Table of Contents Categories
  Encyclosphere.org ENCYCLOREADER
  supported by EncyclosphereKSF

Mead

Topic: Chemistry

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 20 min
Short description: Alcoholic beverage made from honey
Mead
Swedish Mead.JPG
Swedish elderflower-flavored mead.
Typefermented beverage
Alcohol by volume3.5–20.5%
Proof (US)7°–41°
Colorpale yellow
Flavordry, sweet or semi-sweet
Ingredientshoney, water, fruit, herbs, spices
Variantsmetheglyn, chouchen, bochet,
Related productstej, midus, medovukha, bais, balché

Mead (/miːd/), also called hydromel (particularly when low in alcohol content), is an alcoholic beverage made by fermenting honey mixed with water, and sometimes with added ingredients such as fruits, spices, grains, or hops.[1][2][3] The alcoholic content ranges from about 3.5% ABV[4] to more than 20%. The defining characteristic of mead is that the majority of the beverage's fermentable sugar is derived from honey.[5] It may be still, carbonated, or naturally sparkling; dry, semi-sweet, or sweet.[6]

Mead that also contains spices is called metheglin (/mɪˈθɛɡlɪn/), and mead that contains fruit is called melomel. The term honey wine is sometimes used as a synonym for mead,[7][8] although wine is typically defined to be the product of fermented grapes or certain other fruits,[9] and some cultures have honey wines that are distinct from mead. The honey wine of Hungary, for example, is the fermentation of honey-sweetened pomace of grapes or other fruits.[10]

Mead was produced in ancient times throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia,[11][12][13][14] and has played an important role in the mythology of some peoples. In Norse mythology, for example, the Mead of Poetry, crafted from the blood of Kvasir (a wise being born from the mingled spittle of the Aesir and Vanir deities) would turn anyone who drank it into a poet or scholar.

History

Mead is a drink widely considered to have been discovered prior to the advent of both agriculture and ceramic pottery in the Neolithic,[15] due to the prevalence of naturally occurring fermentation and the distribution of eusocial honey-producing insects worldwide;[16] as a result, it is hard to pinpoint the exact historical origin of mead given the possibility of multiple discovery or potential knowledge transfer between early humans prior to recorded history.[17][18][19] In Europe, mead is first described from residual samples found in ceramics of the Bell Beaker Culture (c. 2800–1800 BCE).[20] With the eventual rise of ceramic pottery and increasing use of fermentation in food processing to preserve surplus agricultural crops,[21] evidence of mead begins to show up in the archaeological record more clearly, with pottery vessels from northern China dating from at least 7000 BCE discovered containing chemical signatures consistent with the presence of honey, rice, and organic compounds associated with fermentation.[20][22][23]

The earliest surviving written record of mead is possibly the soma mentioned in the hymns of the Rigveda,[24] one of the sacred books of the historical Vedic religion and (later) Hinduism dated around 1700–1100 BCE. The Rigveda predates the Indo-Iranian separation, dated to roughly 2000 BCE, so this mention may originate from the Western Steppe or Eastern Europe.[25][26][27] The Abri, a northern subgroup of the Taulantii, were known to the ancient Greek writers for their technique of preparing mead from honey.[28][29] During the Golden Age of Ancient Greece , mead was said to be the preferred drink.[30] Aristotle (384–322 BCE) discussed mead made in Illiria in his Meteorologica and elsewhere, while Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) called mead militites in his Naturalis Historia and differentiated wine sweetened with honey or "honey-wine" from mead.[31] The Hispanic-Roman naturalist Columella gave a recipe for mead in De re rustica, about 60 CE.

Take rainwater kept for several years, and mix a sextarius[32] of this water with a [Roman] pound[33] of honey. For a weaker mead, mix a sextarius of water with nine ounces[34] of honey. The whole is exposed to the sun for 40 days and then left on a shelf near the fire. If you have no rain water, then boil spring water.[35]

Ancient Greek writer Pytheas described a grain and honey drink similar to mead that he encountered while travelling in Thule.[36] According to James Henry Ramsay this was an earlier version of Welsh metheglin.[37] When 12-year-old Prince Charles II visited Wales in 1642 Welsh metheglin was served at the feast as a symbol of Welsh presence in the emerging British identity in the years between the Union of the Crowns in 1603 and the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.[38][39]

A mention of "meodu scencu" (mead-cup) in Beowulf

There is a poem attributed to the Welsh bard Taliesin, who lived around 550 CE, called the Kanu y med or "Song of Mead" (Cân y medd).[40] The legendary drinking, feasting, and boasting of warriors in the mead hall is echoed in the mead hall Din Eidyn (modern-day Edinburgh) as depicted in the poem Y Gododdin, attributed to the poet Aneirin who would have been a contemporary of Taliesin. In the Old English epic poem Beowulf, the Danish warriors drank mead. In both Insular Celtic and Germanic poetry, mead was the primary heroic or divine drink, see Mead of poetry.

Mead (Old Irish mid) was a popular drink in medieval Ireland.[41] Beekeeping was brought around the 5th century, traditionally attributed to Modomnoc, and mead came with it. A banquet hall on the Hill of Tara was known as Tech Mid Chuarda ("house of the circling of mead"). Mead was often infused with hazelnuts.[42] Many other legends of saints mention mead, as does that of the Children of Lir.[43]

Later, taxation and regulations governing the ingredients of alcoholic beverages led to commercial mead becoming a more obscure beverage until recently.[44] Some monasteries kept up the traditions of mead-making as a by-product of beekeeping, especially in areas where grapes could not be grown.

Etymology

The English mead – "fermented honey drink" – derives from the Old English meodu or medu,[45] and Proto-Indo-European language, *médʰu.[46] Its cognates include Old Norse mjǫðr, Proto-Slavic medъ, Middle Dutch mede, and Old High German metu, and the ancient Irish queen Medb, among others.[46] The Chinese word for honey, mì (蜜) was borrowed from the extinct Indo-European Tocharian word mit – also a cognate with the English word mead.[47]

Fermentation process

Meads will often ferment well at the same temperatures at which wine is fermented, and the yeast used in mead making is often identical to that used in wine making (particularly those used in the preparation of white wines). Many home mead makers choose to use wine yeasts to make their meads.[48]

By measuring the specific gravity of the mead once before fermentation and throughout the fermentation process using a hydrometer or refractometer, mead makers can determine the proportion of alcohol by volume that will appear in the final product. This also serves to troubleshoot a "stuck" batch, one where the fermentation process has been halted prematurely by dormant or dried yeast.[49][50]

With many different styles of mead possible, there are many different processes employed, although many producers will use techniques recognizable from wine-making. One such example is to rack the product into a second container, once fermentation slows down significantly. These are known as a primary and a secondary fermentation, respectively. Some larger commercial fermenters are designed to allow both primary and secondary fermentation to happen inside the same vessel. Racking is done for two reasons: it lets the mead sit away from the remains of the yeast cells (lees) that have died during the fermentation process. Second, this lets the mead have time to clear. Cloudiness can be caused by either yeast[51] or suspended protein molecules.[50] There is also the possibility that the pectin from any fruit that is used could have set which gives the mead a cloudy look.[50] The cloudiness can be cleared up by either "cold breaking", which is leaving the mead in a cold environment overnight, or using a fining material, such as sparkolloid, bentonite, egg white, or isinglass.[50] If the mead-maker wishes to backsweeten the product (add supplementary sweetener) or prevent it from oxidizing, potassium metabisulfite and potassium sorbate are added. After the mead clears, it is bottled and distributed.

Primary fermentation usually takes 28 to 56 days, after which the must is placed in a secondary fermentation vessel for 6 to 9 months of aging.[52][53] Durations of primary and secondary fermentation producing satisfactory mead may vary considerably according to numerous factors, such as floral origin of the honey and its natural sugar and microorganism contents, must water percentage, pH, additives used, and strain of yeast, among others.[53][54] Although supplementation of the must with non-nitrogen based salts, or vitamins has been tested to improve mead qualities, no evidence suggests that adding micronutrients reduced fermentation time or improved quality.[52] Cell immobilization methods, however, proved effective for enhancing mead quality.[53]

Varieties

Mead can have a wide range of flavors depending on the source of the honey, additives (also known as "adjuncts" or "gruit") including fruit and spices, the yeast employed during fermentation, and the aging procedure.[20] Some producers have erroneously marketed white wine sweetened and flavored with honey after fermentation as mead, sometimes spelling it "meade."[20][55] Some producers ferment a blend of honey and other sugars, such as white refined sugar, again, mislabeling the product as mead. This is closer in style to a hypocras. Blended varieties of mead may be known by the style represented; for instance, a mead made with cinnamon and apples may be referred to as either a cinnamon metheglin or an apple cyser.

A mead that also contains spices (such as cloves, cinnamon or nutmeg), or herbs (such as meadowsweet, hops, or even lavender or chamomile), is called a metheglin /mɪˈθɛɡlɪn/.[56][57]

A mead that contains fruit (such as raspberry, blackberry or strawberry) is called a melomel,[58] which was also used as a means of food preservation, keeping summer produce for the winter. A mead that is fermented with grape juice is called a pyment.[58]

Mulled mead is a popular drink at Christmas time, where mead is flavored with spices (and sometimes various fruits) and warmed, traditionally by having a hot poker plunged into it.[59]

Some meads retain some measure of the sweetness of the original honey, and some may even be considered as dessert wines. Drier meads are also available, and some producers offer sparkling meads.

Historically, meads were fermented with wild yeasts and bacteria (as noted in the recipe quoted above) residing on the skins of the fruit or within the honey itself. Wild yeasts can produce inconsistent results. Yeast companies have isolated strains of yeast that produce consistently appealing products. Brewers, winemakers, and mead makers commonly use them for fermentation, including yeast strains identified specifically for mead fermentation. These are strains that have been selected because of their characteristic of preserving delicate honey flavors and aromas.[citation needed]

Mead can also be distilled to a brandy or liqueur strength, in which case it is sometimes referred to as a whiskey.[60] A version called "honey jack" can be made by partly freezing a quantity of mead and straining the ice out of the liquid (a process known as freeze distillation), in the same way that applejack is made from cider.[citation needed]

Regional variants

In Finland , a sweet mead called sima is connected with the Finnish Vappu festival (although in modern practice, brown sugar is often used in place of honey[citation needed]). During secondary fermentation, added-raisins augment the amount of sugar available to the yeast and indicate readiness for consumption, rising to the top of the bottle when sufficiently depleted.[citation needed] Sima is commonly served with both the pulp and rind of a lemon.

An Ethiopian mead variant tej (ጠጅ, am) is usually home-made and flavored with the powdered leaves and bark of gesho, a hop-like bittering agent which is a species of buckthorn. A sweeter, less-alcoholic version (honey-water) called berz, aged for a shorter time, is also made.

Mead in Poland and Ireland has been part of culinary tradition for over a thousand years.[61][62][63]

In the United States, mead is enjoying a resurgence, starting with small home meaderies and now with a number of small commercial meaderies.[64] As mead becomes more widely available, it is seeing increased attention and exposure from the news media.[65][66] This resurgence can also been seen around the world in the UK and Australia particularly with session (lower alcohol styles)[67] sometimes called hydromel[68] and Mead-Beer Hybrids also known as Braggots.[69]

Mead variants

A homebrewed melomel
Bottles of "medica" (r.meditsa) – a mead made in Međimurje County, northern Croatia
Trójniak — a Polish mead, made using two units of water for each unit of honey
  • Acerglyn: A mead made with honey and maple syrup.
  • Bais: A native mead from the Mandaya and Manobo people of eastern Mindanao in the Philippines . It is made from honey and water fermented for at least five days to a month or more.[70]
  • Balché: A native Mexican version of mead.
  • Bilbemel: A mead made with blueberries, blueberry juice, or sometimes used for a varietal mead that uses blueberry blossom honey.
  • Black mead: A name was sometimes given to the blend of honey and blackcurrants.
  • Blue mead: A type of mead where fungal spores are added during the first fermentation, lending a blue tint to the final product.
  • Bochet: A mead where the honey is caramelized or burned separately before adding the water. Yields toffee, caramel, chocolate, and toasted marshmallow flavors.
  • Bochetomel: A bochet-style mead that also contains fruit such as elderberries, black raspberries and blackberries.
  • Braggot: Also called bragot, bracket(t) and bragget. Welsh origin (bragawd). A mead made from malt in addition to honey. Hops are an optional ingredient.[8] Contrary to the modern definition, historic braggot was most often a back sweetened spiced ale.[71]
  • Byais: A native mead of the Mansaka people of the Philippines made by fermenting galanga roots with honey.[72]
  • Capsicumel: A mead flavored with chili peppers; the peppers may be hot or mild.
  • Chouchenn: A kind of mead made in Brittany.
  • Cyser: A blend of honey and apple juice fermented together; see also cider.
  • Czwórniak (TSG): A Polish mead, made using three units of water for each unit of honey.
  • Dandaghare: A mead from Nepal, that combines honey with Himalayan herbs and spices. It has been produced since 1972 in the city of Pokhara.
  • Dwójniak (TSG): A Polish mead, made using equal amounts of water and honey.
  • Gverc or medovina: Croatian mead prepared in Samobor and many other places. The word "gverc" or "gvirc' is from the German "Gewürze" and refers to various spices added to mead.
  • Hydromel: Name derived from the Greek hydromeli, i.e. literally "water-honey" (see also melikraton and hydromelon). It is also the French name for mead. (See also and compare with the Italian idromele and Spanish hidromiel and aguamiel, the Catalan hidromel and aiguamel, Galician augamel, and Portuguese hidromel). It is also used as a name for light or low-alcohol mead.
  • Kabarawan: An extinct alcoholic drink from the Visayas Islands of the Philippines made with honey and the pounded bark of the Neolitsea villosa[73][74]
  • Medica/medovica: Slovenian, Croatian and Slovak variety of mead.
  • Medovina: Czech, Croatian, Serbian, Montenegrin, Bulgarian, Bosnian and Slovak for mead. Commercially available in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and presumably other Central and Eastern-European countries.
  • Medovukha: Eastern Slavic variant (honey-based fermented drink).[75]
  • Melomel: A type of mead that also contains fruit.
  • Metheglin: Metheglin is traditional mead with herbs or spices added. Some of the most common metheglins are ginger, tea, orange peel, nutmeg, coriander, cinnamon, cloves or vanilla. Its name indicates that many metheglins were originally employed as folk medicines. The Welsh word for mead is medd, and the word "metheglin" derives from meddyglyn, a compound of meddyg, "healing" + llyn, "liquor".
  • Midus: Lithuanian for mead, made of natural bee honey and berry juice. Infused with carnation blossoms, acorns, poplar buds, juniper berries, and other herbs. Generally, between 8% and 17% alcohol,[76] it is also distilled to produce mead nectar or mead balsam, with some of the varieties having as much as 75% of alcohol.[77]
  • Mõdu: An Estonian traditional fermented drink with a taste of honey and an alcohol content of 4.0%[78]
  • Morat: a blend of honey and mulberries.
  • Mulsum: Mulsum is not a true mead, but is unfermented honey blended with a high-alcohol wine.
  • Mungitch:[79] A party drink made in Western Australia, by Indigenous Noongar using flowers from the moodjar tree(Nuytsia floribunda) are traditionally used to make a sweet mead-like beverage during birak (the first summer in the Indigenous Noongar calendar) the moodjar tree is a very sacred tree to the Noongar peoples.
  • Myod: Traditional Russian mead, historically available in three major varieties:
    • aged mead: a mixture of honey and water or berry juices, subject to a very slow (12–50 years) anaerobic fermentation in airtight vessels in a process similar to the traditional balsamic vinegar, creating a rich, complex and high-priced product.
    • boiled mead: a drink closer to beer, brewed from boiled wort of diluted honey and herbs, very similar to modern medovukha.
    • drinking mead: a kind of honey wine made from diluted honey by traditional fermentation.
  • Nectars: Typically fermented to below 6% ABV, they often incorporate other flavours such as fruits, herbs and spices.
  • Omphacomel: A mead recipe that blends honey with verjuice; could therefore be considered a variety of pyment (q.v.). From the Greek omphakomeli, literally "unripe-grape-honey".
  • Oxymel: Another historical mead recipe, blending honey with wine vinegar. From the Greek ὀξύμελι oxymeli, literally "vinegar-honey" (also oxymelikraton).
  • Pitarrilla: Mayan drink made from a fermented mixture of wild honey, balché-tree bark and fresh water.[80]
  • Półtorak (TSG): A Polish great mead, made using two units of honey for each unit of water.
  • Pyment: a melomel made from the fermentation of a blend of grapes and honey and can be considered either a grape mead or honeyed wine.[81][82] Pyment made with white grapes is sometimes called "white mead".[citation needed] In previous centuries piment was synonymous with Hippocras, a grape wine with honey added post-fermentation.[83]
  • Quick mead: A type of mead recipe that is meant to age quickly, for immediate consumption. Because of the techniques used in its creation, short mead shares some qualities found in cider (or even light ale): primarily that it is effervescent, and often has a cidery taste.[citation needed] It can also be champagne-like.
  • Red mead: A form of mead made with redcurrants.
  • Rhodomel: made from honey, rose hips, rose petals or rose attar, and water. From the Greek ῥοδόμελι rhodomeli, literally "rose-honey".
  • Rubamel: A specific type of melomel made with raspberries.
  • Sack mead: This refers to a mead that is made with more honey than is typically used. The finished product contains a higher-than-average ethanol concentration (meads at or above 14% ABV are generally considered to be of sack strength) and often retains a high specific gravity and elevated levels of sweetness, although dry sack meads (which have no residual sweetness) can be produced. According to one theory, the name derives from the fortified dessert wine sherry (which is sometimes sweetened after fermentation) that, in England, once bore the nickname "sack".[84] In Another theory is that the term is a phonetic reduction of "sake" the name of a Japanese beverage that was introduced to the West by Spanish and Portuguese traders.[85] However, this mead is quite sweet and Shakespeare referenced "sack" in Henry the V, "If sack and sugar be a fault, God help the wicked!", as well as 18th-century cookbooks that reference "sack mead" by authors unlikely to have known nor tasted "sake".
  • Short mead: A mead made with less honey than usual and intended for immediate consumption.
  • Show mead: A term that has come to mean "plain" mead: that which has honey and water as a base, with no fruits, spices, or extra flavorings. Because honey alone often does not provide enough nourishment for the yeast to carry on its life cycle, a mead that is devoid of fruit, etc. sometimes requires a special yeast nutrient and other enzymes to produce an acceptable finished product. In most competitions, including all those that subscribe to the BJCP style guidelines, as well as the International Mead Fest, the term "traditional mead" refers to this variety (because mead is historically a variable product, these guidelines are a recent expedient, designed to provide a common language for competition judging; style guidelines per se do not apply to commercial or historical examples of this or any other type of mead).[citation needed]
  • Sima: a quick-fermented low-alcoholic Finnish variety, seasoned with lemon and associated with the festival of vappu.
  • Tapluchʼi: a Georgian name for mead, especially made of honey but it is also a collective name for any kind of drinkable inebriants.
  • Tej/mes: an Ethiopian and Eritrean mead, fermented with wild yeasts and the addition of gesho.
  • Traditional mead: synonymous with "show mead," meaning it contains only honey, water, and yeast.
  • Trójniak (TSG): A Polish mead, made using two units of water for each unit of honey.
  • Včelovina: Slovak alternative name for mead.
  • White mead: A mead that is colored white with herbs, fruit or, sometimes, egg whites.

See also

  • History of alcoholic beverages
  • Kilju
  • Mead hall
  • Sahti
  • Sima

References

  1. ↑ "Mead dictionary definition | mead defined". https://www.yourdictionary.com/mead. 
  2. ↑ Beer is produced by the fermentation of grain, but the grain can be used in mead provided it is strained off immediately. As long as the primary substance fermented is still honey, the drink is still mead.Fitch, Ed (1990). The Rites of Odin (1st ed.). Llewellyn Worldwide. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-87542-224-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=Kg8nObaAZMEC. 
  3. ↑ Hops are better known as the bitter ingredient of beer. However, they have also been used in mead both ancient and in modern times. The Legend of Frithiof mentions hops: Mohnike, G.C.F. (September 1828 – January 1829). "Tegner's Legend of Frithiof". The Foreign Quarterly Review (London: Treuttel and Würtz, Treuttel, Jun and Richter) III. "He next ... bids ... Halfdan recollect ... that to produce mead hops must be mingled with the honey;".  That this formula is still in use is shown by the recipe for "Real Monastery Mead" in Molokhovets, Elena (1998). Classic Russian Cooking: Elena Molokhovets' A Gift to Young Housewives. Indiana University Press. p. 474. ISBN 978-0-253-21210-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=ttlCGJxfLRUC. 
  4. ↑ Lichine, Alexis (1987). Alexis Lichine's new encyclopedia of wines & spirits. Knopf. OCLC 1244230688. 
  5. ↑ Gayre, Robert (1986). Brewing Mead. Brewers Publications. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-937381-00-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=vyFHAAAAYAAJ. "...Therefore to our synopsis: Mead is the general name for all drinks made of honey." 
  6. ↑ Rose, Anthony H. (1977). Alcoholic Beverages. Michigan: Academic Press. p. 413. 
  7. ↑ Morse, Roger (1992). Making Mead (Honey Wine). Wicwas Press. ISBN 978-1-878075-04-8. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Schramm, Ken (2003). The Compleat Meadmaker: Home Production of Honey Wine From Your First Batch to Award-winning Fruit and Herb Variations. Brewers Publications. ISBN 978-0-937381-80-9. 
  9. ↑ Robinson, Jancis (1999). The Oxford Companion to Wine (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 775. 
  10. ↑ "History of beer in Hungary". http://pepin.blogter.hu/89805/a_sor_es_a_magyar_mult. 
  11. ↑ Toussaint-Samat, Maguelonne (2009). A history of food. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8119-8. OCLC 1020512534. 
  12. ↑ Hornsey, Ian (2003). A History of Beer and Brewing. Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-85404-630-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=QqnvNsgas20C. "...mead was known in Europe long before wine, although archaeological evidence of it is rather ambiguous. This is principally because the confirmed presence of beeswax or certain types of pollen ... is only indicative of the presence of honey (which could have been used for sweetening some other drink) – not necessarily of the production of mead." 
  13. ↑ "The Funerary Feast of King Midas @ the Penn Museum | Remains of a Feast". http://www.penn.museum/sites/Midas/feastremains.shtml. 
  14. ↑ Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1983). From honey to ashes. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-47489-5. OCLC 664396551. 
  15. ↑ "Mead | Definition, Production, & History | Britannica" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/topic/mead. 
  16. ↑ Crane, Eva (January 1991). "Honey from honeybees and other insects". Ethology Ecology & Evolution 3 (sup1): 100–105. doi:10.1080/03949370.1991.10721919. Bibcode: 1991EtEcE...3S.100C. 
  17. ↑ Lukas, Kathryn; Peterson, Shane (2018). "Chapter 1: The Fermentation Story". The Farmhouse Culture Guide To Fermenting. 10 Speed Press, Crown Publishing Group, Random House. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-399-58265-3. 
  18. ↑ Snir, Ainit (2015). "The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long before Neolithic Farming". PLOS ONE 10 (7): e0131422. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131422. PMID 26200895. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..1031422S. 
  19. ↑ "Ceramic history". https://depts.washington.edu/matseed/mse_resources/Webpage/Ceramics/ceramichistory.htm. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Odinsson, Eoghan (2010). Northern Lore: A Field Guide to the Northern Mind-Body-Spirit. Eoghan Odinsson. pp. 159–160. ISBN 978-1-4528-5143-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=V3sCCLcsJFkC&q=archaeological+evidence+mead+bc&pg=PA159. [self-published source]
  21. ↑ Lukas, Kathryn; Peterson, Shane (2018). "Chapter 1: The Fermentation Story". The Farmhouse Culture Guide To Fermenting. 10 Speed Press, Crown Publishing Group, Random House. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-399-58265-3. 
  22. ↑ "Prehistoric China - The Wonders That Were Jiahu The World's Earliest Fermented Beverage. Professor Patrick McGovern the Scientific Director of the Biomolecular Archaeology Project for Cuisine, Fermented Beverages, and Health at the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia". https://www.penn.museum/sites/biomoleculararchaeology/?page_id=247. 
  23. ↑ McGovern, P. E.; Zhang, J; Tang, J; Zhang, Z; Hall, G. R.; Moreau, R. A.; Nuñez, A; Butrym, E. D. et al. (6 December 2004). "Fermented beverages of pre-and proto-historic China". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101 (51): 17593–8. doi:10.1073/pnas.0407921102. PMID 15590771. Bibcode: 2004PNAS..10117593M. 
  24. ↑ "Book 5 v. 43:3–4". Rigveda. http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv05043.htm. 
    "Book 8 v. 5:6". Rigveda. http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv08005.htm. 
  25. ↑ Kublickas, Rimantas (2016), Kristbergsson, Kristberg; Oliveira, Jorge, eds., "Midus: A Traditional Lithuanian Mead" (in en), Traditional Foods: General and Consumer Aspects, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge Into the Food Chain (Boston, MA: Springer US): pp. 339–343, doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-7648-2_27, ISBN 978-1-4899-7648-2 
  26. ↑ Indo-European languages, Indo-European studies. doi:10.1163/2352-0272_emho_dum_021344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2352-0272_emho_dum_021344. Retrieved 2023-07-03. 
  27. ↑ Pratt, J. B. (July 1935). "Insights into Modern Hinduism. Hervey de Witt GriswoldĀdarsha Sādhu: An Ideal Monk. A. J. Sunavala". The Journal of Religion 15 (3): 358. doi:10.1086/481664. ISSN 0022-4189. 
  28. ↑ Wilkes 1992, p. 98.
  29. ↑ Alcock, Joan P. (2006). Food in the ancient world. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-08314-2. OCLC 65429735. 
  30. ↑ Kerenyi, Karl (1976). Dionysus: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life. Princeton University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-691-09863-0. https://archive.org/details/dionysos00karl/page/35. 
  31. ↑ Pliny the Elder. Natural History XIV. pp. XII:85 etc.. 
  32. ↑ about half a liter
  33. ↑ about 1/3 kg
  34. ↑ about ¼ kilograms
  35. ↑ Columella, 60 AD De re rustica
  36. ↑ Clements, J. (2013). A Brief History of the Vikings. United Kingdom: Little, Brown Book Group.
  37. ↑ Ramsay, J. H. (1898). The Foundations of England: B.C. 55-A.D. 1066. United Kingdom: S. Sonnenschein & Company, Limited.
  38. ↑ Cull, M. R. (2014). Shakespeare's Princes of Wales: English Identity and the Welsh Connection. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
  39. ↑ British Consciousness and Identity: The Making of Britain, 1533-1707. (2003). United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
  40. ↑ Llyfr Taliesin XIX
  41. ↑ "Looking into the long history of mead". 2016-01-23. https://www.irishexaminer.com/property/homeandoutdoors/arid-20377522.html. 
  42. ↑ "Slainte! The Celtic Wassail – The Histories and Folklore of Mead and Honey in Celtic Lands". 20 January 2024. https://owlcation.com/social-sciences/Slainte-The-Celtic-Wassail-the-histories-and-folklore-of-mead-and-honey-in-Celtic-lands. 
  43. ↑ Foley, Ray (1 January 2006). The Best Irish Drinks: The Essential Collection of Cocktail Recipes and Toasts from the Emerald Isle. Sourcebooks, Inc.. ISBN 978-1-4022-5014-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=m-7oCgAAQBAJ&q=mead+ireland&pg=PT33. 
  44. ↑ Buhner, Stephen Harrod (1998). Sacred and Herbal Healing Beers: The Secrets of Ancient Fermentation. Siris Books. ISBN 978-0-937381-66-3. 
  45. ↑ "mead". The Oxford Universal Dictionary on Historical Principles (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1944. p. 1222. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "Mead". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/mead#etymonline_v_12487. 
  47. ↑ Meier, Kristin; Peyrot, Michaël (2017). "The Word for 'Honey' in Chinese, Tocharian and Sino-Vietnamese". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 167 (1): 7–22. doi:10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.167.1.0007. ISSN 0341-0137. 
  48. ↑ "Making Mead: the Art and the Science". Beer Judge Certification Program. http://www.bjcp.org/mead/makingmead.pdf. 
  49. ↑ Schramm, Ken (2003). The Compleat Meadmaker. Brewers Publications. pp. 31, 37. ISBN 978-0-937381-80-9. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 Spence, P (1997). Mad about mead!: nectar of the gods. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications. 
  51. ↑ Zimmerman, J (2018). "Mull Over Mead: Enjoy an in-depth look at the components and creation of this versatile, honey-based beverage -- a hearty addition to any homebrewing arsenal". Mother Earth News: 50–54. 
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Pereira, Ana Paula; Mendes-Ferreira, Ana; Estevinho, Leticia M.; Mendes-Faia, Arlete (2015). "Improvement of mead fermentation by honey-must supplementation". Journal of the Institute of Brewing 121 (3): 405–410. doi:10.1002/jib.239. 
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 Iglesias, A; Pascoal, A; Choupina, A. B.; Carvalho, C. A.; Feás, X; Estevinho, L. M. (2014). "Developments in the fermentation process and quality improvement strategies for mead production". Molecules 19 (8): 12577–90. doi:10.3390/molecules190812577. PMID 25153872. 
  54. ↑ Tierney, John (21 October 2014). "Making Mead in a Space-Age World". The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2014/10/making-mead-in-a-space-age-world/381433/. Retrieved 20 June 2017. 
  55. ↑ "Mead Lover's Digest #1117". 24 July 2004. http://www.gotmead.com/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=1094. 
  56. ↑ Tayleur, W.H.T.; Michael Spink (1973). The Penguin Book of Home Brewing and Wine-Making. Penguin. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-14-046190-9. https://archive.org/details/penguinbookofhom0000tayl/page/292. 
  57. ↑ Aylett, Mary (1953). Country Wines, Odhams Press. p. 79
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Tayleur, p. 291.
  59. ↑ "Castle Life - Medieval Drinks". https://www.castlesandmanorhouses.com/life_05_drink.htm. 
  60. ↑ "Wigle Whiskey's Newest Spirit Distilled from Honey! - BumbleBerry Farms". https://www.bumbleberryfarms.com/2013/10/16/wigle-whiskeys-newest-spirit-distilled-from-honey/. 
  61. ↑ "Polska miodem stała" (in pl-PL). http://www.smakizpolski.com.pl/chcialbys-wiedziec-miodzie-pitnym/. 
  62. ↑ Synowiec, A.; Wzorek, W.; Baca, E. (23 January 2024). "Miody pitne - historia, regulacje prawne oraz technologia produkcji". Przemysł Fermentacyjny i Owocowo-Warzywny 54 (54): 11–12. https://agro.icm.edu.pl/agro/element/bwmeta1.element.agro-4dc754d6-8ef2-446a-8912-e72617acfb5a. 
  63. ↑ Morata, Antonio; Loira, Iris, eds (2016). "Chapter 19: The Trends and Prospects of Winemaking in Poland". Grape and Wine Biotechnology. IntechOpen. doi:10.5772/64976. ISBN 978-953-51-2692-8. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/52103. 
  64. ↑ Gittleson, Kim (2 October 2013). "The drink of kings makes a comeback". BBC News Online. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24184527. 
  65. ↑ Bender, Andrew. "Top 10 Food Trends". Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/pictures/ehlk45lii/mead/. 
  66. ↑ "Mead, the honey-based brew producing a real buzz". CBS News. 24 November 2013. http://www.cbsnews.com/news/mead-the-honey-based-brew-producing-a-real-buzz/. 
  67. ↑ Kobie, Nicole (8 August 2020). "The big rise in small beer is the beginning of the end for hangovers". Wired UK. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/big-growth-small-beer. 
  68. ↑ "Bar news | Gosnells creates low-alcohol mead" (in en-US). 2 January 2020. https://barmagazine.co.uk/gosnells-creates-low-alcohol-mead/. 
  69. ↑ "Something To Braggot About". https://craftypint.com/news/2724/something-to-braggot-about. 
  70. ↑ Garvan, John M. (1912). "Report on the drinks and drinking among the Mandaya, Manobo, and Mangguangan Tribes". The Philippine Journal of Science: Section A 7: 106–114. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.27242. 
  71. ↑ "Braggot". 8 January 2018. https://medievalmeadandbeer.wordpress.com/braggot/. 
  72. ↑ Garcia, Ian Rav (28 February 2019). "Back in Maragusan". Mindanao Times. http://mindanaotimes.com.ph/2019/02/28/wanderlust-back-in-maragusan/. 
  73. ↑ Scott, William Henry (1990). "Sixteenth-Century Visayan Food and Farming". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 18 (4): 291–311. 
  74. ↑ Demetrio, Feorillo Petronilo A. III (2012). "Colonization and Alcoholic Beverages of Early Visayans from Samar and Leyte". Malay 25 (1): 1–18. https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=8021. 
  75. ↑ "Russian Honey Drink" (in en-US). 2009-03-30. https://englishrussia.com/2009/03/29/russian-honey-drink/. 
  76. ↑ "Lithuanian Mead - The world's oldest alcoholic drink". The Baltic Review. 2015-07-24. http://baltic-review.com/culinary-heritage-lithuanian-mead-the-worlds-oldest-alcoholic-drink/. 
  77. ↑ "Lietuviškas midus | Mead balsam". http://midus.lt/en/mead-balsam/. 
  78. ↑ "Mead". Saku Brewery. http://www.saku.ee/eng/beverages/mead. 
  79. ↑ "Indigenous 'first summer' season of birak gets off to a late start" (in en-AU). ABC News. 2015-12-14. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-12-14/celebrating-birak-the-noongar-first-summer/7027324. 
  80. ↑ La Barre, Weston (1938). "Native American Beers". American Anthropologist 40 (2): 224–234. doi:10.1525/aa.1938.40.2.02a00040. http://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/lr/labarre_bir.pdf. Retrieved 18 September 2016. 
  81. ↑ Gordon Strong; Kristen England. "2015 Mead Guidelines". p. 5. http://www.bjcp.org/docs/2015_Guidelines_Mead.pdf. "A Pyment is a melomel made with grapes (generally from juice). Pyments can be red, white, or blush, just as with wine." 
  82. ↑ "Mazer Cup Guidelines (commercial)". http://mead-makers.org/mazer-cup-guidelines-commercial. "Pyment: Honeywine made with grapes/grape juice/grape concentrate." 
  83. ↑ Earnshaw, Steven (2000). The Pub in Literature: England's Altered State. Manchester University Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-7190-5305-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=mV_Yc6eCtS0C&q=%22piment%22%20wine&pg=PA28. 
  84. ↑ Sack in the Oxford Companion to Wine
  85. ↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). "Saké". Encyclopædia Britannica. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 54. 

Further reading



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chemistry:Mead&oldid=3337358"
Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 | Source: https://handwiki.org/wiki/Chemistry:Mead
20 views | Status: cached on October 05 2024 23:24:03
↧ Download this article as ZWI file
Encyclosphere.org EncycloReader is supported by the EncyclosphereKSF