. P. O.; Creamer, R. E.; Delgado, A.; van Leeuwen, J.; Lehtinen, T.; Rutgers, M.; Spiegel, H. et al. (2016). "The elusive role of soil quality in nutrient cycling: a review" (in en). Soil Use and Management 32 (4): 476–486. doi:10.1111/sum.12288. ISSN 1475-2743. Bibcode: 2016SUMan..32..476S. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/sum.12288. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Zaman, Wajid; Ayaz, Asma; Puppe, Daniel (2025-04-17). "Biogeochemical Cycles in Plant–Soil Systems: Significance for Agriculture, Interconnections, and Anthropogenic Disruptions" (in en). Biology 14 (4): 433. doi:10.3390/biology14040433. ISSN 2079-7737. PMID 40282298. 
  14. ↑ Wang, Haitao; Marshall, Christopher W.; Cheng, Minying; Xu, Huijuan; Li, Hu; Yang, Xiaoru; Zheng, Tianling (2017-03-10). "Changes in land use driven by urbanization impact nitrogen cycling and the microbial community composition in soils" (in en). Scientific Reports 7 (1). doi:10.1038/srep44049. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 28281565. Bibcode: 2017NatSR...744049W. 
  15. ↑ Orth, Rene; Denissen, Jasper M.C.; Li, Wantong; Oh, Sungmin (2023-05-15). "Increasing water limitation of global ecosystems in a changing climate". Egu General Assembly Conference Abstracts. doi:10.5194/egusphere-egu23-1422. Bibcode: 2023EGUGA..25.1422O. https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU23/EGU23-1422.html. Retrieved 2024-11-13. 
  16. ↑ Chipman, Ariel D. (2024-05-31), "Terrestrialization" (in en), Organismic Animal Biology (Oxford University PressOxford): pp. 133–136, doi:10.1093/oso/9780192893581.003.0022, ISBN 978-0-19-289358-1, https://academic.oup.com/book/56289/chapter/445243977, retrieved 2024-11-14 
  17. ↑ Šťovíček, Adam; Kim, Minsu; Or, Dani; Gillor, Osnat (2017-04-06). "Microbial community response to hydration-desiccation cycles in desert soil" (in en). Scientific Reports 7 (1). doi:10.1038/srep45735. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 28383531. Bibcode: 2017NatSR...745735S. 
  18. ↑ Liang, Guopeng; Reed, Sasha C.; Stark, John M.; Waring, Bonnie G. (October 2023). "Unraveling mechanisms underlying effects of wetting–drying cycles on soil respiration in a dryland" (in en). Biogeochemistry 166 (1): 23–37. doi:10.1007/s10533-023-01085-0. ISSN 0168-2563. Bibcode: 2023Biogc.166...23L. 
  19. ↑ Singh, Shikha; Mayes, Melanie A.; Kivlin, Stephanie N.; Jagadamma, Sindhu (2023-04-01). "How the Birch effect differs in mechanisms and magnitudes due to soil texture". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 179. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2023.108973. ISSN 0038-0717. Bibcode: 2023SBiBi.17908973S. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0038071723000354. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Novák, Viliam; Hlaváčiková, Hana (2019), "Soil Air and Its Dynamics", Applied Soil Hydrology (Cham: Springer International Publishing) 32: pp. 293–301, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-01806-1_19, ISBN 978-3-030-01805-4, http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-01806-1_19, retrieved 2024-11-14 
  21. ↑ Maier, Martin; Osterholt, Laurin; Schindler, Dirk (2022-03-28). "Blowing in the wind: a review of wind and air- pressure-related effects on soil gas transport ". Egu General Assembly Conference Abstracts. doi:10.5194/egusphere-egu22-8713. Bibcode: 2022EGUGA..24.8713M. https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU22/EGU22-8713.html. Retrieved 2024-11-14. 
  22. ↑ Atesmen, M. Kemal (2023-06-15), "Seasonally Averaged Temperature Fluctuation Penetrations into The Ground" (in en), Case Studies in Transient Heat Transfer With Sensitivities to Governing Variables (ASME): pp. 187–193, doi:10.1115/1.886786_ch20, ISBN 978-0-7918-8678-6, https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ebooks/book/297/chapter/27392070/Seasonally-Averaged-Temperature-Fluctuation, retrieved 2024-11-14 
  23. ↑ Kulish, T (2022-06-01). "Spatial variation of soil temperature fields in a urban park". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1049 (1). doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1049/1/012056. ISSN 1755-1307. Bibcode: 2022E&ES.1049a2056K. 
  24. ↑ Bourletsikas, Athanassios; Proutsos, Nikolaos; Michopoulos, Panagiotis; Argyrokastritis, Ioannis (2023-04-14). "Temporal Variations in Temperature and Moisture Soil Profiles in a Mediterranean Maquis Forest in Greece" (in en). Hydrology 10 (4): 93. doi:10.3390/hydrology10040093. ISSN 2306-5338. Bibcode: 2023Hydro..10...93B. 
  25. ↑ Bulgakov, Volodymyr; Pascuzzi, Simone; Adamchuk, Valerii; Gadzalo, Jaroslav; Nadykto, Volodymyr; Olt, Jüri; Nowak, Janusz; Kaminskiy, Viktor (2022-03-23). "Dynamics of Temperature Variation in Soil under Fallow Tillage at Different Depths" (in en). Agriculture 12 (4): 450. doi:10.3390/agriculture12040450. ISSN 2077-0472. Bibcode: 2022Agric..12..450B. 
  26. ↑ Sharma, Pradeep K.; Kumar, Sandeep (2023), Sharma, Pradeep K.; Kumar, Sandeep, eds., "Soil Temperature and Plant Growth" (in en), Soil Physical Environment and Plant Growth: Evaluation and Management (Cham: Springer International Publishing): pp. 175–204, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-28057-3_7, ISBN 978-3-031-28057-3, https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-28057-3_7, retrieved 2024-11-16 
  27. ↑ Wardle, D. A. (2002). Communities and ecosystems: linking the aboveground and belowground components.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 28.7 Briones, Maria J. I. (2018). "The Serendipitous Value of Soil Fauna in Ecosystem Functioning: The Unexplained Explained". Frontiers in Environmental Science 6. doi:10.3389/fenvs.2018.00149. Bibcode: 2018FrEnS...6..149B.  50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
  29. ↑ Lin, Hangsheng; Wheeler, Dan; Bell, Jay; Wilding, Larry (2005). "Assessment of soil spatial variability at multiple scales". Ecological Modelling 182 (3–4): 271–290. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2004.04.006. Bibcode: 2005EcMod.182..271L. 
  30. ↑ Wall, Diana H. (14 June 2012). Soil Ecology and Ecosystem Services. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-957592-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=w_o0obAFdLQC&pg=PA136. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Nielsen, Uffe N.; Osler, Graham H. R.; Campbell, Colin D.; Neilson, Roy; Burslem, David F. R. P.; Van Der Wal, René (2010). "The Enigma of Soil Animal Species Diversity Revisited: The Role of Small-Scale Heterogeneity". PLOS ONE 5 (7). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011567. PMID 20644639. Bibcode: 2010PLoSO...511567N. 
  32. ↑ Berg, Matty P.; Bengtsson, Janne (2007). "Temporal and spatial variability in soil food web structure". Oikos 116 (11): 1789–1804. doi:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2007.15748.x. Bibcode: 2007Oikos.116.1789B. 
  33. ↑ Odum, E. P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology.
  34. ↑ Wardle, D. A. (2002). Communities and ecosystems: linking the aboveground and belowground components.
  35. ↑ Wu, T.; Ayres, E.; Bardgett, R. D.; Wall, D. H.; Garey, J. R. (2011). "Molecular study of worldwide distribution and diversity of soil animals". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 (43): 17720–17725. doi:10.1073/pnas.1103824108. PMID 22006309. Bibcode: 2011PNAS..10817720W. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Bardgett, Richard D.; Van Der Putten, Wim H. (2014). "Belowground biodiversity and ecosystem functioning". Nature 515 (7528): 505–511. doi:10.1038/nature13855. PMID 25428498. Bibcode: 2014Natur.515..505B. 
  37. ↑ Berg, Matty P.; Bengtsson, Janne (2007). "Temporal and spatial variability in soil food web structure". Oikos 116 (11): 1789–1804. doi:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2007.15748.x. Bibcode: 2007Oikos.116.1789B. 
  38. ↑ Tedersoo, Leho et al. (2014). "Global diversity and geography of soil fungi". Science 346 (6213). doi:10.1126/science.1256688. PMID 25430773. https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/606982/1/LehoFungiFinal.pdf. 
  39. ↑ Decaëns, Thibaud (2010). "Macroecological patterns in soil communities". Global Ecology and Biogeography 19 (3): 287–302. doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00517.x. Bibcode: 2010GloEB..19..287D. 
  40. ↑ Wagg, C.; Bender, S. F.; Widmer, F.; Van Der Heijden, M. G. A. (2014). "Soil biodiversity and soil community composition determine ecosystem multifunctionality". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 (14): 5266–5270. doi:10.1073/pnas.1320054111. PMID 24639507. Bibcode: 2014PNAS..111.5266W. 
  41. ↑ Jing, Xin; Sanders, Nathan J.; Shi, Yu; Chu, Haiyan; Classen, Aimée T.; Zhao, Ke; Chen, Litong; Shi, Yue et al. (2015). "The links between ecosystem multifunctionality and above- and belowground biodiversity are mediated by climate". Nature Communications 6. doi:10.1038/ncomms9159. PMID 26328906. Bibcode: 2015NatCo...6.8159J. 
  42. ↑ Briones, Marãa Jesãºs I. (2014). "Soil fauna and soil functions: A jigsaw puzzle". Frontiers in Environmental Science 2: 7. doi:10.3389/fenvs.2014.00007. Bibcode: 2014FrEnS...2....7B. 
  43. ↑ Heemsbergen, D. A.; Berg, M. P.; Loreau, M.; Van Hal, J. R.; Faber, J. H.; Verhoef, H. A. (2004). "Biodiversity Effects on Soil Processes Explained by Interspecific Functional Dissimilarity". Science 306 (5698): 1019–1020. doi:10.1126/science.1101865. PMID 15528441. Bibcode: 2004Sci...306.1019H. 
  44. ↑ Scherber, Christoph et al. (2010). "Bottom-up effects of plant diversity on multitrophic interactions in a biodiversity experiment". Nature 468 (7323): 553–556. doi:10.1038/nature09492. PMID 20981010. Bibcode: 2010Natur.468..553S. https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/39737/4/Scherber_etal_Nature10.pdf. 
  45. ↑ Goudard, Alexandra; Loreau, Michel (2008). "Nontrophic Interactions, Biodiversity, and Ecosystem Functioning: An Interaction Web Model". The American Naturalist 171 (1): 91–106. doi:10.1086/523945. PMID 18171154. Bibcode: 2008ANat..171...91G. 
  46. ↑ Lavelle, Patrick; Spain, Alister; Blouin, Manuel; Brown, George; Decaëns, Thibaud; Grimaldi, Michel; Jiménez, Juan José; McKey, Doyle et al. (2016). "Ecosystem Engineers in a Self-organized Soil". Soil Science 181 (3/4): 91–109. doi:10.1097/SS.0000000000000155. Bibcode: 2016SoilS.181...91L. 
  47. ↑ Thomsen, Philip Francis; Willerslev, Eske (2015). "Environmental DNA – an emerging tool in conservation for monitoring past and present biodiversity". Biological Conservation 183: 4–18. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2014.11.019. Bibcode: 2015BCons.183....4T. 
  48. ↑ Nannipieri, Paolo (2014). "Soil as a Biological System and Omics Approaches". EQA - International Journal of Environmental Quality 13: 61–66. doi:10.6092/issn.2281-4485/4541. 
  49. ↑ Jansson, Janet K.; Hofmockel, Kirsten S. (2018). "The soil microbiome — from metagenomics to metaphenomics". Current Opinion in Microbiology 43: 162–168. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2018.01.013. PMID 29454931. 
  50. ↑ Nannipieri, Paolo (2014-12-01). "Soil as a Biological System and Omics Approaches" (in en). EQA - International Journal of Environmental Quality 13: 61–66 Pages. doi:10.6092/ISSN.2281-4485/4541. http://eqa.unibo.it/article/view/4541. 
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  52. ↑ Chaudhary, Dhiraj Kumar; Khulan, Altankhuu; Kim, Jaisoo (2019-04-30). "Development of a novel cultivation technique for uncultured soil bacteria" (in en). Scientific Reports 9 (1): 6666. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-43182-x. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 31040339. Bibcode: 2019NatSR...9.6666C. 
  53. ↑ Cao, Tingting; Kong, Xiangshi; He, Weihua; Chen, Yunru; Fang, You; Li, Qiang; Chen, Qi; Luo, Yunchao et al. (2022-09-01). "Spatiotemporal characteristics of enzymatic hotspots in subtropical forests: In situ evidence from 2D zymography images". CATENA 216. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2022.106365. ISSN 0341-8162. Bibcode: 2022Caten.21606365C. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0341816222003514. 
  54. ↑ Kuzyakov, Yakov; Blagodatskaya, Evgenia (2015-04-01). "Microbial hotspots and hot moments in soil: Concept & review". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 83: 184–199. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2015.01.025. ISSN 0038-0717. Bibcode: 2015SBiBi..83..184K. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0038071715000449. 
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Sieradzki, Ella T.; Nuccio, Erin E.; Pett-Ridge, Jennifer; Firestone, Mary K. (2023-10-26). Makhalanyane, Thulani P.. ed. "Rhizosphere and detritusphere habitats modulate expression of soil N-cycling genes during plant development" (in en). mSystems 8 (5): e0031523. doi:10.1128/msystems.00315-23. ISSN 2379-5077. PMID 37754554. 
  56. ↑ Tiedje, J. M.; Cho, J. C.; Murray, A.; Treves, D.; Xia, B.; Zhou, J. (2000-12-11), "Soil teeming with life: new frontiers for soil science.", Sustainable management of soil organic matter (UK: CABI Publishing): pp. 393–425, doi:10.1079/9780851994659.0393, ISBN 978-0-85199-465-9 
  57. ↑ Zhalnina, Kateryna; Dias, Raquel; de Quadros, Patricia Dörr; Davis-Richardson, Austin; Camargo, Flavio A. O.; Clark, Ian M.; McGrath, Steve P.; Hirsch, Penny R. et al. (2014-11-14). "Soil pH Determines Microbial Diversity and Composition in the Park Grass Experiment". Microbial Ecology 69 (2): 395–406. doi:10.1007/s00248-014-0530-2. ISSN 0095-3628. PMID 25395291. 
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  59. ↑ Cao, Tingting; Luo, Yunchao; Shi, Man; Tian, Xingjun; Kuzyakov, Yakov (2024-01-01). "Microbial interactions for nutrient acquisition in soil: Miners, scavengers, and carriers". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 188. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2023.109215. ISSN 0038-0717. Bibcode: 2024SBiBi.18809215C. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0038071723002778. 
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  61. ↑ Cugini, Carla; Morales, Diana K.; Hogan, Deborah A. (2010). "Candida albicans-produced farnesol stimulates Pseudomonas quinolone signal production in LasR-defective Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains". Microbiology 156 (10): 3096–3107. doi:10.1099/mic.0.037911-0. ISSN 1465-2080. PMID 20656785. 
  62. ↑ Zelezniak, Aleksej; Andrejev, Sergej; Ponomarova, Olga; Mende, Daniel R.; Bork, Peer; Patil, Kiran Raosaheb (2015-05-19). "Metabolic dependencies drive species co-occurrence in diverse microbial communities" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112 (20): 6449–6454. doi:10.1073/pnas.1421834112. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 25941371. Bibcode: 2015PNAS..112.6449Z. 
  63. ↑ Olsson, PÃ¥l Axel; Wallander, HÃ¥kan (October 1998). "Interactions between ectomycorrhizal fungi and the bacterial community in soils amended with various primary minerals" (in en). FEMS Microbiology Ecology 27 (2): 195–205. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6941.1998.tb00537.x. https://academic.oup.com/femsec/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/j.1574-6941.1998.tb00537.x. 
  64. ↑ Zelezniak, Aleksej; Andrejev, Sergej; Ponomarova, Olga; Mende, Daniel R.; Bork, Peer; Patil, Kiran Raosaheb (2015-05-19). "Metabolic dependencies drive species co-occurrence in diverse microbial communities" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112 (20): 6449–6454. doi:10.1073/pnas.1421834112. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 25941371. Bibcode: 2015PNAS..112.6449Z. 
  65. ↑ Odum, E. P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology.
  66. ↑ Laboratory of Soil Ecology and Microbiology. Url last accessed 2006-04-18

See also

Anoxic microsites in soil

Bibliography

Template:Branches of ecology



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