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Early Triassic

Topic: Earth

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 14 min

Short description: First of three epochs of the Triassic Period
Early/Lower Triassic
251.9 – 247.2 Ma
↓
Sandstone from the Lower Triassic Series
Chronology
Etymology
Chronostratigraphic nameLower Triassic
Geochronological nameEarly Triassic
Name formalityFormal
Usage information
Celestial bodyEarth
Regional usageGlobal (ICS)
Time scale(s) usedICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unitEpoch
Stratigraphic unitSeries
Time span formalityFormal
Lower boundary definitionFAD of the Conodont Hindeodus parvus
Lower boundary GSSPMeishan, Zhejiang, China
[ ⚑ ] 31°04′47″N 119°42′21″E / 31.0798°N 119.7058°E / 31.0798; 119.7058
GSSP ratified2001[1]
Upper boundary definitionNot formally defined
Upper boundary definition candidates
Upper boundary GSSP candidate section(s)
  • Desli Caira, Northern Dobruja, Romania
  • Guandao, Guizhou, China

The Early Triassic is the first of three epochs of the Triassic Period of the geologic timescale. It spans the time between 251.9 Ma and 247.2 Ma (million years ago). Rocks from this epoch are collectively known as the Lower Triassic Series, which is a unit in chronostratigraphy.

The Early Triassic is the oldest epoch of the Mesozoic Era. It is preceded by the Lopingian Epoch (late Permian, Paleozoic Era) and followed by the Middle Triassic Epoch. The Early Triassic is divided into the Induan and Olenekian ages. The Induan is subdivided into the Griesbachian and Dienerian subages and the Olenekian is subdivided into the Smithian and Spathian subages.[2]

The Lower Triassic series is coeval with the Scythian Stage, which is today not included in the official timescales but can be found in older literature. In Europe, most of the Lower Triassic is composed of Buntsandstein, a lithostratigraphic unit of continental red beds.

The Early Triassic and partly also the Middle Triassic span the interval of biotic recovery from the Permian-Triassic extinction event, the most severe mass extinction event in Earth's history.[3][4][5] A second extinction event, the Smithian-Spathian boundary event, occurred during the Olenekian.[6] A third extinction event occurred at the Olenekian-Anisian boundary, marking the end of the Early Triassic epoch.[7]

Early Triassic climate

The Putorana Plateau is composed of basalt rocks of the Siberian Traps.

The climate during the Early Triassic Epoch (especially in the interior of the supercontinent Pangaea) was generally arid, rainless and dry and deserts were widespread; however the poles possessed a temperate climate. The pole-to-equator temperature gradient was temporally flat during the Early Triassic and may have allowed tropical species to extend their distribution poleward. This is evidenced by the global distribution of ammonoids.[8]

The mostly hot climate of the Early Triassic may have been caused by late volcanic eruptions of the Siberian Traps,[9][3] which had probably triggered the Permian-Triassic extinction event and accelerated the rate of global warming into the Triassic.[10] Studies suggest that Early Triassic climate was very volatile, punctuated by a number of relatively rapid global temperature changes, marine anoxic events, and carbon cycle disturbances,[11][12][13] which led to subsequent extinction events in the aftermath of the Permian-Triassic extinction event.[14][15][16] On the other hand, an alternative hypothesis proposes these Early Triassic climatic perturbations and biotic upheavals that inhibited the recovery of life following the P-T mass extinction to have been linked to forcing driven by changes in the Earth's obliquity defined by a roughly 32.8 thousand year periodicity with strong 1.2 million year modulations. According to proponents of this hypothesis, radiometric dating indicates that major activity from the Siberian Traps ended very shortly after the end-Permian extinction and did not span the entire Early Triassic epoch, thus not being the primary culprit for the climatic changes throughout this epoch.[17]

Early Triassic life

Fauna and flora

Pleuromeia represented a dominant element of global floras during the Early Triassic

The Triassic Period opened in the aftermath of the Permian–Triassic extinction event. The massive extinctions that ended the Permian Period (and with that the Paleozoic Era) caused extreme hardships for the surviving species.

The Early Triassic Epoch saw the biotic recovery of life after the biggest mass extinction event of the past, which took millions of years due to the severity of the event and the harsh Early Triassic climate.[18] Many types of corals, brachiopods, molluscs, echinoderms, and other invertebrates had disappeared. The Permian vegetation, which was dominated by Glossopteris in the Southern Hemisphere, ceased to exist.[19] Other groups, such as Actinopterygii, appear to have been less affected by this extinction event[20] and body size was not a selective factor during the extinction event.[21][22] Animals that were most successful in the Early Triassic were those with high metabolisms.[23] Different patterns of recovery are evident on land and in the sea. Early Triassic faunas lacked biodiversity and were relatively homogeneous due to the effects of the extinction. The ecological recovery on land took 30 million years, well into the Late Triassic.[24] Two Early Triassic lagerstätten stand out due to their exceptionally high biodiversity, the Dienerian aged Guiyang biota[25] and the earliest Spathian aged Paris biota.[26]

Terrestrial biota

The most common land vertebrate was the small herbivorous synapsid Lystrosaurus. Often interpreted as a disaster taxon (although this view was questioned[27]), Lystrosaurus had a wide range across Pangea. In the southern part of the supercontinent, it co-occurred with the non-mammalian cynodonts Galesaurus and Thrinaxodon, early relatives of mammals. First archosauriforms appeared, such as Erythrosuchus (Olenekian-Ladinian).[28] This group includes the ancestors of crocodiles and dinosaurs (including birds). Fossilized foot prints of dinosauromorphs are known from the Olenekian.[29] The Early Triassic entomofauna is very poorly understood because of the paucity of insect fossils from this epoch.[30]

The flora was gymnosperm-dominated at the onset of the Triassic, but changed rapidly and became lycopod-dominated (e.g. Pleuromeia) during the Griesbachian-Dienerian ecological crisis. This change coincided with the extinction of the Permian Glossopteris flora.[19] In the Spathian subage, the flora changed back to gymnosperm and pteridophyte dominated.[31] These shifts reflect global changes in precipitation and temperature.[19][14] Floral diversity was overall very low during the Early Triassic, as plant life had yet to fully recover from the Permian-Triassic extinction.[32]

Microbially induced sedimentary structures (MISS) are common in the fossil record of North China in the immediate aftermath of the Permian-Triassic extinction, indicating that microbial mats dominated local terrestrial ecosystems following the Permian-Triassic boundary. The regional prevalence of MISS is attributable to a decrease in bioturbation and grazing pressure as a result of aridification and temperature increase.[33] MISS have also been reported from Early Triassic fossil deposits in Arctic Canada.[34] The disappearance of MISS later in the Early Triassic has been interpreted as a signal of increased bioturbation and recovery of terrestrial ecosystems.[33]

Aquatic biota

In the oceans, the most common Early Triassic hard-shelled marine invertebrates were bivalves, gastropods, ammonoids, echinoids, and a few articulate brachiopods. Conodonts experienced a revival in diversity following a nadir during the Permian.[35] The first oysters (Liostrea) appeared in the Early Triassic. They grew on the shells of living ammonoids as epizoans.[36] Microbial reefs were common, possibly due to lack of competition with metazoan reef builders as a result of the extinction.[37] However, transient metazoan reefs reoccurred during the Olenekian wherever permitted by environmental conditions.[38] Ammonoids show blooms followed by extinctions during the Early Triassic.[39]

Aquatic vertebrates diversified after the extinction.

Fishes: Typical Triassic ray-finned fishes, such as Australosomus, Birgeria, Bobasatrania, Boreosomus, Pteronisculus, Parasemionotidae and Saurichthys appeared close to the Permian-Triassic boundary, whereas neopterygians (including stem teleosts) diversified later during the Triassic, though the pattern of the Triassic diversification of bony fishes is not well understood due to a taphonomic megabias in the late Early Triassic and early Middle Triassic.[40] Many species of fish had a cosmopolitan distribution during the Early Triassic.[21] Coelacanths show a peak in their diversity during this epoch,[41] including new modes of life, such as the fork-tailed Rebellatrix.[42] Chondrichthyes are represented by Hybodontiformes like Palaeobates, Omanoselache, Lissodus, some Neoselachii, as well as a few last survivors of the Eugeneodontida (Caseodus, Fadenia).[43]

Amphibians: Relatively large, marine temnospondyl amphibians, such as Aphaneramma or Wantzosaurus, were geographically widespread during the Induan and Olenekian ages. The fossils of these crocodile-shaped amphibians were found in Greenland, Spitsbergen, Pakistan and Madagascar .

Reptiles: In the oceans, first marine reptiles appeared during the Early Triassic.[44] Their descendants ruled the oceans during the Mesozoic. Hupehsuchia, Ichthyopterygia and sauropterygians are among the first marine reptiles to enter the scene in the Olenekian (e.g. Cartorhynchus, Chaohusaurus, Utatsusaurus, Hupehsuchus, Grippia, Omphalosaurus, Corosaurus). Other marine reptiles such as Tanystropheus, Helveticosaurus, Atopodentatus, placodonts or the thalattosaurs followed later in the Middle Triassic.[44] The Anisian aged ichthyosaur Thalattoarchon was one of the first marine macropredators capable of eating prey that was similar in size to itself, an ecological role that can be compared to that of modern orcas.[45]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Hongfu, Yin; Kexin, Zhang; Jinnan, Tong; Zunyi, Yang; Shunbao, Wu (June 2001). "The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary". Episodes 24 (2): 102–114. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i2/004. https://stratigraphy.org/gssps/files/induan.pdf. Retrieved 8 December 2020. 
  2. ↑ Tozer, Edward T. (1965). Lower Triassic stages and ammonoid zones of arctic Canada. Geological Survey of Canada. OCLC 606894884. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Payne, Jonathan L.; Kump, Lee R. (15 April 2007). "Evidence for recurrent Early Triassic massive volcanism from quantitative interpretation of carbon isotope fluctuations". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 256 (1–2): 264–277. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.01.034. Bibcode: 2007E&PSL.256..264P. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X07000611. Retrieved 12 January 2023. 
  4. ↑ Feng, Xueqian; Chen, Zhong-Qiang; Woods, Adam; Fang, Yuheng (15 November 2017). "A Smithian (Early Triassic) ichnoassemblage from Lichuan, Hubei Province, South China: Implications for biotic recovery after the latest Permian mass extinction". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 486: 123–141. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.03.003. Bibcode: 2017PPP...486..123F. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018217302420. Retrieved 20 January 2023. 
  5. ↑ Matamales-Andreu, Rafel; Peñalver, Enrique; Mujal, Eudald; Oms, Oriol; Scholze, Frank; Juárez, Josep; Galobart, Àngel; Fortuny, Josep (November 2021). "Early–Middle Triassic fluvial ecosystems of Mallorca (Balearic Islands): Biotic communities and environmental evolution in the equatorial western peri-Tethys". Earth-Science Reviews 222: 103783. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103783. Bibcode: 2021ESRv..22203783M. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012825221002841. Retrieved 8 December 2022. 
  6. ↑ Widmann, Philipp; Bucher, Hugo; Leu, Marc; Vennemann, Torsten; Bagherpour, Borhan; Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke; Goudemand, Nicolas; Schaltegger, Urs (2020). "Dynamics of the Largest Carbon Isotope Excursion During the Early Triassic Biotic Recovery". Frontiers in Earth Science 8 (196): 196. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00196. Bibcode: 2020FrEaS...8..196W. 
  7. ↑ Song, Haijin; Song, Huyue; Tong, Jinnan; Gordon, Gwyneth W.; Wignall, Paul B.; Tian, Li; Zheng, Wang; Algeo, Thomas J. et al. (20 February 2021). "Conodont calcium isotopic evidence for multiple shelf acidification events during the Early Triassic". Chemical Geology 562: 120038. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2020.120038. Bibcode: 2021ChGeo.56220038S. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0009254120305775. Retrieved 12 December 2022. 
  8. ↑ Brayard, Arnaud; Bucher, Hugo; Escarguel, Gilles; Fluteau, Frédéric; Bourquin, Sylvie; Galfetti, Thomas (September 2006). "The Early Triassic ammonoid recovery: Paleoclimatic significance of diversity gradients". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 239 (3–4): 374–395. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.02.003. Bibcode: 2006PPP...239..374B. 
  9. ↑ Borruel-Abadía, Violeta; López-Gómez, José; De la Horra, Raúl; Galán-Abellán, Belén; Barrenechea, José; Arche, Alfredo; Ronchi, Ausonio; Gretter, Nicola et al. (15 December 2015). "Climate changes during the Early–Middle Triassic transition in the E. Iberian plate and their palaeogeographic significance in the western Tethys continental domain". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 440: 671–689. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.09.043. Bibcode: 2015PPP...440..671B. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018215005532. Retrieved 8 December 2022. 
  10. ↑ Preto, Nereo; Kustatscher, Evelyn; Wignall, Paul B. (April 2010). "Triassic climates — State of the art and perspectives". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 290 (1–4): 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.03.015. Bibcode: 2010PPP...290....1P. 
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  12. ↑ Li, Hanxiao; Dong, Hanxinshuo; Jiang, Haishui; Wignall, Paul B.; Chen, Yanlong; Zhang, Muhui; Ouyang, Zhumin; Wu, Xianlang et al. (1 September 2022). "Integrated conodont biostratigraphy and δ13Ccarb records from end Permian to Early Triassic at Yiwagou Section, Gansu Province, northwestern China and their implications". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 601: 111079. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.111079. Bibcode: 2022PPP...60111079L. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018222002498. Retrieved 26 December 2022. 
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  17. ↑ Li, Mingsong; Huang, Chunju; Hinnov, Linda; Ogg, James; Chen, Zhong-Qiang; Zhang, Yang (1 August 2016). "Obliquity-forced climate during the Early Triassic hothouse in China". Geology 44 (8): 623–626. doi:10.1130/G37970.1. Bibcode: 2016Geo....44..623L. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/44/8/623/188194/Obliquity-forced-climate-during-the-Early-Triassic. Retrieved 8 December 2022. 
  18. ↑ Chen, Zhong-Qiang; Benton, Michael J. (27 May 2012). "The timing and pattern of biotic recovery following the end-Permian mass extinction". Nature Geoscience 5 (6): 375–383. doi:10.1038/ngeo1475. Bibcode: 2012NatGe...5..375C. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Hochuli, Peter A.; Sanson-Barrera, Anna; Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke; Bucher, Hugo (24 June 2016). "Severest crisis overlooked—Worst disruption of terrestrial environments postdates the Permian–Triassic mass extinction". Scientific Reports 6 (1): 28372. doi:10.1038/srep28372. PMID 27340926. Bibcode: 2016NatSR...628372H. 
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  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Romano, Carlo; Koot, Martha B.; Kogan, Ilja; Brayard, Arnaud; Minikh, Alla V.; Brinkmann, Winand; Bucher, Hugo; Kriwet, Jürgen (February 2016). "Permian-Triassic Osteichthyes (bony fishes): diversity dynamics and body size evolution". Biological Reviews 91 (1): 106–147. doi:10.1111/brv.12161. PMID 25431138. 
  22. ↑ Puttick, Mark N.; Kriwet, Jürgen; Wen, Wen; Hu, Shixue; Thomas, Gavin H.; Benton, Michael J.; Angielczyk, Kenneth (September 2017). "Body length of bony fishes was not a selective factor during the biggest mass extinction of all time". Palaeontology 60 (5): 727–741. doi:10.1111/pala.12309. Bibcode: 2017Palgy..60..727P. 
  23. ↑ Pietsch, Carlie; Ritterbush, Kathleen A.; Thompson, Jeffrey R.; Petsios, Elizabeth; Bottjer, David J. (1 January 2019). "Evolutionary models in the Early Triassic marine realm". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 513: 65–85. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.12.016. Bibcode: 2019PPP...513...65P. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018217305965. Retrieved 3 December 2022. 
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  25. ↑ Dai, Xu; Davies, Joshua H.F.L.; Yuan, Zhiwei; Brayard, Arnaud; Ovtcharova, Maria; Xu, Guanghui; Liu, Xiaokang; Smith, Christopher P.A. et al. (2023). "A Mesozoic fossil lagerstätte from 250.8 million years ago shows a modern-type marine ecosystem". Science 379 (6632): 567–572. doi:10.1126/science.adf1622. PMID 36758082. Bibcode: 2023Sci...379..567D. 
  26. ↑ Brayard, Arnaud; Krumenacker, L. J.; Botting, Joseph P.; Jenks, James F.; Bylund, Kevin G.; Fara, Emmanuel; Vennin, Emmanuelle; Olivier, Nicolas et al. (2017). "Unexpected Early Triassic marine ecosystem and the rise of the Modern evolutionary fauna". Science Advances 3 (2): e1602159. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1602159. PMID 28246643. Bibcode: 2017SciA....3E2159B. 
  27. ↑ Modesto, Sean P. (December 2020). "The Disaster Taxon Lystrosaurus: A Paleontological Myth". Frontiers in Earth Science 8: 610463. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.610463. Bibcode: 2020FrEaS...8..617M. 
  28. ↑ Foth, Christian; Ezcurra, Martín D.; Sookias, Roland B.; Brusatte, Stephen L.; Butler, Richard J. (15 September 2016). "Unappreciated diversification of stem archosaurs during the Middle Triassic predated the dominance of dinosaurs". BMC Evolutionary Biology 16 (1): 188. doi:10.1186/s12862-016-0761-6. PMID 27628503. 
  29. ↑ Brusatte, Stephen L.; Niedźwiedzki, Grzegorz; Butler, Richard J. (6 October 2010). "Footprints pull origin and diversification of dinosaur stem lineage deep into Early Triassic". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278 (1708): 1107–1113. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1746. PMID 20926435. 
  30. ↑ Żyła, Dagmara; Wegierek, Piotr; Owocki, Krzysztof; Niedźwiedzki, Grzegorz (1 February 2013). "Insects and crustaceans from the latest Early–early Middle Triassic of Poland". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 371: 136–144. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.01.002. ISSN 0031-0182. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018213000060. Retrieved 8 December 2023. 
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  32. ↑ Xu, Zhen; Hilton, Jason; Yu, Jianxin; Wignall, Paul B.; Yin, Hongfu; Xue, Qing; Ran, Weiju; Li, Hui et al. (22 July 2022). "End Permian to Middle Triassic plant species richness and abundance patterns in South China: Coevolution of plants and the environment through the Permian–Triassic transition". Earth-Science Reviews 232: 104136. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104136. Bibcode: 2022ESRv..23204136X. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012825222002203. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Chu, Daoliang; Tong, Jinnan; Bottjer, David J.; Song, Haijun; Song, Huyue; Benton, Michael James; Tian, Li; Guo, Wenwei (15 May 2017). "Microbial mats in the terrestrial Lower Triassic of North China and implications for the Permian–Triassic mass extinction". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 474: 214–231. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.06.013. Bibcode: 2017PPP...474..214C. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S003101821630205X. Retrieved 23 December 2022. 
  34. ↑ Wignall, Paul B.; Bond, David P. G.; Grasby, Stephen E.; Pruss, Sarah B.; Peakall, Jeffrey (30 August 2019). "Controls on the formation of microbially induced sedimentary structures and biotic recovery in the Lower Triassic of Arctic Canada". Geological Society of America Bulletin 132 (5–6): 918–930. doi:10.1130/B35229.1. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article/132/5-6/918/573367/Controls-on-the-formation-of-microbially-induced. Retrieved 22 March 2023. 
  35. ↑ Ginot, Samuel; Goudemand, Nicolas (December 2020). "Global climate changes account for the main trends of conodont diversity but not for their final demise" (in en). Global and Planetary Change 195: 103325. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103325. Bibcode: 2020GPC...19503325G. 
  36. ↑ Hautmann, Michael; Ware, David; Bucher, Hugo (August 2017). "Geologically oldest oysters were epizoans on Early Triassic ammonoids". Journal of Molluscan Studies 83 (3): 253–260. doi:10.1093/mollus/eyx018. 
  37. ↑ Foster, William J.; Heindel, Katrin; Richoz, Sylvain; Gliwa, Jana; Lehrmann, Daniel J.; Baud, Aymon; Kolar‐Jurkovšek, Tea; Aljinović, Dunja et al. (20 November 2019). "Suppressed competitive exclusion enabled the proliferation of Permian/Triassic boundary microbialites". The Depositional Record 6 (1): 62–74. doi:10.1002/dep2.97. PMID 32140241. 
  38. ↑ Brayard, Arnaud; Vennin, Emmanuelle; Olivier, Nicolas; Bylund, Kevin G.; Jenks, Jim; Stephen, Daniel A.; Bucher, Hugo; Hofmann, Richard et al. (18 September 2011). "Transient metazoan reefs in the aftermath of the end-Permian mass extinction". Nature Geoscience 4 (10): 693–697. doi:10.1038/ngeo1264. Bibcode: 2011NatGe...4..693B. 
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  40. ↑ Romano, Carlo (January 2021). "A hiatus obscures the early evolution of Modern lineages of bony fishes". Frontiers in Earth Science 8: 618853. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.618853. 
  41. ↑ Cavin, Lionel; Furrer, Heinz; Obrist, Christian (2013). "New coelacanth material from the Middle Triassic of eastern Switzerland, and comments on the taxic diversity of actinistans". Swiss Journal of Geoscience 106 (2): 161–177. doi:10.1007/s00015-013-0143-7. 
  42. ↑ Wendruff, A. J.; Wilson, M. V. H. (2012). "A fork-tailed coelacanth, Rebellatrix divaricerca, gen. et sp. nov. (Actinistia, Rebellatricidae, fam. nov.), from the Lower Triassic of Western Canada". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 32 (3): 499–511. doi:10.1080/02724634.2012.657317. Bibcode: 2012JVPal..32..499W. https://www.academia.edu/3197708. 
  43. ↑ Mutter, Raoul J.; Neuman, Andrew G. (2008). "New eugeneodontid sharks from the Lower Triassic Sulphur Mountain Formation of Western Canada". Fishes and the Break-up of Pangaea. Geological Society of London, Special Publications. 295. London: Geological Society of London. pp. 9–41. doi:10.1144/sp295.3. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP295.3. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Scheyer, Torsten M.; Romano, Carlo; Jenks, Jim; Bucher, Hugo (19 March 2014). "Early Triassic Marine Biotic Recovery: The Predators' Perspective". PLOS ONE 9 (3): e88987. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088987. PMID 24647136. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...988987S. 
  45. ↑ Fröbisch, Nadia B.; Fröbisch, Jörg; Sander, P. Martin; Schmitz, Lars; Rieppel, Olivier (22 January 2013). "Macropredatory ichthyosaur from the Middle Triassic and the origin of modern trophic networks". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (4): 1393–1397. doi:10.1073/pnas.1216750110. PMID 23297200. Bibcode: 2013PNAS..110.1393F. 

Further reading

  • Martinetto, Edoardo; Tschopp, Emanuel; Gastaldo, Robert, eds (2020). Nature through Time: Virtual field trips through the Nature of the past. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 978-3-030-35057-4. 

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