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Mesonet

Topic: Earth

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 19 min

In meteorology and climatology, a mesonet, portmanteau of mesoscale network, is a network of automated weather and, often also including environmental monitoring stations, designed to observe mesoscale meteorological phenomena and/or microclimates.[1][2]

Dry lines, squall lines, and sea breezes are examples of phenomena observed by mesonets. Due to the space and time scales associated with mesoscale phenomena and microclimates, weather stations comprising a mesonet are spaced closer together and report more frequently than synoptic scale observing networks, such as the WMO Global Observing System (GOS) and US ASOS. The term mesonet refers to the collective group of these weather stations, which are usually owned and operated by a common entity. Mesonets generally record in situ surface weather observations but some involve other observation platforms, particularly vertical profiles of the planetary boundary layer (PBL).[3] Other environmental parameters may include insolation and various variables of interest to particular users, such as soil temperature or road conditions (the latter notable in Road Weather Information System (RWIS) networks).

The distinguishing features that classify a network of weather stations as a mesonet are station density and temporal resolution with sufficiently robust station quality. Depending upon the phenomena meant to be observed, mesonet stations use a spatial spacing of 1 to 40 kilometres (0.6 to 20 mi)[4] and report conditions every 1 to 15 minutes. Micronets (see microscale and storm scale), such as in metropolitan areas such as Oklahoma City,[5] St. Louis, and Birmingham UK, are denser in spatial and sometimes temporal resolution.[6]

Purpose

Thunderstorms and other atmospheric convection, squall lines, drylines,[7] sea and land breezes, mountain breeze and valley breezes, mountain waves, mesolows and mesohighs, wake lows, mesoscale convective vortices (MCVs), tropical cyclone and extratropical cyclone rainbands, macrobursts, gust fronts and outflow boundaries, heat bursts, urban heat islands (UHIs), and other mesoscale phenomena, as well as topographical features, can cause weather and climate conditions in a localized area to be significantly different from that dictated by the ambient large-scale conditions.[8][9] As such, meteorologists must understand these phenomena in order to improve forecast skill. Observations are critical to understanding the processes by which these phenomena form, evolve, and dissipate.

The long-term observing networks (ASOS, AWOS, COOP), however, are too sparse and report too infrequently for mesoscale research and forecasting. ASOS and AWOS stations are typically spaced 50 to 100 kilometres (30 to 60 mi) apart and report only hourly at many sites (though over time the frequency of reporting has increased, down to 5–15 minutes in the 2020s at major sites). The Cooperative Observer Program (COOP) database consists of only daily reports recorded manually. That network, like the more recent CoCoRaHS, is large but both are limited in reporting frequency and robustness of equipment. "Mesoscale" weather phenomena occur on spatial scales of a few to hundreds of kilometers and temporal (time) scales of minutes to hours. Thus, an observing network with finer temporal and spatial scales is needed for mesoscale research. This need led to the development of the mesonet.

Mesonet data is directly used by humans for decision making, but also boosts the skill of numerical weather prediction (NWP) and is especially beneficial for short-range mesoscale models. Mesonets, along with remote sensing solutions (data assimilation of weather radar, weather satellites, wind profilers), allow for much greater temporal and spatial resolution in a forecast model. As the atmosphere is a chaotic nonlinear dynamical system (i.e. subject to the Butterfly effect), this increase in data increases understanding of initial conditions and boosts model performance. In addition to meteorology and climatology users, hydrologists, foresters, wildland firefighters, transportation departments, energy producers and distributors, other utility interests, and agricultural entities are prominent in their need for fine scale weather information. These organizations operate dozens of mesonets within the US and globally. Environmental, outdoor recreational, emergency management and public safety, military, and insurance interests also are heavy users of mesonet information.

In many cases, mesonet stations may, by necessity or sometimes by lack of awareness, be located in positions where accurate measurements may be compromised. For instance, this is especially true of citizen science and crowdsourced data systems, such as the stations built for WeatherBug's network, many of which are located on school buildings. The Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP) facilitated by the US National Weather Service (NWS) and other networks such as those collected by Weather Underground help fill gaps with resolutions sometimes meeting or exceeding that of mesonets, but many stations also exhibit biases due to improper siting, calibration, and maintenance. These consumer grade "personal weather stations" (PWS) are also less sensitive and rigorous than scientific grade stations. The potential bias that these stations may cause must be accounted for when ingesting the data into a model, lest the phenomenon of "garbage in, garbage out" occur.

Operations

Kentucky Mesonet station WSHT near Maysville in Mason County

Mesonets were born out of the need to conduct mesoscale research. The nature of this research is such that mesonets, like the phenomena they were meant to observe, were (and sometimes still are) short-lived and may change rapidly. Long-term research projects and non-research groups, however, have been able to maintain a mesonet for many years. For example, the U.S. Army Dugway Proving Ground in Utah has maintained a mesonet for many decades. The research-based origin of mesonets led to the characteristic that mesonet stations may be modular and portable, able to be moved from one field program to another. Nonetheless, most large contemporary mesonets or nodes within consist of permanent stations comprising stationary networks. Some research projects, however, utilize mobile mesonets. Prominent examples include the VORTEX projects.[10][11] The problems of implementing and maintaining robust fixed stations are exacerbated by lighter, compact mobile stations and are further worsened by various issues related when moving, such as vehicle slipstream effects, and particularly during rapid changes in the ambient environment associated with traversing severe weather.[12]

Whether the mesonet is temporary or semi-permanent, each weather station is typically independent, drawing power from a battery and solar panels. An on-board computer records readings from several instruments measuring temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, and atmospheric pressure, as well as soil temperature and moisture, and other environmental variables deemed important to the mission of the mesonet, solar irradiance being a common non-meteorological parameter. The computer periodically saves these data to memory, typically using data loggers, and transmits the observations to a base station via radio, telephone (wireless, such as cellular or landline), or satellite transmission. Advancements in computer technology and wireless communications in recent decades made possible the collection of mesonet data in real-time. Some stations or networks report using Wi-Fi and grid powered with backups for redundancy.

The availability of mesonet data in real-time can be extremely valuable to operational forecasters, and particularly for nowcasting,[13] as they can monitor weather conditions from many points in their forecast area. In addition to operational work, and weather, climate, and environmental research, mesonet and micronet data are often important in forensic meteorology.[14]

History

Three-day barograph of the type used by the Meteorological Service of Canada

Early mesonets operated differently from modern mesonets. Each constituent instrument of the weather station was purely mechanical and fairly independent of the other sensors. Data were recorded continuously by an inked stylus that pivoted about a point onto a rotating drum covered by a sheath of graphed paper called a trace chart, much like a traditional seismograph station. Data analysis could occur only after the trace charts from the various instruments were collected.

One of the earliest mesonets operated in the summer of 1946 and 1947 and was part of a field campaign called The Thunderstorm Project.[15] As the name implies, the objective of this program was to better understand thunderstorm convection. The earliest mesonets were typically funded and operated by government agencies for specific campaigns. In time, universities and other quasi-public entities began implementing permanent mesonets for a wide variety of uses, such as agricultural or maritime interests. Consumer grade stations added to the professional grade synoptic and mesoscale networks by the 1990s and by the 2010s professional grade station networks operated by private companies and public-private consortia increased in prominence. Some of these privately implemented systems are permanent and at fixed locations, but many also service specific users and campaigns/events so may be installed for limited periods, and may also be mobile.

The first known mesonet was operated by Germany from 1939 to 1941. Early mesonets with project based purposes operated for limited periods of time from seasons to a few years. The first permanently operating mesonet began in the United States in the 1970s with more entering operation in the 1980s-1990s as numbers gradually increased preceding a steeper expansion by the 2000s. By the 2010s there was also an increase in mesonets on other continents. Some wealthy densely populated countries also deploy observation networks with the density of a mesonet, such as the AMeDAS in Japan. The US was an early adopter of mesonets, yet funding has long been scattered and meager. By the 2020s declining funding atop the earlier scarcity and uncertainty of funding was leading to understaffing and problems maintaining stations, the closure of some stations, and the viability of entire networks threatened.[16]

Mesonets capable of being moved for fixed station deployments in field campaigns came into use in the US by the 1970s[17] and fully mobile vehicle-mounted mesonets became fixtures of large field research projects following the field campaigns of Project VORTEX in 1994 and 1995, in which significant mobile mesonets were deployed.

Significant mesonets

The following table is an incomplete list of mesonets operating in the past and present:

Name of Network, Place Years of operation Spacing No. of Stations
(Year) 		Objectives
Lindenberg Meteorological Observatory (de), Lindenberg (Tauche) (de), Tauche, Germany 1939–1941 3–20 km (1.9–12.4 mi) 19-25 research on convective hazards, including squall lines and wind gusts, to aviation[9]
Maebashi, Japan 1940 8–13 km (5.0–8.1 mi) 20
(1940) 		research on convective hazards to aviation, examined structure of thunderstorms[9]
Muskingum basin, Ohio 1941 10 km (6.2 mi) 131
(1941) 		rainfall and runoff research[9]
The Thunderstorm Project, Florida 1946 1 mi (1.6 km) 50
(1946)
The Thunderstorm Project, Ohio 1947 2 mi (3.2 km) 58
(1947) 		thunderstorm convection research[18]
New Jersey 1960 10 km (6.2 mi) 23
(1960) 		research on mesoscale pressure systems[9]
Fort Huachuca, Arizona 1960 20 km (12 mi) 28
(1960) 		Army operations (military meteorology) research[9]
Fort Huachuca, Arizona 1961 3 km (1.9 mi) 17
(1961) 		research on influence of orography[9]
Dugway Proving Ground, Utah 1961–Present 9 mi (14 km) 26 air quality modeling and other desert area research
Flagstaff, Arizona 1961 8 km (5.0 mi) 43
(1961) 		cumulonimbus convection research[9]
National Severe Storms Project (NSSP), Southern Plains US 1961 20 km (12 mi) 36
(1961) 		research on structure of severe storms[9][19]
National Severe Storms Project (NSSP), Southern Plains US 1962 60 km (37 mi) 210
(1962) 		research on squall lines and pressure jumps[9]
NSSL mesonetwork and mesometeorological rawinsonde networks, Oklahoma 1961–1980s[20] <6-17 mi (<9–28 km) surface, 18-53 mi (30–85 km) upper (1966-1970) 30-61 surface, 8-11 upper (1966-1970) primarily convection and dryline research in partnership with AF and Army, with focus in some years on aviation and particularly airport operations; annual field projects included varying number and spatial density of seasonal surface and upper air stations combined with radar and aircraft observations plus instrumented tower, leading to evolution of storm scale networks[21][22] and automated networks (e.g. NSSL Surface Automated Mesonetwork); other research projects increasingly arose in 70s-80s
Enviro-Weather, Michigan (now also adjacent sections of Wisconsin) 1972–Present Varies 81 agriculturally centered; archive, varies from 5-60 min observations[23]
NCAR Portable Automated Mesonet I
NCAR Portable Automated Mesonet II 		1976–1982
1982–1987 		30[17]
≈200[24] 		research networks
Nebraska Mesonet, Nebraska 1981–Present Varies 69
(2018) 		originally agriculturally centered now multipurpose; archive, near real-time observations[25][26][27]
South Dakota Mesonet, South Dakota 1983–Present Varies 27 archive, real-time 5 min observations[28]
FAA-Lincoln Laboratory Operational Weather Studies (FLOWS) 1984–1986+ 30 aviation research network focused on low-level wind shear and microburst hazards with radar (TDWR) and other detection systems that became LLWAS[29]
Kansas Mesonet, Kansas 1986–Present Varies 72 archive, real-time observations[30]
Arizona Meteorological Network (AZMET), Arizona 1986–Present Varies 27 agriculturally centered; archive, real-time observations, 15 min - 1 hr[31]
Washington Mesonet/AgWeatherNet, Washington 1988–Present Varies 177 multi-network system (comprehensive monitoring, agricultural focused); archive, real-time observations, 5 and 15 min[32][33]
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center (OARDC) Weather System, Ohio 1989–Present Varies 17 agriculturally centered; archive, hourly observations[34]
North Dakota Agricultural Weather Network (NDAWN), North Dakota (also adjacent areas of NW-Minnesota and Eastern Montana) 1990–Present Varies 91 kilometres (57 mi) agriculturally centered; archive, real-time observations[35][36]
Oklahoma Mesonet, Oklahoma 1991–Present Varies 121 comprehensive monitoring; archive, real-time observations[37][38]
Georgia Automated Weather Network (AEMN), Georgia 1991–Present Varies 91[39] agriculture and hydrometeorology; archive, real-time observations, 15 min[40][41]
Colorado Agricultural Meteorological Network (CoAgMet), Colorado 1992–Present[42] agriculturally centered; 5 min data, archived[43]
Missouri Mesonet, Missouri 1994–Present Varies 35 agriculturally centered; archive, real-time observations at 21 stations[44][45]
WeatherBug (AWS), across United States 1994–Present Varies >8,000 ** real-time observations for schools and television stations; collection of multiple mesonets, each typically centered around a host television station's media market[46][47]
Florida Automated Weather Network (FAWN), Florida 1997–Present Varies 42 agriculturally-centered; archive, real-time[48][49]
West Texas Mesonet, West Texas 1999–Present Varies 63+ archive, real-time observations[50][51]
Iowa Environmental Mesonet, Iowa 2001–Present Varies 469* archive, real-time observations[52][53]
WeatherFlow, global but concentrated in US –Present Varies 450+ mesonet stations in proprietary network; 27,000 in total * ** real-time and archive for variety of purposes, proprietary but reports to public forecasters and numerical modeling systems; operates specialty mesonets and offers PWSs[54]
Solutions Mesonet, Eastern Canada 2002–Present Varies 600+ * archive, real-time observations[55]
Western Turkey Mesonet, Turkey 2002–Present Varies 206+ nowcasting, hydrometeorology[56]
Delaware Environmental Observing System (DEOS), Delaware 2003–Present Varies 57 archive, real-time observations[57][58]
South Alabama Mesonet (USA Mesonet), Alabama 2004–Present Varies 26 archive, real-time observations[59]
Foothills Climate Array, Alberta, Canada 2004–2010 10 km (6.2 mi) average 300 research on spatial-temporal meteorological variation, and on weather and climate model performance, across adjoining mountain, foothills, and prairie topographies[60]
Kentucky Mesonet, Kentucky 2007–Present Varies 82 archive, real-time observations[61][62][63]
Mount Washington Regional Mesonet, New Hampshire 2007–Present 18
(2022) 		archive, near-real time observations primarily for orography, operated by Mount Washington Observatory[64][65][66]
Quantum Weather Mesonet, St. Louis metropolitan area, Missouri 2008–Present Varies (average ~5 miles (8.0 km)) 100 (proprietary) utility and nowcasting; archive, real-time observations[67]
North Carolina ECONet, North Carolina –Present Varies 99 archive, real-time observations[68]
Weather Telenatics, North America 2010–Present Varies (proprietary) real-time and archived, proprietary; operates micronets, focused on ground transportation and airports but also serves other uses[69]
Birmingham Urban Climate Laboratory (BUCL) Mesonet, Birmingham UK 2012–Present 3 per 1 km2 (0.4 sq mi) 24 urban heat island (UHI) monitoring[70][71]
New York State Mesonet, New York 2015–Present Varies, averages 20 miles (32 km) 127 real-time observations, improved forecasting[72]
TexMesonet, Texas 2016–Present Varies 100 in network; 3,151 total * ** hydrometeorology and hydrology focused network operated by the Texas Water Development Board, plus network of networks; some real-time observations, archival[73]
New Jersey Weather & Climate Network (NJWxNet), New Jersey –Present Varies 66 real-time observations[74]
Keystone Mesonet, Pennsylvania –Present Varies real-time observations, archived; variety of uses, network of networks[75]
Cape Breton Mesonet, Cape Breton Island, with some stations in Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, and mainland Nova Scotia –Present Varies 141+ real-time observations, with archived data available.[76]
COtL (Conditions Over the Landscape) Mesonet, South Australia 2019–Present agriculturally focused with a particular emphasis on monitoring amenability of weather conditions for crop spraying; a merger of Mid North Mesonet that began operating in 2019 and Riverland & Mallee Mesonet which began in 2021 with additional networks anticipated[77]
Umbria region mesonet, Umbria, Central Italy ≈2020–Present Varies network of preexisting networks emerging since 2020 in part to monitor complex topography but with various purposes for constituent networks[78]
Maryland Mesonet, Maryland, USA 2022–Present Varies 72 planned (2022)

34 operational (2025)

A network that will eventually total 72 stations across Maryland to promote: public safety,[79] transportation, agriculture, climate, and K-12 science. The program is managed by the University of Maryland,[80] with significant input from state and local government agencies, and local partner organizations.
Hawaiʻi Mesonet, Hawaiian Islands 2022–Present Varies >95
(2022) 		near real-time observations with archives,[81] for a variety of weather and climate uses designed to measure the stark microclimates of Hawaii[82] and as an expansion to local micronets such as HaleNet, HavoNet, HIPPNET, and CraterNet[83]
Wisconsin Environmental Mesonet (Wisconet), Wisconsin In development 90 near real-time observations with archives, agriculturally focused[84]

* Not all stations owned or operated by network.
** As these are private stations, although QA/QC measures may be taken, these may not be scientific grade, and may lack proper siting, calibration, sensitivity, durability, and maintenance.

Although not labeled a mesonet, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) also maintains a nationwide surface observation network with the density of a mesonet. JMA operates AMeDAS, consisting of approximately 1,300 stations at a spacing of 17 kilometres (11 mi). The network began operating in 1974.[85]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Mesonet". National Weather Service. http://w1.weather.gov/glossary/index.php?word=mesonet. 
  2. ↑ Glickman, Todd S., ed (2000). Glossary of Meteorology (2nd ed.). Boston: American Meteorological Society. ISBN 978-1-878220-34-9. http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Mesonet_station. 
  3. ↑ Marshall, Curtis H. (11 Jan 2016). "The National Mesonet Program". New Orleans, LA: American Meteorological Society. https://ams.confex.com/ams/96Annual/webprogram/Paper290349.html. 
  4. ↑ Fujita, Tetsuya Theodore (1962). A Review of Researches on Analytical MesoMeteorology. SMRP Research Paper. #8. Chicago: University of Chicago. OCLC 7669634. 
  5. ↑ Basara, Jeffrey B.; Illston, B. G.; Fiebrich, C. A.; Browder, P. D.; Morgan, C. R.; McCombs, A.; Bostic, J. P.; McPherson, R. A. (2011). "The Oklahoma City Micronet". Meteorological Applications 18 (3): 252–61. doi:10.1002/met.189. 
  6. ↑ Muller, Catherine L.; Chapman, L.; Grimmond, C. S. B.; Young, D. T.; Cai, X (2013). "Sensors and the City: A Review of Urban Meteorological Networks". Int. J. Climatol. 33 (7): 1585–600. doi:10.1002/joc.3678. Bibcode: 2013IJCli..33.1585M. http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/12607285/Muller_2013_Sensors_joc3678.pdf. 
  7. ↑ Pietrycha, Albert E.; E. N. Rasmussen (2004). "Finescale Surface Observations of the Dryline: A Mobile Mesonet Perspective". Weather and Forecasting 19 (12): 1075–88. doi:10.1175/819.1. Bibcode: 2004WtFor..19.1075P. https://zenodo.org/record/1234561. 
  8. ↑ Fujita, T. Theodore (1981). "Tornadoes and Downbursts in the Context of Generalized Planetary Scales". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 38 (8): 1511–34. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1981)038<1511:TADITC>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0469. Bibcode: 1981JAtS...38.1511F. 
  9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 Ray, Peter S., ed (1986). Mesoscale Meteorology and Forecasting. Boston: American Meteorological Society. ISBN 978-0-933876-66-8. 
  10. ↑ Straka, Jerry M.; E. N. Rasmussen; S. E. Fredrickson (1996). "A Mobile Mesonet for Finescale Meteorological Observations". Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 13 (10): 921–36. doi:10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013<0921:AMMFFM>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0426. Bibcode: 1996JAtOT..13..921S. 
  11. ↑ Wurman, Joshua; D. Dowell; Y. Richardson; P. Markowski; E. Rasmussen; D. Burgess; L. Wicker; H. Bluestein (2012). "The Second Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment: VORTEX2". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 93 (8): 1147–70. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00010.1. Bibcode: 2012BAMS...93.1147W. 
  12. ↑ Waugh, Sean M. (2021). "The "U-Tube": An Improved Aspirated Temperature System for Mobile Meteorological Observations, Especially in Severe Weather". J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 38 (9): 1477–1489. doi:10.1175/JTECH-D-21-0008.1. Bibcode: 2021JAtOT..38.1477W. 
  13. ↑ Mueller, Cynthia K.; J. W. Wilson; N. A. Crook (1993). "The Utility of Sounding and Mesonet Data to Nowcast Thunderstorm Initiation". Weather Forecast. 8 (1): 132–146. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1993)008<0132:TUOSAM>2.0.CO;2. Bibcode: 1993WtFor...8..132M. 
  14. ↑ Brotzge, Jerald A.; C. A. Fiebrich (2021). "Mesometeorological Networks". in Foken, Thomas. Springer Handbook of Atmospheric Measurements. Springer. pp. 1233–1245. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-52171-4_45. ISBN 978-3-030-52170-7. 
  15. ↑ "Overview of The Thunderstorm Project". NOAA. http://www.srh.noaa.gov/ssd/tstm/html/tstorm.htm. 
  16. ↑ Rembert, Elizabeth (21 February 2023). "Weather stations that provide critical climate data are threatened by unstable funding". St. Louis Public Radio (Harvest Public Media). https://news.stlpublicradio.org/2023-02-21/weather-stations-that-provide-critical-climate-data-are-threatened-by-unstable-funding. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Brock, F. V.; P. K. Govind (1977). "Portable Automated Mesonet in Operation". Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 16 (3): 299–310. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1977)016<0299:PAMIO>2.0.CO;2. Bibcode: 1977JApMe..16..299B. 
  18. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Thunderstorm Project
  19. ↑ Fujita, Tetsuya Theodore (1961). "Index to the NSSP Surface Network". Mesoscale Meteorology Project (University of Chicago for US Weather Bureau) (Research Paper #2). 
  20. ↑ Barnes, Stanley L. (1974). "Mesonetwork Array: Its Effect on Thunderstorm Flow Resolution". NOAA Technical Memorandum (Norman, OK: NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory) (ERL NSSL 74). https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/17652. Retrieved 2024-03-16. 
  21. ↑ Barnes, Stanley L.; James H. Henderson; Robert J. Ketchum (1971). "Rawinsonde observation and processing techniques at the National Severe Storms Laboratory". NOAA Technical Memorandum (Norman, OK: ESSA National Severe Storms Laboratory) (ERL NSSL 53). https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/19276. Retrieved 2024-03-16. 
  22. ↑ Fankhauser, J. C. (1969). "Convective Processes Resolved by a Mesoscale Rawinsonde Network". Journal of Applied Meteorology 8 (5): 778–798. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1969)008<0778:CPRBAM>2.0.CO;2. 
  23. ↑ "Enviroweather". msu.edu. https://enviroweather.msu.edu/. 
  24. ↑ Brock, Fred V.; George H. Saum; Steven R. Semmer (1986). "Portable Automated Mesonet II". Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 3 (4): 573–582. doi:10.1175/1520-0426(1986)003<0573:PAMI>2.0.CO;2. 
  25. ↑ "Mesonet by NSCO". unl.edu. https://mesonet.unl.edu/. 
  26. ↑ Hubbard, Kenneth G.; N. J. Rosenberg; D. C. Nielsen (1983). "Automated Weather Data Network for Agriculture". Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 109 (3): 213–222. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9496(1983)109:3(213). 
  27. ↑ Shulski, Martha; S. Cooper; G. Roebke; A. Dutcher (2018). "The Nebraska Mesonet: Technical Overview of an Automated State Weather Network". Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 35 (11): 2189–2200. doi:10.1175/JTECH-D-17-0181.1. Bibcode: 2018JAtOT..35.2189S. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2049&context=natrespapers. 
  28. ↑ "South Dakota Mesonet". sdstate.edu. https://mesonet.sdstate.edu/. 
  29. ↑ Wolfson, Marilyn M. (1989). "The FLOWS Automatic Weather Station Network". Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 6 (2): 307–326. doi:10.1175/1520-0426(1989)006<0307:TFAWSN>2.0.CO;2. 
  30. ↑ "Kansas Mesonet". k-state.edu. http://mesonet.k-state.edu/. 
  31. ↑ "AZMET: The Arizona Meteorological Network". arizona.edu. https://cals.arizona.edu/azmet/. 
  32. ↑ "AgWeatherNet at Washington State University". wsu.edu. http://weather.wsu.edu/. 
  33. ↑ Elliot, T.V. (2008). "Regional and on-farm wireless sensor networks for agricultural systems in Eastern Washington". Comput. Electron. Agr. 61 (1): 32–43. doi:10.1016/j.compag.2007.05.007. 
  34. ↑ "OARDC Weather System". ohio-state.edu. https://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/newweather/. 
  35. ↑ "NDAWN Current Weather". https://ndawn.ndsu.nodak.edu/. 
  36. ↑ Owens, Jacob (2024-12-26). "Montana Mesonet more than halfway complete" (in en). KECI NBC Montana. https://nbcmontana.com/news/local/montana-mesonet-more-than-halfway-complete. 
  37. ↑ "Mesonet". http://www.mesonet.org/. 
  38. ↑ McPherson, Renee A.; C.A. Fiebrich; K.C. Crawford; J.R. Kilby; D.L. Grimsley; J.E. Martinez; J.B. Basara; B.G. Illston et al. (2007). "Statewide Monitoring of the Mesoscale Environment: A Technical Update on the Oklahoma Mesonet". Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 24 (3): 301–21. doi:10.1175/JTECH1976.1. Bibcode: 2007JAtOT..24..301M. 
  39. ↑ "Georgia Weather - Automated Environmental Monitoring Network Page". http://georgiaweather.net/?variable=ID&content=SP. 
  40. ↑ "Georgia Weather - Automated Environmental Monitoring Network Page". uga.edu. http://www.weather.uga.edu/. 
  41. ↑ Hoogenboom, Gerrit; D.D. Coker; J.M. Edenfield; D.M. Evans; C. Fang (2003). "The Georgia Automated Environmental Monitoring Network: Ten Years of Weather Information for Water Resources Management". Athens, GA: University of Georgia. https://smartech.gatech.edu/handle/1853/48498. 
  42. ↑ Tucker, Donna F. (1997). "Surface Mesonets of the Western United States". Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 78 (7): 1485–1496. doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<1485:SMOTWU>2.0.CO;2. Bibcode: 1997BAMS...78.1485T. 
  43. ↑ Schumacher, Russ. "COAgMET". Colorado State University. http://coagmet.com/. 
  44. ↑ "Missouri Mesonet". missouri.edu. http://agebb.missouri.edu/weather/stations/. 
  45. ↑ Guinan, Patrick (2008-08-11). "Missouri's transition to a near real-time mesonet". Whistler, BC, Canada: American Meteorological Society. https://ams.confex.com/ams/13MontMet17AP/techprogram/paper_140960.htm. 
  46. ↑ "Extensive Weather Observations & Analytics". earthnetworks.com. https://www.earthnetworks.com/why-us/networks/weather/. 
  47. ↑ Anderson, James E.; J. Usher (2010). "Mesonet Programs". Helsinki: World Meteorological Organization. https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/IMOP/publications/IOM-104_TECO-2010/P1_39_Usher_USA.pdf. 
  48. ↑ "FAWN - Florida Automated Weather Network". ufl.edu. https://fawn.ifas.ufl.edu/. 
  49. ↑ Lusher, William R.; Jackson, John L.; Morgan, Kelly T. (2008). "The Florida Automated Weather Network: Ten Years of Providing Weather Information to Florida Growers". Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 121: 69–74. http://journals.fcla.edu/fshs/article/view/87350. 
  50. ↑ "West Texas Mesonet". Texas Tech University. http://www.mesonet.ttu.edu/. 
  51. ↑ Schroeder, John L.; W.S. Burgett; K.B. Haynie; I.I. Sonmez; G.D. Skwira; A.L. Doggett; J.W. Lipe (2005). "The West Texas Mesonet: A Technical Overview". Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 22 (2): 211–22. doi:10.1175/JTECH-1690.1. Bibcode: 2005JAtOT..22..211S. 
  52. ↑ Herzmann, Daryl. "Iowa Environmental Mesonet". https://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/. 
  53. ↑ Todey, Dennis P.; E. S. Takle; S. E. Taylor (2002-05-13). "The Iowa Environmental Mesonet". Portland, Oregon: American Meteorological Society. https://ams.confex.com/ams/13ac10av/techprogram/paper_41314.htm. 
  54. ↑ "WeatherFlow Networks". WeatherFlow. https://weatherflownetworks.com/. 
  55. ↑ "Solutions Mesonet". 2019-04-12. https://www.solutions-mesonet.org/. 
  56. ↑ Sönmez, İbrahim (2013). "Quality control tests for western Turkey Mesonet". Meteorological Applications 20 (3): 330–7. doi:10.1002/met.1286. Bibcode: 2013MeApp..20..330S. 
  57. ↑ "DEOS Home". http://deos.udel.edu/. 
  58. ↑ Legates, David R.; D. J. Leathers; T. L. DeLiberty; G. E. Quelch; K. Brinson; J. Butke; R. Mahmood; S. A. Foster (2005-01-13). "DEOS: The Delaware Environmental Observing System". San Diego: American Meteorological Society. https://ams.confex.com/ams/Annual2005/techprogram/paper_87687.htm. 
  59. ↑ "CHILI - Center for Hurricane Intensity and Landfall Investigation". http://chiliweb.southalabama.edu/. 
  60. ↑ Roberts, David R.; W. H, Wood; S. J. Marshall (2019). "Assessments of downscaled climate data with a high-resolution weather station network reveal consistent but predictable bias". Int. J. Climatol. 39 (6): 3091–3103. doi:10.1002/joc.6005. Bibcode: 2019IJCli..39.3091R. 
  61. ↑ "Kentucky Mesonet". http://kymesonet.org/. 
  62. ↑ Grogan, Michael; S. A. Foster; R. Mahmood (2010-01-21). "The Kentucky Mesonet". Atlanta, Georgia: American Meteorological Society. https://ams.confex.com/ams/90annual/techprogram/paper_159736.htm. 
  63. ↑ Mahmood, Rezaul; M. Schargorodski; S. Foster; A. Quilligan (2019). "A Technical Overview of the Kentucky Mesonet". Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 36 (9): 1753–1771. doi:10.1175/JTECH-D-18-0198.1. Bibcode: 2019JAtOT..36.1753M. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/hprccpubs/8. 
  64. ↑ "Mount Washington Regional Observatory". Mount Washington Observatory. https://www.mountwashington.org/experience-the-weather/mount-washington-regional-mesonet.aspx. <
  65. ↑ Garrett, Keith (2020). "Robust Solutions to Maintaining the Mount Washington Regional Mesonet through Extreme Weather Conditions". Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society. https://ams.confex.com/ams/2020Annual/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/370191. 
  66. ↑ Fitzgerald, Brian J.; J. Broccolo; K. Garrett (2023). "The Mount Washington Observatory Regional Mesonet: A Technical Overview of a Mountain-Based Mesonet". J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 40 (4): 439–453. doi:10.1175/JTECH-D-22-0054.1. 
  67. ↑ "Ameren website". http://www.ameren.com/sites/aue/OutageCenter/Pages/QuantumWeatherHome.aspx. 
  68. ↑ "North Carolina Environment and Climate Observing Network". State Climate Office of North Carolina. http://www.nc-climate.ncsu.edu/econet. 
  69. ↑ "Weather Telematics". Weather Telematics. http://www.weathertelematics.com/. 
  70. ↑ Chapman, Lee; Muller, C.L.; Young, D.T.; Warren, E.L.; Grimmond C.S.B.; Cai, X.-M.; Ferranti, J.S. (2015). "The Birmingham Urban Climate Laboratory: An Open Meteorological Test Bed and Challenges of the Smart City". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 96 (9): 1545–60. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00193.1. Bibcode: 2015BAMS...96.1545C. http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/24950692/Chapman_et_al_the_Birmingham_Urban_2014.pdf. 
  71. ↑ Warren, Elliot L.; D. T. Young; L. Chapman; C. Muller; C.S.B. Grimmond; X.-M. Cai (2016). "The Birmingham Urban Climate Laboratory—A high density, urban meteorological dataset, from 2012–2014". Scientific Data 3 (160038): 160038. doi:10.1038/sdata.2016.38. PMID 27272103. Bibcode: 2016NatSD...360038W. 
  72. ↑ "NYS Mesonet". http://www.nysmesonet.org/. 
  73. ↑ "TexMesonet". https://www.texmesonet.org/. 
  74. ↑ "New Jersey Weather and Climate Network". njweather.org. https://www.njweather.org/. 
  75. ↑ "Keystone Mesonet". https://keystone-mesonet.org/. 
  76. ↑ "Cape Breton Mesonet". https://capebretonweather.ca/. 
  77. ↑ "COtL". https://cotl.com.au/. 
  78. ↑ Silvestri, Lorenzo; M. Saraceni; P. B. Cerlini (2022). "Quality management system and design of an integrated mesoscale meteorological network in Central Italy" (in English). Meteorol. Appl. 29 (2). doi:10.1002/met.2060. 
  79. ↑ "Maryland Celebrates Unveiling of its First Mesonet Tower" (in en). https://news.maryland.gov/mdem/2023/10/30/maryland-celebrates-unveiling-of-its-first-mesonet-tower/. 
  80. ↑ "Maryland Celebrates Unveiling of its First Mesonet Tower" (in en). 2024-04-04. https://cmns.umd.edu/news-events/news/maryland-mesonet-unveils-first-tower. 
  81. ↑ "Hawaiʻi Mesonet". University of Hawaiʻi. 2022. https://www.hawaii.edu/climate-data-portal/hawaii-mesonet/. 
  82. ↑ Longman, Ryan J.; A. G. Frazier; A. J. Newman; T. W. Giambelluca; D. Schanzenbach; A. Kagawa-Viviani; H. Needham; J. R. Arnold et al. (2019). "High-Resolution Gridded Daily Rainfall and Temperature for the Hawaiian Islands (1990–2014)". J. Hydrometeorol. 20 (3): 489–508. doi:10.1175/JHM-D-18-0112.1. Bibcode: 2019JHyMe..20..489L. 
  83. ↑ "Climate Monitoring History". University of Hawaiʻi. 2022. https://www.hawaii.edu/climate-data-portal/climate-monitoring-history/. 
  84. ↑ Kremer, Rich (16 December 2022). "Federal grant to spur construction of weather, soil monitoring network to aid Wisconsin farmers". Wisconsin Public Radio. https://www.wpr.org/usda-federal-grant-rural-weather-soil-monitoring-network-aid-wisconsin-farmers. 
  85. ↑ "Japan Meteorological Agency". http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/Activities/observations.html. 



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