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Norwich Crag Formation

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Norwich Crag Formation
Stratigraphic range: 2.4–1.8 Ma
↓
Easton Wood cliffs, Covehithe, Suffolk.jpg
Easton Wood cliffs, Covehithe, Suffolk
TypeGeological formation
Unit ofCrag Group
Sub-unitsChillesford Sand member, Chillesford Clay Member, Easton Bavents Clay Member, Westleton Beds Member, Sidestrand Member
Lithology
PrimarySand
OtherGravel, Clay, Silt
Location
RegionEast Anglia
CountryUK
Type section
Named forBramerton, Norwich
Named byClement Reid
Year defined1890
Coordinates [ ⚑ ] : 52°12′53″N 1°24′58″E / 52.2147°N 1.4160°E / 52.2147; 1.4160

The Norwich Crag Formation is a stratigraphic unit of the British Pleistocene Epoch. It is the second youngest unit of the Crag Group, a sequence of four geological formations spanning the Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene transition in East Anglia. It was deposited between approximately 2.4 and 1.8 million years ago, during the Gelasian Stage.

The Norwich Crag is a marginal facies of the thicker, much better developed sedimentary sequence in the southern North Sea basin. It outcrops in the eastern half of the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, and is also represented in Essex and Hertfordshire. It was deposited in a near-shore environment, and comprises a range of sands, silty clays and flint-rich gravels representing various transgressive and regressive marine episodes. It rests in some places on the Red Crag Formation and in others unconformably on Coralline Crag, Palaeogene formations and Chalk Group bedrock. It is overlain by the Wroxham Crag Formation, and unconformably by the Kesgrave Catchment Subgroup and Mid Pleistocene glacigenic deposits.

Norwich Crag fossil fauna and flora have been studied since the 19th century for information about environmental conditions during the early Pleistocene. They provide evidence for a general climatic cooling trend from the Pliocene to the Pleistocene.

History of research

The term Crag is commonly used in Suffolk to designate a deposit of fossil sea shells or any shelly sand or gravel. It was first used in a geological sense by R.C. Taylor in 1823.[1]Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name

Geological section at Burgh Kiln quarry, Norfolk (Reid 1890).

The Norwich Crag was first identified in the early 19th century as a predominantly marine geological formation, then thought to be of Pliocene age, outcropping from Aldeburgh to the valley of the River Bure. It was variously termed the Mammaliferous Crag (Charlesworth 1836), Norwich Crag (Lyell 1839), Norfolk Crag (Phillips 1863) and Upper Crag (Godwin-Austen 1868).[2] Five horizons were initially recognised: the Mammaliferous Stone-Bed; the Fluvio-marine Crag; the Chillesford Crag; the Chillesford Clay; the Bure Valley Crag, including the Westleton Beds.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name Additional units were identified in the Norwich Crag Series, the Weybourne Crag[3][4] and the Bure Valley Beds.[5] This stratigraphy was later formalised by FW Harmer, who grouped them all into an Icenian faunal zone of the Pliocene.[6] Research into sediments from the Ludham research borehole (1959) allowed a sequence of vegetational and faunal episodes to be recognised in the Norwich Crag, based on fossil foraminifera, pollen and mollusca.[7][8][9] A revised lithostratigraphical and biostratigraphical framework was published by Funnell and West (1977).[10] Research into the lithostratigraphy of the Norwich Crag was carried out by the British Geological Survey between 1975 and 2006 as part of work to remap the geology of Norfolk and Suffolk; new techniques allowed improved understanding of local detail,[11] and it became possible to distinguish the Norwich Crag from the succeeding Wroxham Crag (now subsuming the Weybourne Crag and Bure Valley Beds). Following international revisions to the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary, the Norwich Crag is now placed in the Lower Pleistocene.[12]

Six lithostratigraphic members were recognised by the Geological Society of London[13]: the Chillesford Church Member (a basal deposit of marine sand, formerly the Chillesford Sand Member); the Chillesford Member (micaceous, silty clays overlying the Church Member, formerly the Chillesford Clay Member); the Creeting Member (micaceous, inter-tidal sands); the College Farm Member (silty clay of mud flats associated with the Creeting Member); the Easton Bavents Member (clay with sand laminae); the Westleton Member (flint-rich gravels infilling tidal inlets[14] overlying the Easton Bavents Member).

The type site of the Formation is at Bramerton Pits SSSI, near Norwich.[15]

The sedimentary record

Flint gravels of the Westleton Member exposed in an old quarry on Westleton Heath, Suffolk, UK; thought to have been largely deposited in tidal inlets younger than the Baventian cold stage.

The Norwich Crag Formation is a marginal facies of the thicker, much better developed sedimentary sequence in the southern North Sea basin. It outcrops in the eastern half of the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, and is also represented in Essex and Hertfordshire.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name[16]. Geological field relationships show that it rests with discontinuity on the Red Crag Formation and oversteps in other places onto the Coralline Crag, the Palaeogene formations and Chalk Group bedrock. It is overlain disconformably by the Wroxham Crag Formation, and unconformably by the Kesgrave Catchment Subgroup and Mid Pleistocene glacigenic deposits[17].

The Norwich Crag comprises a widespread sheet of well sorted, fine- to medium-grained micaceous, glauconitic, locally shelly sands (eg the Chillesford Sand Member), with localized beds of laminated silty clays (particularly the Chillesford Clay and Easton Bavents Clay members) and well sorted fine to medium sands with beds of rounded flint gravels (notably the Westleton Beds Member). The pebbles are predominantly composed of flint, typically more than 95% local material, either chattermarked (beach-abraded) or angular or sub-angular flint; the remaining 5% is typically white vein quartz and white quartzite.[18] The heavy minerals in the sand-sized fraction of the sediment are characterised by high concentrations of garnet, amphibole and epidote, which suggests that the sands originated from eastern (continental) rather than western (British) fluvial sources.[19] The sandy sediments are near-shore marine deposits, with the clay members being estuarine or lagoonalCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name and the flint gravels also being near-shore marine deposits[20]. These deposits represent environments fluctuating between marine transgressive and regressive episodes on the western margins of the North Sea basin.[21] Comparison with better preserved sedimentary sequences of similar age in the Netherlands has shown that the Norwich Crag sequence is highly incomplete.[22] Interpretation is hampered by difficulties with distinguishing major non-sequences from minor, local erosional discontinuities.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name

For surface mapping purposes, the British Geological Survey has recognised five members: the Chillesford Sand, Chillesford Clay, Easton Bavents Clay, Westleton Beds and Sidestrand Members.[23] The uppermost beds of the Crag Group (formerly the Bure Valley Beds and Weybourne Crag) are now attributed to the Wroxham Crag Formation, based on their high proportion of fluvially-derived, far-travelled lithological components.[24]

Considering the lithostratigraphy to include subsurface sediments, Riches (2012) proposed three major units for the Crag Basin; most recognisable where they are separated by regressive marker beds of silty clay, with the uppermost equated with the Chillesford Clay Member.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name

Palaeogeography

Early Norwich Crag deposition in East Anglia took place within a topographical context established in the late Pliocene: an eastward dipping plain developed on Cretaceous Chalk interrupted by three SSW to NNE trending depressions partly filled with Red Crag sedimentsCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name. It is conjectured that at c.2.4 million years BP the North Sea coastline lay across east Norfolk and east Suffolk, with a continuation eastwards to Holland; there were local embayments in the areas of Stalham, Bungay and Stradbroke.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name[25] The North Sea was a bight at this time, with its southern margin defined by the chalk hills of the Weald-Artois anticline where the Strait of Dover is now located.[26] There is evidence for later marine transgression and extension of the sea as far west as the Stansted area of Essex, associated with deposition of the Chillesford Sand Member during a period of high sea levels around two million years agoCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name[27] correlated with the Antian/Bramertonian Stage. This was followed by marine regression during the Baventian/Pre-Pastonian a Stage.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name Evidence for major rivers, the Bytham and Proto-Thames, draining into the Crag Basin at this time is represented by far-travelled material found in estuarine deposits in eastern Suffolk, the Easton Bavents Clay and Chillesford Clay Members.[28] The coastline shifted north-eastwards to a position in north-east Norfolk by about 1.75 million years BP.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name This later period is associated with deposition of the Wroxham Crag Formation and marked fluvial input by the Proto-Thames, Bytham River and Ancaster River systems.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name

Tectonic context

Since its deposition the Norwich Crag Formation has undergone tectonic uplift and tilting as part of regional processes operating on the margins of the North Sea basin.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name The Chillesford Sand Member ranges in elevation from c.90 metres above sea level at Widdington, Essex, to its base at c.6 metres below sea level in the Aldeburgh-Sizewell area. There is therefore evidence for regional uplift of over 90 metres in western East Anglia and tilting towards the North Sea over the last two million years.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name[29] The uplift has, however, been uneven, with little change apparent in north-east Norfolk in the West Runton – Happisburgh area.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name

Fauna and flora

The fossil fauna and flora of the Norwich Crag have been studied since the early 19th century for biostratigraphic and palaeoclimatic interpretation. Taxa used include plants, molluscs, foraminifers, mammals and dinoflagellates.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name[30] They provide evidence for a general climatic cooling trend from the Pliocene into the Pleistocene.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name Three biostratigraphic stages have been identified based on fossil pollen assemblages: Thurnian, Antian/Bramertonian and Baventian/Pre-Pastonian a, representing a cold-warm-cold climatic sequence.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name Comparison with the better preserved sedimentary sequence in the Netherlands and the North Sea suggests it is unlikely that this represents a single climatic cycle but rather a sequence of episodes represented in an incomplete sedimentary record.[31] The historic chronostratigraphic correlations and palaeoenvironmental interpretations based on biostratigraphy (local and continental) have been criticised as poorly defined and unreliable by Riches (2012).Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name

As the Norwich Crag is a marine formation, the majority of fossils found in it are of marine origin; any terrestrial species were originally blown or washed into it from land, or derived from earlier deposits, particularly the Red Crag.[32] Vertebrate fossils tend to be concentrated in the basement bedCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad nameCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad nameCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name or in gravel lags.[33] Species of warm and cold substages are represented, sometimes mixed together; this may pose problems for palaeoecological interpretation.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name[34]

Mammals

Land mammal fauna

Phoca (seal) humerus & Trichecus (walrus) femur fragments, figured in Newton 1891, plate 2.

From a biostratigraphic point of view, the terrestrial mammal fauna of the Norwich Crag belongs to the Late Villafranchian European Land Mammal Age and is correlated with European Neogene Mammal Zone MN17. The richest and best-preserved assemblage is found in deposits of Antian/Bramertonian age at Easton Wood, Covehithe. Taxa collected from this site include proboscideans Mammuthus meridionalis and Anancus arvernensis, horse Equus robustus, deer Eucladoceros falconeri and Eucladoceros sedgwicki, gazelle Gazella anglica, beaver Trogontherium sp., wolf Canis etruscus, voles Mimomys pliocaenicus, Mimomys reidi and Mimomys tigliensis, and lemming Lemmus kowalskii.[35][36][37]. Bramerton has yielded holotypes of the extinct otter Enhydra reevei and the gazelle Gazella daviesiiCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name. The whole skeleton of a mastodon is reported to have been found in the basal Stone Bed resting on Chalk at Horstead in 1820Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name.

Vole fossils from the Norwich Crag contribute to the ‘vole clock’ used for biostratigraphic zonation of Pliocene and Pleistocene sedimentsCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name. For instance, Mimomys pliocaenicus is a biozonal species for European Neogene Mammal Zone MN17Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name. Bramerton has yielded the most primitive microtine rodent assemblage known from the British Isles[38].

Marine mammal fauna

Marine taxa from Easton Wood include Orca and walrus Alachatherium cretsiiCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name . Short-beaked common dolphin Delphinus delphis and indeterminate whale bones are recorded from Holton and ThoringtonCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad nameCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name.

Birds

Very few avian fossils have been found in the Norwich Crag. Bones of common guillemot, little auk and various indeterminate seabird bones have been recorded from Aldeby, Chillesford, Easton Bavents and Yarn Hill.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad nameCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name[39]. The albatross Phoebastria anglica has been recorded from Easton Wood, Covehithe.[40]

Reptiles and Amphibians

No reptile and amphibian fossils have yet been recorded from the Norwich Crag.[41]

Fish

Fossil marine fish from the Norwich Crag include genera Chrysophrys sp. (a snapper) and Acipenser (sturgeon), and species Platax woodwardii (a batfish), Gadus morhua (Atlantic cod) and Raja clavata (thornback ray).[42] Teeth of the freshwater fish Esox lucius (northern pike) have been found at Bramerton.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name

Molluscs

Molluscan fossils are abundant at certain horizons in the Norwich Crag. Historically, they have been used to construct palaeontological zonal schemes and to infer palaeoclimatic changes.[43] However they show evidence of considerable transportation, and consequent mixing of faunal assemblages from the earlier Red Crag Formation.[44] The use of molluscan fossils for climatic reconstruction has proved problematic. For instance species found together at several levels in the Ludham borehole notably Serripes groenlandicus (Greenland cockle) and Calyptraea chinensis (Chinese hat snail) have notably different climatic tolerances today (arctic and lusitanic respectively).Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name The presence of mixed arctic, boreal and lusitanic faunal elements at certain levels in the Ludham borehole give no indications of the climatic fluctuations evident from foraminiferal evidence.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name The local variability of molluscan assemblages at similar horizons was noted by Reid as adding uncertainty to their use for biostratigraphic correlation.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name However, molluscan fossils have proved most useful as indicators of water depth in marine facies.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name Molluscan assemblages identified from Norwich Crag deposits represent a range of environments (inner sublittoral; open coast; tidal flat wadden; offshore sublittoral) and climatic conditions (boreal; low arctic; temperate).Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name Cold climate indicator species include Astarte borealis and Yoldia myalis from Baventian deposits at Covehithe.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name Some species have distinct biostratigraphic value. The absence of Macoma balthica is considered to be an indicator distinguishing Norwich Crag molluscan assemblages from those of the later Wroxham Crag.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad nameCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad nameCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name Fossil shells are scarce or absent in some horizons, which may be due to due to contemporaneous erosion or non-deposition or post-depositional calcium carbonate solution.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name:368

Plants

A specimen of Pterocarya fraxinifolia (Caucasian wingnut) in St George's churchyard, Tombland, Norwich – a species native to the area 2 million years ago.

The most complete fossil record of plant life in the Norwich Crag is provided by evidence from the Ludham research borehole. Pollen analysis in association with foraminiferan evidenceCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad nameCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name allowed the identification of pollen assemblage biozones and consequent designation of five biostratigraphic stages, of which three (Thurnian, Antian and Baventian) are correlated with the Norwich Crag. The Thurnian was identified as a glacial stage with an oceanic heath type of vegetation; the Antian with temperate mixed coniferous / deciduous forest including Tsuga (hemlock) and Pterocarya (wingnut); the Baventian, a glacial stage more severe than the Thurnian, with the return of oceanic heath.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name[45] Further work on Norwich Crag sediments at Bramerton, Norfolk, allowed a Bramertonian stage to be identified, characterised by temperate forest with Quercus, Carpinus and Alnus. Correlation was made with the pollen assemblage from Chillesford.[46][47] Specimens of fossil wood have occasionally been found, for example pyritised pine and oak at Holton.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name

Dinoflagellates

Dinoflagellate fossil assemblages have been used in the Norwich Crag as indicators of palaeoclimatic conditions,Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name although evidence for reworking of earlier dinocysts suggests caution in interpretation.[48]

Foraminifers

Fossil foraminifera provide important evidence for climatic and environmental interpretation and stratigraphic correlation in the Norwich Crag. The Ludham borehole has provided the most complete foraminiferal record, and has allowed the designation of seven biozones.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name Further biozones were identified at Bramerton and Easton Bavents, and assemblages identified at a number of other Norwich Crag sites, permitting correlation with the more complete sequence in the Netherlands.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name

Dating and correlations

The Norwich Crag Formation was deposited during the Gelasian Stage of the Pleistocene, between about 2.4 and 1.8 million years ago[49]. The evidence from fossil plants, mammals, molluscs, foraminifers and dinoflagellates has been used to make biostratigraphic correlations between chronostratigraphic Stages recognised in East Anglia and the more complete sequence on the Continent. Wider correlation is made with Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) and magnetostratigraphy, despite uncertainties in interpretation[50]Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name. It has been noted by Riches (2012) that pollen and foraminiferan assemblages are not age diagnostic, and may not alone be sufficient to sustain reliable stratigraphyCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name. The Thurnian Stage has been variously correlated with Stage Tiglian A or Tiglian B in the Netherlands; the Antian/Bramertonian with Tiglian C1-3 or C1-4b; the Baventian/Pre-Pastonian a with Tiglian C1-4b or C-4cCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad nameCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad nameCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad nameCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name. This timespan is correlated with MIS 81 to 68Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name or MIS 95 to 71[51], covering a time period of between 2.44 and 1.8 million years before present in the Matuyama Chron[52], corresponding to the magnetostratigraphic interval between the Reunion Sub-chron and the top of the Olduvai Sub-chronCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad nameCite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name.

Eoliths and early humans

An annotated picture of the Norwich Test Specimen, figured in Lankester 1914, Plate 3.

The discovery of chipped and flaked flints in the Norwich Crag and Red Crag basement beds in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was claimed as evidence for some of the earliest human settlement in Britain.[53] A typologically diagnostic form of 'eolithic' beak-shaped instrument was proposed by E Ray Lankester, the ‘rostro-carinate’, based upon a ‘Norwich Test Specimen’ flint found in the basal Norwich Crag at Colman’s Pit, Whitlingham.[54] The human origin for these Crag specimens was refuted by FN Haward[55] on the basis of a systematic analysis of flint fracture patterns and geological context. The fractures were identified by Warren (1923) as caused by sub-soil pressure flaking.[56]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Forby, F (1830). The Vocabulary of East Anglia. JB Nichols & Son, London.
  2. ↑ Woodward, HB (1881). The Geology of the Country around Norwich. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom.
  3. ↑ Prestwich, J (1890). On the relation of the Westleton Beds or Pebbly sands of Suffolk to those of Norfolk and on their extension inland; with some observations on the period of the final elevation and denudation of the Weald and the Thames valley, etc. Part 1. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol.46, pp.84-119.
  4. ↑ Reid, C (1882). The Geology of the Country around Cromer. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom; p.9.
  5. ↑ Woodward, HB (1876). The Geology of England and Wales. Longmans, Green & Co, London; pp.286-291.
  6. ↑ Harmer, FW 1900. The Pliocene Deposits of the East of England - Part II : The Crag of Essex (Waltonian) and its relations to that of Suffolk and Norfolk. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society Soc, vol.56; p.721.
  7. ↑ Funnell, BM (1961). The Palaeogene and early Pleistocene of Norfolk. Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, vol.19, pt.6
  8. ↑ West, RG (1962). Vegetational history of the Early Pleistocene of the Royal Society Borehole at Ludham, Norfolk. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B155, pp.437-453.
  9. ↑ Norton, PEP (1967). Marine Molluscan Assemblages in the Early Pleistocene of Sidestrand, Bramerton and the Royal Society Borehole at Ludham, Norfolk. Philosophic Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, vol.253, no.784.
  10. ↑ Funnell, BM & West, RG (1977). Preglacial Pleistocene deposits of East Anglia. In: Shotton, FW (ed). British Quaternary Studies: recent advances. Oxford University Press, 1977. ISBN:0 19 854414 6.
  11. ↑ Zalasiewicz, JA & Mathers, SJ (1985). Lithostratigraphy of the Red and Norwich Crags of the Aldeburgh-Orford Area, south-east Suffolk. Geological Magazine, vol.122, pt.3; pp.287-296.
  12. ↑ Gibbard, PL, Zalasiewicz, JA & Mathers, SJ (1998). Stratigraphy of the marine Plio-Pleistocene crag deposits of East Anglia. In: van Kolfschoten, T and Gibbard, PL (eds): The Dawn of the Quaternary - proceedings of the SEQS-EuroMam Symposium : Kerkrade, 16–21 June 1996. Netherlands Institute of Applied Geoscience, 1998; pp.239-262. ISBN:9072869613.
  13. ↑ Bowen, DQ (ed) (1999). A revised correlation of Quaternary deposits in the British Isles. Special Report no.23, The Geological Society, p.22. ISBN:1 86239 042 8.
  14. ↑ Mottram, H.B., 2017. Tidal-inlets and gravel deposition during the late Norwich Crag (Lower Pleistocene) of north-eastern Suffolk, U.K. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 128 (2017) 547–557.
  15. ↑ Reid, C (1890). The Pliocene Deposits of Britain. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London.
  16. ↑ Mathers, SJ & Zalasiewicz, JA (1988a). The Red Crag and Norwich Crag Formations of southern East Anglia. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association vol.99, pt.4; pp.261-278
  17. ↑ The BGS Lexicon of Named Rock Units. British Geological Survey. Online at http://www.bgs.ac.uk/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?pub=NCG. Accessed October 2017.
  18. ↑ Rose, J (2007). Palaeogeography of Eastern England during the Early & Middle Pleistocene. In: Candy, I et al. The Quaternary of Northern East Anglia Field Guide. Quaternary Research Association, 2007.
  19. ↑ Riches, P (2012). The palaeoenvironmental and neotectonic history of the Early Pleistocene Crag basin in East Anglia. Ph.D thesis, Royal Holloway, University of London.
  20. ↑ Mottram, H.B. 2012.The Norwich Crag geology of the country around Westleton. 251-258. in Dixon, R. (ed). A celebration of Suffolk geology. GeoSuffolk. ISBN:0-9508154-7-0
  21. ↑ Moorlock, BSP, Hamblin, RJO, Booth, SJ & Morigi, AN (2000). Geology of the country around Lowestoft and Saxmundham. Memoir for 1:50,000 Geological Sheets 176 and 191. British Geological Survey. ISBN:0 11 884543 8.
  22. ↑ Jones, RL & Keen, DH (1993). Pleistocene Environments of the British Isles. Chapman & Hall. ISBN:0 412 44190 X.
  23. ↑ Lee, J. R.; Woods, M. A.; Moorlock, B. S. P., eds. (2015). British Regional Geology: East Anglia (5th ed.). British Geological Survey. ISBN:978 085272 823 9.
  24. ↑ Rose, J, Moorlock, BSP & Hamblin, RJO (2000). Lithostratigraphy and palaeoenvironments of the pre-Anglian sands and gravels of East Anglia. In: Lewis, SG, Whiteman, CA & Preece, RC (eds). The Quaternary of Norfolk and Suffolk Field Guide. Quaternary Research Association, 2000.
  25. ↑ Funnell, BM (1996). Plio-Pleistocene Palaeogeography of the Southern North Sea Basin (3.75 - 0.60 Ma). Quaternary Science Reviews, vol.15.
  26. ↑ Kuhlmann, G (2004). High resolution stratigraphy and paleoenvironmental changes in the southern North Sea during the Neogene : an integrated study of Late Cenozoic marine deposits from the northern part of the Dutch offshore area. Geologica Ultraiectina, Vol.245
  27. ↑ Funnell, BM (1987). Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene stages of E Anglia and the adjacent North Sea. Quaternary Newsletter 52, June 1987
  28. ↑ Hamblin, RJO, Moorlock, BSP, Booth, SJ, Jeffery, DH & Morigi, AN (1997). The Red Crag and Norwich Crag formations in eastern Suffolk. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, vol.1088, pp.11-23.
  29. ↑ Mathers, SJ & Zalasiewicz, JA (1988). The Pliocene to early Middle Pleistocene of East Anglia. In: Gibbard, PL & Zalasiwicz (eds). Pliocene-Middle Pleistocene of East Anglia Field Guide. Quaternary Research Association, 1988.
  30. ↑ Head, MJ (1988). Marine environmental change in the Pliocene and early Pleistocene of eastern England: the dinoflagellate evidence reviewed. In: van Kolfschoten, T and Gibbard, PL (eds): The Dawn of the Quaternary - proceedings of the SEQS-EuroMam Symposium : Kerkrade, 16–21 June 1996. Netherlands Institute of Applied Geoscience, 1998. ISBN:9072869613.
  31. ↑ Gibbard, PL, Gibbard, West, RG, Zagwijn, WH, Balson, PS, Burger, AW, Funnell, BM, Jeffery, DH, de Jong, J, van Kolfschoten, T, Lister, AM, Meijer, T, Norton, PEP, Preece, RC, Rose, J, Stuart, AJ, Whiteman, CA and Zalasiewicz, JA. (1991). Early and early Middle Pleistocene correlations in the southern North Sea Basin. Quaternary Science reviews, vol.10, no.1.
  32. ↑ Spencer, HEPS (1970). A Contribution to the Geological History of Suffolk, Part 5 : The Early Pleistocene. The Crag Epochs and their Mammals. Transactions of the Suffolk Naturalists’ Society no.15, pt.4.
  33. ↑ Richards, AE, Gibbard, PL and Pettitt, ME (1999). The sedimentology and palaeoecology of the Westleton Member of the Norwich Crag Formation (early Pleistocene) at Thorington, Suffolk, England. Geological Magazine vol.136, pt.4.
  34. ↑ Norton, PEP (1977). Marine Mollusca in the East Anglian pre-glacial Pleistocene. In: Shotton, FW (ed). British Quaternary Studies - Recent Advances. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1977.
  35. ↑ UK Fossils (undated). Easton Wood [1]
  36. ↑ Mayhew, DF (2011). West European arvicolid evidence of intercontinental connections during the early Pleistocene. Quaternary International, vol.30.
  37. ↑ Carreck, JN (1966). Microtine remains from the Norwich Crag (Lower Pleistocene) of Easton Bavents, Suffolk. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, vol.77, pt. 4.
  38. ↑ Mayhew, DF & Stuart, AJ (1986). Stratigraphic and taxonomic revision of the fossil vole remains (Rodentia, Microtinae) from the Lower Pleistocene of Eastern England. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B312.
  39. ↑ Mlikovsky, J (1995). Tertiary Avian Localities of the United Kingdom. Acta Universitatis Carolinae Geologica, vol.29, pp.759-771.
  40. ↑ Dyke, GJ, Nudds, RL & Walker, CA (2007). The Pliocene Phoebastria (‘Diomedea’) anglica: Lydekker's English fossil albatross. Ibis vol.149, no.3, pp.626-631.
  41. ↑ Holman, JA (1998). Pleistocene Amphibians and Reptiles in Britain and Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN:0 19 511232 6.
  42. ↑ Newton, ET (1891). The Vertebrata of the Pliocene Deposits of Britain. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London.
  43. ↑ Harmer, FW 1902. A sketch of the later Tertiary history of East Anglia. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, vol.17.
  44. ↑ Long, PE & Cambridge, PG (1988). Crag Mollusca: an overview. In: Gibbard, PL & Zalasiewicz, JA (eds). Pliocene-Middle Pleistocene of East Anglia Field Guide. Quaternary Research Association, 1988. ISSN 0261-3611.
  45. ↑ West, RG, Funnell, BM, and Norton, PEP (1980). An Early Pleistocene cold marine episode in the North Sea: pollen and faunal assemblages at Covehithe, Suffolk, England. Boreas, vol.9.
  46. ↑ Funnell, BM, Norton, PEP & West, RG (1979). The crag at Bramerton, near Norwich, Norfolk. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B, 287, 489-534.
  47. ↑ West, RG (1980). Pleistocene Forest History in East Anglia. New Phytologist, 85
  48. ↑ Riding, JB, Moorlock, SP, Jeffrey, DH & Hamblin, RJO (1997). Reworked and indigenous palynomorphs from the Norwich Crag Formation (Pleistocene) of eastern Suffolk: implications for provenance, palaeogeography and climate. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, vol. 108, pt.1.
  49. ↑ Mathers, SJ & Hamblin, RJO (2015). Late Pliocene and Pleistocene Marine Deposits. In: Lee, JR; Woods, MA; Moorlock, BSP, eds. British Regional Geology: East Anglia (5th Edition). British Geological Survey; fig.46. ISBN:978 085272 823 9.
  50. ↑ Maher, B & Hallam (2005). Palaeomagnetic correlation and dating of Plio/Pleistocene sediments at the southern margins of the North Sea Basin. Journal of Quaternary Science, vol.20, pt.1.
  51. ↑ Kuhlmann, G et al (2006). Integrated chronostratigraphy of the Plio-Pleistocene interval and its relation to the regional stratigraphical stages in the southern North Sea region. Netherlands Journal of Geological Sciences, vol.85, pt.1.
  52. ↑ Mathers, SJ & Hamblin, RJO (2015). Late Pliocene and Pleistocene Marine Deposits. In: Lee, JR; Woods, MA; Moorlock, BSP, eds. British Regional Geology: East Anglia (5th Edition). British Geological Survey; fig.46. ISBN:978 085272 823 9.
  53. ↑ Reid Moir, J 1927. The Antiquity of Man in East Anglia. Cambridge University Press.
  54. ↑ Lankester, E Ray (1914). Description of the Test Specimen of the Rostro-carinate Industry found beneath the Norwich Crag. Occasional Papers no.4, Royal Anthropological Institute, London.
  55. ↑ Haward, FN (1919). The origin of the 'Rostro-carinate Implements' and other Chipped Flints from the Basement Beds of East Anglia. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia vol.3 pt.1 (1918-1919).
  56. ↑ Warren, SH (1923). Sub-soil Pressure flaking. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association of London, vol.34.

Further reading

  • Arthurton, RS, Booth, SJ, Morigi, AN, Abbott, MAW & Wood, CJ (1994). Geology of the country around Great Yarmouth. Memoir for 1:50,000 Geological Sheets 162. British Geological Survey, HMSO, London. ISBN:011 884491 1.
  • Cox, FC, Gallois, RW & Wood, CJ (1989). The geology of the country around Norwich. Memoir for 1:50,000 Geological Sheet 161. British Geological Survey. ISBN:011 884410 5.
  • Dixon, RG (ed) (2012). A Celebration of Suffolk Geology. GeoSuffolk 10th Anniversary Volume. GeoSuffolk, Ipswich. ISBN:0 9508154 7 0.
  • Mathers, SJ, Woods, MA & Smith, NJP (2002). Geology of the Ipswich District. Sheet Explanation of the geological map Sheet 207 Ipswich. British Geological Survey, Keyworth. ISBN:978 085272572 6.
  • Mathers, SJ and Smith, NJP (2002). Geology of the Woodbridge & Felixstowe District. Sheet Explanation of the geological map Sheets 208 and 225 Woodbridge & Felixstowe. British Geological Survey, Keyworth. ISBN:0 85 272431 4.
  • Moorlock, B, Hamblin, RJO, Booth, SJ & Morigi, AN (2000). Geology of the country around Lowestoft and Saxmundham. Memoir for 1:50,000 Geological Sheets 176 and 191. British Geological Survey, HMSO, London. ISBN:0 11 884543 8.
  • Moorlock, BSP, Hamblin, RJO, Booth, SJ & Woods, MA (2002). Geology of the Mundesley and North Walsham District. A brief explanation of the geological map Sheet 132 Mundesley and Sheet 148 North Walsham. British Geological Survey, Keyworth. ISBN:0 85 272438 1.

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