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List of vegetable oils

Topic: Chemistry

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 39 min
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Vegetable oils are triglycerides extracted from plants. Some of these oils have been part of human culture for millennia.[1] Edible vegetable oils are used in food, both in cooking and as supplements. Many oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, such as in oil lamps and as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some of the many other uses include wood finishing, oil painting, and skin care.

Definition

The term "vegetable oil" can be narrowly defined as referring only to substances that are liquid at room temperature,[2] or broadly defined without regard to a substance's state (liquid or solid) at a given temperature.[3] While a large majority of the entries in this list fit the narrower of these definitions, some do not qualify as vegetable oils according to all understandings of the term.

Classification

Vegetable oils can be classified in several ways. For instance, by their use or by the method used to extract them. In this article, vegetable oils are grouped in common classes of use.

Extraction method

There are several types of plant oils, distinguished by the method used to extract the oil from the plant. The relevant part of the plant may be placed under pressure to extract the oil, giving an expressed (or pressed) oil. The oils included in this list are of this type. Oils may also be extracted from plants by dissolving parts of plants in water or another solvent. The solution may be separated from the plant material and concentrated, giving an extracted or leached oil. The mixture may also be separated by distilling the oil away from the plant material. Oils extracted by this latter method are called essential oils. Essential oils often have different properties and uses than pressed or leached vegetable oils. Finally, macerated oils are made by infusing parts of plants in a base oil, a process called liquid–liquid extraction.

Sources and Uses

Most, but not all vegetable oils are extracted from the fruits or seeds of plants. For instance, palm oil is extracted from palm fruits, while soybean oil is extracted from soybean seeds. Vegetable oils may also be classified by grouping oils extracted from similar plants, such as "nut oils".

Although most plants contain some oil, only the oil from certain major oil crops[4] complemented by a few dozen minor oil crops[5] is widely used and traded.

Use

Oils from plants are used for several different purposes. Edible vegetable oils may be used for cooking, or as food additives. Many vegetable oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, for instance as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some may be also used for cosmetics, medical purposes, wood finishing, oil painting and other industrial purposes.

Edible oils

Major oils

These oils make up a significant fraction of worldwide edible oil production. All are also used as fuel oils.

  • Coconut oil, a cooking oil, with medical and industrial applications as well. Extracted from the kernel or meat of the fruit of the coconut palm. Common in the tropics, and unusual in composition, with medium chain fatty acids dominant.[6]
  • Corn oil, one of the principal oils sold as salad and cooking oil.[7]
  • Cottonseed oil, used as a salad and cooking oil, both domestically and industrially.[8]
  • Olive oil, used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps, and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps.
  • Palm oil, the most widely produced tropical oil.[9] Popular in West African and Brazil ian cuisine.[10] Also used to make biofuel.[11]
  • Peanut oil (Ground nut oil), a clear oil with some applications as a salad dressing, and, due to its high smoke point, especially used for frying.[12]
  • Rapeseed oil, including Canola oil, the most sold cooking oil all around the world; used as a salad and cooking oil, both domestically and industrially.[8] Also used in fuel industry as bio-fuel.
  • Safflower oil, until the 1960s used in the paint industry, now mostly as a cooking oil.[13]
  • Sesame oil, cold pressed as light cooking oil, hot pressed for a darker and stronger flavor.[14]
  • Soybean oil, produced as a byproduct of processing soy meal.[15]
  • Sunflower oil, a common cooking oil, also used to make biodiesel.[16]

Nut oils

Hazelnuts from the Common Hazel, used to make Hazelnut oil

Nut oils are generally used in cooking, for their flavor. Most are quite costly, because of the difficulty of extracting the oil.

  • Almond oil, used as an edible oil, but primarily in the manufacture of cosmetics.[17]
  • Beech nut oil, from Fagus sylvatica nuts, is a well-regarded edible oil in Europe, used for salads and cooking.[18]
  • Brazil nut oil contains 75% unsaturated fatty acids composed mainly of oleic and linolenic acids, as well as the phytosterol, beta-sitosterol,[19] and fat-soluble vitamin E.[20] Extra virgin oil can be obtained during the first pressing of the nuts, possibly for use as a substitute for olive oil due to its mild, pleasant flavor.
  • Cashew oil, somewhat comparable to olive oil. May have value for fighting dental cavities.[21]
  • Jamaican cobnut oil, a sweet, fine-flavored oil[22][23] pressed from the seeds of Omphalea triandra in the tropical Americas. It is also reported to be used as a lubricant.[24]
  • Hazelnut oil, mainly used for its flavor. Also used in skin care, because of its slight astringent nature.[25]
  • Macadamia oil, with a mild nutty flavor and a high smoke point.[26]
  • Mongongo nut oil (or manketti oil), from the seeds of the Schinziophyton rautanenii, a tree which grows in South Africa . High in vitamin E. Also used in skin care.[27]
  • Pecan oil, valued as a food oil, but requiring fresh pecans for good quality oil.[28]
  • Pine nut oil, sold as a gourmet cooking oil,[29][30] and of potential medicinal interest as an appetite suppressant.[31]
  • Pistachio oil, a strongly flavored oil with a distinctive green color.[26]
  • Walnut oil, used for its flavor,[26] also used by Renaissance painters in oil paints.[32][33]
  • Pumpkin seed oil[34]

Citrus oils

A number of citrus plants yield pressed oils. Some, such as lemon and orange oil, are used as essential oils, which is uncommon for pressed oils.[note 1][35] The seeds of many if not most members of the citrus family yield usable oils.[35][36][37][38]

  • Grapefruit seed oil, extracted from the seeds of grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi). Grapefruit seed oil was extracted experimentally in 1930 and was shown to be suitable for making soap.[39]
  • Lemon oil, similar in fragrance to the fruit. One of a small number of cold pressed essential oils.[40] Used as a flavoring agent[41] and in aromatherapy.[42]
  • Orange oil, like lemon oil, cold pressed rather than distilled.[43] Consists of 90% d-Limonene. Used as a fragrance, in cleaning products and in flavoring foods.[44]
    The fruit of the sea-buckthorn

Oils from melon and gourd seeds

Watermelon seed oil, extracted from the seeds of Citrullus vulgaris, is used in cooking in West Africa.

Members of the Cucurbitaceae include gourds, melons, pumpkins, and squashes. Seeds from these plants are noted for their oil content, but little information is available on methods of extracting the oil. In most cases, the plants are grown as food, with dietary use of the oils as a byproduct of using the seeds as food.[45]

Food supplements

A number of oils are used as food supplements (or "nutraceuticals"), for their nutrient content or purported medicinal effect. Borage seed oil, blackcurrant seed oil, and evening primrose oil all have a significant amount of gamma-Linolenic acid (GLA) (about 23%, 15–20% and 7–10%, respectively), and it is this that has drawn the interest of researchers.

Other edible oils

Carob seed pods, used to make carob pod oil
Coriander seeds are the source of an edible pressed oil, Coriander seed oil.
  • Coriander seed oil, from coriander seeds, used in a wide variety of flavoring applications, including gin and seasoning blends.[81] Recent research has shown promise for use in killing food-borne bacteria, such as E. coli.[82]
  • Date seed oil, extracted from date pits.[83] Its low extraction rate and lack of other distinguishing characteristics make it an unlikely candidate for major use.[84]
  • Dika oil, from Irvingia gabonensis seeds, native to West Africa. Used to make margarine, soap and pharmaceuticals, where is it being examined as a tablet lubricant. Largely underdeveloped.[85][86]
  • False flax oil made of the seeds of Camelina sativa. One of the earliest oil crops, dating back to the 6th millennium B.C.[87] Produced in modern times in Central and Eastern Europe; fell out of production in the 1940s.[88] Considered promising as a food or fuel oil.[89]
  • Grape seed oil, a cooking and salad oil, also sprayed on raisins to help them retain their flavor.[90]
  • Hemp oil, a high quality food oil[91] also used to make paints, varnishes, resins and soft soaps.[92]
  • Kapok seed oil, from the seeds of Ceiba pentandra, used as an edible oil, and in soap production.[93]
  • Kenaf seed oil, from the seeds of Hibiscus cannabinus. An edible oil similar to cottonseed oil, with a long history of use.[94][95]
  • Lallemantia oil, from the seeds of Lallemantia iberica, discovered at archaeological sites in northern Greece.[96]
  • Mafura oil, extracted from the seeds of Trichilia emetica. Used as an edible oil in Ethiopia. Mafura butter, extracted as part of the same process when extracting the oil, is not edible, and is used in soap and candle making, as a body ointment, as fuel, and medicinally.[97]
  • Marula oil, extracted from the kernel of Sclerocarya birrea. Used as an edible oil with a light, nutty flavor. Also used in soaps. Fatty acid composition is similar to that of olive oil.[98][99]
  • Meadowfoam seed oil, highly stable oil, with over 98% long-chain fatty acids. Competes with rapeseed oil for industrial applications.[100]
  • Mustard oil (pressed), used in India as a cooking oil. Also used as a massage oil.[101]
  • Niger seed oil is obtained from the edible seeds of the Niger plant, which belongs to the genus Guizotia of the family Asteraceae. The botanical name of the plant is Guizotia abyssinica. Cultivation for the plant originated in the Ethiopian highlands, and has since spread from Malawi to India .[102]
Poppy seeds, used to make poppyseed oil
Virgin pracaxi oil
  • Prune kernel oil, marketed as a gourmet cooking oil[120][121] Similar in composition to peach kernel oil.[122]
  • Quinoa oil, similar in composition and use to corn oil.[123]
  • Ramtil oil, pressed from the seeds of the one of several species of genus Guizotia abyssinica (Niger pea) in India and Ethiopia.[124][125]
  • Rice bran oil is a highly stable cooking and salad oil, suitable for high-temperature cooking.[71][126] It also has potential as a biofuel.[127]
  • Royle oil, pressed from the seeds of Prinsepia utilis, a wild, edible oil shrub that grows in the higher Himalayas. Used medicinally in Nepal.[128]
Shea nuts, from which shea butter is pressed
  • Sacha inchi oil, from the Peruvian Amazon. High in behenic, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.[129][130]
  • Sapote oil, used as a cooking oil in Guatemala.[131]
  • Seje oil, from the seeds of Jessenia bataua. Used in South America as an edible oil, similar to olive oil, as well as for soaps and in the cosmetics industry.[132]
  • Shea butter, much of which is produced by, African women. Used primarily in skin care products and as a substitute for cocoa butter in confections and cosmetics.[133][134]
  • Taramira oil, from the seeds of the arugula (Eruca sativa), grown in West Asia and Northern India. Used as a (pungent) edible oil after aging to remove acridity.[135][136]
  • Tea seed oil (Camellia oil), widely used in southern China as a cooking oil. Also used in making soaps, hair oils and a variety of other products.[137][138]
  • Thistle oil, pressed from the seeds of Silybum marianum.[139] A good potential source of special fatty acids, carotenoids, tocopherols, phenol compounds and natural anti-oxidants,[140] as well as for generally improving the nutritional value of foods.[141]
  • Tigernut oil (or nut-sedge oil) is pressed from the tuber of Cyperus esculentus. It has properties similar to soybean, sunflower and rapeseed oils.[142] It is used in cooking and making soap[143] and has potential as a biodiesel fuel.[142]
  • Tobacco seed oil, from the seeds of Nicotiana tabacum and other Nicotiana species. Edible if purified.[144]
  • Tomato seed oil is a potentially valuable by-product, as a cooking oil, from the waste seeds generated from processing tomatoes.[145]
  • Wheat germ oil, used nutritionally and in cosmetic preparations, high in vitamin E and octacosanol.[146]

Oils used for biofuel

A flask of biodiesel
Sunflower kernels
Jojoba fruit

A number of oils are used for biofuel (biodiesel and Straight Vegetable Oil) in addition to having other uses. Other oils are used only as biofuel.[note 4][147]

Although diesel engines were invented, in part, with vegetable oil in mind,[148] diesel fuel is almost exclusively petroleum-based. Vegetable oils are evaluated for use as a biofuel based on:

  1. Suitability as a fuel, based on flash point, energy content, viscosity, combustion products and other factors
  2. Cost, based in part on yield, effort required to grow and harvest, and post-harvest processing cost

Multipurpose oils also used as biofuel

The oils listed immediately below are all (primarily) used for other purposes – all but tung oil are edible – but have been considered for use as biofuel.

  • Castor oil, lower cost than many candidates. Kinematic viscosity may be an issue.[149]
  • Coconut oil (copra oil), promising for local use in places that produce coconuts.[150]
  • Colza oil, from Brassica rapa, var. oleifera (turnip) is closely related to rapeseed (or canola) oil. It is a major source of biodiesel in Germany.[151]
  • Corn oil, appealing because of the abundance of maize as a crop.
  • Cottonseed oil, the subject of study for cost-effectiveness as a biodiesel feedstock.[152][153]
  • False flax oil, from Camelina sativa, used in Europe in oil lamps until the 18th century.[89]
  • Hemp oil, relatively low in emissions. Production is problematic in some countries because of its association with marijuana.[154][155]
  • Mustard oil, shown to be comparable to Canola oil as a biofuel.[156]
  • Palm oil, very popular for biofuel, but the environmental impact from growing large quantities of oil palms has recently called the use of palm oil into question.[157]
  • Peanut oil, used in one of the first demonstrations of the Diesel engine in 1900.[148]
  • Radish oil. Wild radish contains up to 48% oil, making it appealing as a fuel.[158]
  • Rapeseed oil, the most common base oil used in Europe in biodiesel production.[147]
  • Ramtil oil, used for lighting in India .[159]
  • Rice bran oil, appealing because of lower cost than many other vegetable oils. Widely grown in Asia.[160]
  • Safflower oil, explored recently as a biofuel in Montana.[161]
  • Salicornia oil, from the seeds of Salicornia bigelovii, a halophyte (salt-loving plant) native to Mexico.[162]
  • Soybean oil, not economical as a fuel crop, but appealing as a byproduct of soybean crops for other uses.[147]
  • Sunflower oil, suitable as a fuel, but not necessarily cost effective.[163]
  • Tigernut oil has been described by researchers in China as having "great potential as a biodiesel fuel."[142]
  • Tung oil, referenced in several lists of vegetable oils that are suitable for biodiesel.[164] Several factories in China produce biodiesel from tung oil.[165]

Inedible oils used only or primarily as biofuel

These oils are extracted from plants that are cultivated solely for producing oil-based biofuel.[note 5] These, plus the major oils described above, have received much more attention as fuel oils than other plant oils.

Drying oils

Drying oils are vegetable oils that dry to a hard finish at normal room temperature. Such oils are used as the basis of oil paints, and in other paint and wood finishing applications. In addition to the oils listed here, walnut, sunflower and safflower oil are also considered to be drying oils.[176]

Other oils

A number of pressed vegetable oils are either not edible, or not used as an edible oil.

The fruit of the amur cork tree
Castor beans are the source of castor oil.
Astrocaryum vulgare (Tucumã) oil

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Lime oil, for example, is distilled, not pressed. See Jackson, p. 131
  2. ↑ "Egusi" is the common name of several species of melons, including Citrullus vulgaris cultivars and Lagenaria sicerari.
  3. ↑ The Targanine cooperative was founded by Zoubida Charrouf in the 1990s to help local poor, widowed and divorced women derive an income from producing and exporting high-quality argan oil. See Rainer Höfer, ed (2009). Sustainable Solutions for Modern Economies. Royal Society of Chemistry (Great Britain). p. 401. ISBN 978-1847559050. https://books.google.com/books?id=5AG42e0qkHMC&q=Zoubida+Charrouf+targanine&pg=PA401. 
  4. ↑ Ethanol and, to a lesser degree, methanol and butanol are the other major types of biofuel.
  5. ↑ There are some plants that yield a commercial vegetable oil, that are also used to make other sorts of biofuel. Eucalyptus, for example, has been explored as a means of biomass for producing ethanol. These plants are not listed here.
  6. ↑ Carrot seeds are also used to obtain an essential oil with quite different properties than carrot seed pressed oil.

References

  1. ↑ "4,000-year-old 'kitchen' unearthed in Indiana". Archaeo News. January 26, 2006. http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/001708.html. 
  2. ↑ Parwez Saroj (September 2007). The Pearson Guide to the B.Sc. (Nursing) Entrance Examination. Pearson Education India. p. 109. ISBN 978-81-317-1338-9. 
  3. ↑ Robin Dand (1999). The International Cocoa Trade. Woodhead Publishing. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-85573-434-0. 
  4. ↑ Economic Research Service (1995–2011). Oil Crops Outlook. United States Department of Agriculture. http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/MannUsda/viewDocumentInfo.do?documentID=1288. Retrieved 2011-11-19.  This publication is available via email subscription.
  5. ↑ Axtell, B.L.; R.M. Fairman (1992). Minor oil crops. FAO. http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5043E/X5043E00.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-24. 
  6. ↑ Gursche, Siegfried (2008). Coconut Oil: Discover the Key to Vibrant Health. Book Publishing Company. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-55312-043-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=HAPFqkRGSXEC&pg=PT13. Retrieved 2012-01-21. 
  7. ↑ Food Fats and Oils (9 ed.). Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils. 2006. p. 27. http://www.iseo.org/httpdocs/Publications/FoodFatsOils2006.pdf. Retrieved 2011-11-19. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Twenty Facts about Cottonseed Oil". National Cottonseed Producers Association. http://www.cottonseed.com/publications/facts.asp. 
  9. ↑ "Palm Oil Facts". Soyatech. http://www.soyatech.com/Palm_Oil_Facts.htm. 
  10. ↑ "Palm oil". Epicurious. http://www.epicurious.com/tools/fooddictionary/entry/?id=3772. 
  11. ↑ "Corporate power: The palm-oil-biodiesel nexus". Seedling. July 2007. http://www.grain.org/article/entries/611-corporate-power-the-palm-oil-biodiesel-nexus. 
  12. ↑ Dean, Lisa L.; Davis, Jack P.; Sanders, Timothy H. (2011). "Groundnut (Peanut) Oil". in Frank Gunstone. Vegetable Oils in Food Technology: Composition, Properties and Uses. John Wiley & Sons. p. 225. ISBN 978-1-4443-3268-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=lnk2tdo8_P4C&q=peanut&pg=PA226. Retrieved 2014-10-05. 
  13. ↑ Boland, Michael (January 2011). "Safflower". Agriculture Marketing Resource Center. http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/grains__oilseeds/safflower.cfm. 
  14. ↑ Hansen, Ray (August 2011). "Sesame profile". Agriculture Marketing Resource Center. http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/grains__oilseeds/sesame_profile.cfm. 
  15. ↑ Bennett, David (February 5, 2003). "World soybean consumption quickens". Southeast Farm Press. http://southeastfarmpress.com/world-soybean-consumption-quickens. 
  16. ↑ Boland, Michael; Stroade, Jeri (August 2011). "Sunflower profile". Agricultural Marketing Resource Center. http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/grains__oilseeds/sunflower_profile.cfm. 
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  21. ↑ Himejima, Masaki; Kubo, Isao (1991). "Antibacterial agents from the cashew Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae) nut shell oil". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 39 (2): 418–21. doi:10.1021/jf00002a039. 
  22. ↑ "Non-wood Forest Products". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. p. 122. https://heimbiotop.de/EdibleNuts.pdf. 
  23. ↑ "Omphalea triandra". https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Omphalea+triandra. 
  24. ↑ J.-L. De Lanessan, ed (1885). Les Plantes Utiles des Colonies Françaises. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/124671. 
  25. ↑ Madhaven, N (2001). "Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Corylus Avellana (Hazel) Seed Oil, Corylus Americana (Hazel) Seed Oil, Corylus Avellana (Hazel) Seed Extract, Corylus Americana (Hazel) Seed Extract, Corylus Rostrata (Hazel) Seed Extract, Corylus Avellana (Hazel) Leaf Extract, Corylus Americana (Hazel) Leaf Extract, and Corylus Rostrata (Hazel) Leaf Extract". International Journal of Toxicology 20 (1 Suppl): 15–20. doi:10.1080/109158101750300928. PMID 11358108. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Simmons, Marie (2008). Things Cooks Love. Andrews McMeel Publishing. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-7407-6976-4. https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780740769764. Retrieved 2014-10-05. "pistachio oil." 
  27. ↑ Bafana, Busani (July 2009). "Mongongo–a tough nut worth cracking". New Agriculturist. http://new-ag.info/en/focus/focusItem.php?a=794. 
  28. ↑ Storey, J. Benton. "Pecans as a health food". Texas AgriLIFE Extension Service. http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/fruit-nut/fact-sheets/pecans-as-a-health-food/. 
  29. ↑ "Antioxidant Functional Factors in Nuts". Functional Foods of the East. CRC Press. May 15, 2010. p. 353. ISBN 978-1-4200-7192-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=7VENd7fgLIkC&q=pine+nut+oil&pg=PA353. 
  30. ↑ Daley, Regan (2001). In the Sweet Kitchen: The Definitive Baker's Companion. Artisan Books. p. 159. ISBN 978-1-57965-208-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=9hm09yx6RDMC&q=Pine+seed+oil&pg=PA159. Retrieved 2014-10-05. 
  31. ↑ Yu Liangli; Slavin, Margaret (2008). "Nutraceutical Potential of Pine Nut". in Cesarettin Alasalvar. Tree nuts: composition, phytochemicals, and health effects. CRC Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-8493-3735-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=Uu4nzKx74noC&q=pine+nut+oil&pg=PA290. Retrieved 2014-10-05. 
  32. ↑ Powell, William F. (1990). Oil Painting Materials. Walter Foster. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-56010-056-0. https://archive.org/details/oilpaintingmater00powe/page/43. 
  33. ↑ Gottsegen, Mark (2006). Painter's Handbook. Clarkson Potter/Ten Speed. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-8230-3496-3. http://thepaintershandbook.com/. Retrieved 2014-10-05. 
  34. ↑ "A Guide to Nut and Seed Oils - The Epicentre". http://theepicentre.com/ingredient/a-guide-to-nut-and-seed-oils/. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Jackson, John F.; Linskens, H.F. (2002). Analysis of Taste and Aroma. 21. Springer. p. 131. ISBN 978-3540417538. https://books.google.com/books?id=xKQ2yKfYVRMC&q=lime+oil&pg=PA131. 
  36. ↑ Ajewole, Kola; Adeyeye, A. (1993). "Characterisation of Nigerian citrus seed oils". Food Chemistry 47 (1): 77–8. doi:10.1016/0308-8146(93)90306-Z. 
  37. ↑ Habib, M. A.; Hammam, M. A.; Sakr, A. A.; Ashoush, Y. A. (1986). "Chemical evaluation of egyptian citrus seeds as potential sources of vegetable oils". Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society 63 (9): 1192–6. doi:10.1007/BF02663951. 
  38. ↑ Filsoof, M.; Mehran, M. (1976). "Fatty acid composition of Iranian citrus seed oils". Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society 53 (10): 654–5. doi:10.1007/BF02586282. 
  39. ↑ Jamieson, G. S.; Baughman, W. F.; Gertler, S. I. (1930). "Grape fruit seed oil". Oil & Fat Industries 7 (5): 181–3. doi:10.1007/BF02564074. 
  40. ↑ S. R. J. Robbins, ed (1983). "The Citrus Oils: An Introductory Review". Selected markets for the essential oils of lime, lemon and orange. p. 17. 
  41. ↑ Fenaroli, Giovanni (1975). Handbook of flavor ingredients. Taylor & Francis US. p. 577. ISBN 978-0-87819-533-6. 
  42. ↑ Rose, Jeanne; Hulburd, John (1993). The aromatherapy book: applications & inhalations. North Atlantic Books. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-55643-073-2. https://archive.org/details/aromatherapybook00jean/page/110. 
  43. ↑ Wong, Dominic W. S. (1989). Mechanism and theory in food chemistry. Springer. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-442-20753-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=UHi9LpuuHBMC&q=%22orange%20oil%22%20cold-pressed%20byproduct&pg=PA253. Retrieved 2014-10-05. 
  44. ↑ Ashurst, Philip R. (994). Production and Packaging of Non-Carbonated Fruit Juices and Fruit Beverages. Springer. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-8342-1289-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=ocZhAHR5Ne0C&q=orange%20essential%20oil%20fragrance%20cleaning%20d-limonene&pg=PA81. Retrieved 2014-10-05. 
  45. ↑ Axtell, "Cucurbitaceae
  46. ↑ Kohno, Hiroyuki; Yasui, Yumiko; Suzuki, Rikako; Hosokawa, Masashi; Miyashita, Kazuo; Tanaka, Takuji (2004). "Dietary seed oil rich in conjugated linolenic acid from bitter melon inhibits azoxymethane-induced rat colon carcinogenesis through elevation of colonic PPARγ expression and alteration of lipid composition". International Journal of Cancer 110 (6): 896–901. doi:10.1002/ijc.20179. PMID 15170673. 
  47. ↑ Axtell, "Bottle gourd"
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Meitzner, Laura S.; Price, Martin L. (1996). "Oil Crops". Amaranth to Zai Holes. ECHO. http://www.echocommunity.org/resource/resmgr/a_to_z/index.htm. Retrieved 2014-10-06. 
  49. ↑ Ogrodnick, Joe (Spring 2009). "Butternut Squash Seed Oil Goes to Market". CALS News. http://calsnews.cornell.edu/2009spring/made/buttnernut-squash-oil.html. 
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  161. ↑ Chef Boy Ari (January 5, 2006). "Safflower Oil in your Tank". The Durango Telegraph. http://www.durangotelegraph.com/index.cfm/archives/2006/january-05-2006/safflower-in-your-tank/. 
  162. ↑ Dickenson, Marty (July 10, 2008). "The old man who farms with the sea". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2008/jul/10/business/fi-seafarm10. 
  163. ↑ Peterson, Charles L.; Auld, Dick L. (1991). "Technical Overview of Vegetable Oil as a Transportation Fuel". FACT: Solid Fuel Conversion for the Transportation Sector 12. 
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  177. ↑ Smyth, Herbert Warington (1906). Mast & Sail in Europe & Asia. E.P. Dutton. p. 416. https://archive.org/details/mastandsailineu00smytgoog. Retrieved 2011-10-19. "dammar."  (Mentions the use of dammar oil in marine paints)
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  184. ↑ Schery, Robert W. (1972). Plants for man. Prentice-Hall. p. 325. ISBN 978-0-13-681254-8. 
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  187. ↑ PLANTAS DA AMAZÔNIA PARA PRODUÇÃO COSMÉTICA: uma abordagem química - 60 espécies do extrativismo florestal não-madeireiro da Amazônia / Floriano Pastore Jr. (coord.); Vanessa Fernandes de Araújo [et al.];– Brasília, 2005. 244 p.
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  189. ↑ Zhang, Hong; Yang, Jing Yu; Zhou, Fan; Wang, Li Hui; Zhang, Wen; Sha, Sha; Wu, Chun Fu (2011). "Seed Oil of Brucea javanica Induces Apoptotic Death of Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells via Both the Death Receptors and the Mitochondrial-Related Pathways". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2011: 1–14. doi:10.1155/2011/965016. PMID 21760826. 
  190. ↑ Lou, Guo-Guang; Yao, Hang-Ping; Xie, Li-Ping (2010). "Brucea javanica Oil Induces Apoptosis in T24 Bladder Cancer Cells via Upregulation of Caspase-3, Caspase-9, and Inhibition of NF-κB and COX-2 Expressions". The American Journal of Chinese Medicine 38 (3): 613–24. doi:10.1142/S0192415X10008093. PMID 20503476. 
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  196. ↑ Felter, Harvey Wickes; Lloyd, John Uri (1898). "Gynocardia—Chaulmoogra". King's American Dispensatory. http://www.henriettes-herb.com/eclectic/kings/gynocardia.html. Retrieved 2011-10-24. 
  197. ↑ Cottle, Wyndham (28 June 1879). "Chaulmoogra Oil in Leprosy". The British Medical Journal 1 (965): 968–969. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.965.968. PMID 20749243. 
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  202. ↑ Food and Fruit-bearing Forest Species: Examples from Latin America. FAO. 1986. pp. 298. ISBN 978-9251023723. https://archive.org/details/foodandfruitbear034675mbp. 
  203. ↑ Martin, R. J.; Porter, N. G.; Deo, B. (2005). "Initial studies on seed oil composition of Calendula and Lunaria". Agronomy N.Z. 35. http://www.agronomysociety.org.nz/uploads/94803/files/14._Initial_studies_on_seed_oil_composition.pdf. 
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  207. ↑ Morton, Julia F. (1987). "Mango". Fruits of Warm Climates. J.F. Morton. ISBN 978-0-9610184-1-2. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mango_ars.html. Retrieved 2014-10-05. 
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  210. ↑ Munguia, Osvaldo; Collins, Judith (December 5, 2005). "Ojon Oil". Footsteps 65. 
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  215. ↑ Bùi Huy Như Phúc (March 25–28, 2003). "Ileal digestibility of coconut oil meal and rubber seed oil meal in growing pigs". Proceedings of Final National Seminar-Workshop on Sustainable Livestock Production on Local Feed Resources. http://www.mekarn.org/sarec03/Phuc.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-24. 
  216. ↑ Dharmananda, Subhuti. "Sea buckthorn". Institute for Traditional Medicine. http://www.itmonline.org/arts/seabuckthorn.htm. 
  217. ↑ Zarouk, M.; El Almi, H.; Ben Youssef, N.; Sleimi, N.; Smaoui, A.; Bin Miled, D.; Abdelly, C. (2003). "Lipid Composition of Seeds of Local Halophytes: Cakile maritima, Zygophyllum album and Crithmum maritimum". in Helmut Lieth. Cash crop halophytes: recent studies: 10 years after the Al Ain meeting. Springer. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-4020-1202-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=T0Z2t-XIXZEC&q=Cakile+maritima+seed+oil&pg=PA124. Retrieved 2013-10-25. 
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  219. ↑ Panda, Himadri (2002). "Tall Oil and its Derivatives". The Complete Technology Book On Natural Products (Forest Based). Asia Pacific Business Press. pp. 361–376. ISBN 978-81-7833-072-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=rgAD20GGDtoC&q=tall+oil&pg=PA361. Retrieved 2014-10-05. 
  220. ↑ 220.0 220.1 Plant resources of tropical Africa. 7. PROTA. 2008. ISBN 978-90-5782-209-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=-nw-mZQ0kcEC&q=Tamanu+oil&pg=PA121. 
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  223. ↑ Pesce, Celestino (2009). Oleaginosas da Amazônia. Belém: Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi. pp. 334. ISBN 978-85-61377-06-9. 
  224. ↑ Smith, Nigel (2014). Palms and People in the Amazon. Springer. p. 81. ISBN 978-3319055091. 

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