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Oasis

Topic: Earth

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 32 min

Short description: Fertile area in a desert environment
A desert oasis, photographed from space

In ecology, an oasis (/oʊˈeɪsɪs/; pl.: oases /oʊˈeɪsiːz/) is a fertile area of a desert or semi-desert environment[1] that sustains plant life and provides habitat for animals. Surface water and land may be present, or water may only be accessible from wells or underground channels created by humans. In geography, an oasis may be a current or past rest stop on a transportation route, or less-than-verdant location that nonetheless provides access to underground water through deep wells created and maintained by humans.

The word oasis came into English from Latin: oasis, from Ancient Greek:, óasis, which in turn is a direct borrowing from Demotic Egyptian. The word for oasis in the latter-attested Coptic language (the descendant of Demotic Egyptian) is wahe or ouahe which means a "dwelling place".[2] Oasis in Arabic is wāḥa (Arabic: واحة).

Description

Oases develop in “hydrologically favored” locations that have attributes such as a high water table, seasonal lakes, or blockaded wadis.[3] Oases are made when sources of freshwater, such as underground rivers or aquifers, irrigate the surface naturally or via man-made wells.[4] The presence of water on the surface or underground is necessary and the local or regional management of this essential resource is strategic, but not sufficient to create such areas: continuous human work and know-how (a technical and social culture) are essential to maintain such ecosystems.[5][6] Some of the possible human contributions to maintaining an oasis include digging and maintaining wells, digging and maintaining canals, and continuously removing opportunistic plants that threaten to gorge themselves on water and fertility needed to maintain human and animal food supplies.[7] Stereotypically, an oasis has a “central pool of open water surrounded by a ring of water-dependent shrubs and trees…which are in turn encircled by an outlying transition zone to desert plants.”[8]

Rain showers provide subterranean water to sustain natural oases, such as the Tuat. Substrata of impermeable rock and stone can trap water and retain it in pockets, or on long faulting subsurface ridges or volcanic dikes water can collect and percolate to the surface. Any incidence of water is then used by migrating birds, which also pass seeds with their droppings which will grow at the water's edge forming an oasis. It can also be used to plant crops.

Oases in the Middle East and North Africa cover about 1,000,000 hectares (10,000 km2), however, they support the livelihood of about 10 million inhabitants.[9] The stark ratio of oasis to desert land in the world means that the oasis ecosystem is “relatively minute, rare and precious.”[8]

There are 90 “major oases” within the Sahara Desert.[4] Some of their fertility may derive from irrigation systems called foggaras, khettaras, lkhttarts, or a variety of other regional names.[10][11]

In some oases systems, there is “a geometrical system of raised channels that release controlled amounts of the water into individual plots, soaking the soil.”[11]

Irrigation canal within the Figuig Oasis in eastern Morocco

Oases often have human histories that are measured in millennia. Archeological digs at Ein Gedi in the Dead Sea Valley have found evidence of settlement dating to 6,000 BC.[12] Al-Ahsa on the Arabian Peninsula shows evidence of human residence dating to the Neolithic.[13]

Anthropologically, the oasis is “an area of sedentary life, which associates the city [medina] or village [ksar] with its surrounding feeding source, the palm grove, within a relational and circulatory nomadic system.”[14]

The location of oases has been of critical importance for trade and transportation routes in desert areas; caravans must travel via oases so that supplies of water and food can be replenished. Thus, political or military control of an oasis has in many cases meant control of trade on a particular route. For example, the oases of Awjila, Ghadames and Kufra, situated in modern-day Libya, have at various times been vital to both north–south and east–west trade in the Sahara Desert. The location of oases also informed the Darb El Arba'īn trade route from Sudan to Egypt, as well as the caravan route from the Niger River to Tangier, Morocco.[8] The Silk Road “traced its course from water hole to water hole, relying on oasis communities such as Turpan in China and Samarkand in Uzbekistan.”[8]

According to the United Nations, “Oases are at the very heart of the overall development of peri-Saharan countries due to their geographical location and the fact they are preferred migration routes in times of famine or insecurity in the region.”[10]

Oases in Oman, on the Arabian Peninsula near the Persian Gulf, vary somewhat from the Saharan form. While still located in an arid or semi-arid zone with a date palm overstory, these oases are usually located below plateaus and “watered either by springs or by aflaj, tunnel systems dug into the ground or carved into the rock to tap underground aquifers.” This rainwater harvesting system “never developed a serious salinity problem.”[9]

Oasis in Oman
Diagram of khattara system

In the drylands of southwestern North America, there is a habitat form called Palm Oasis (alternately Palm Series or Oasis Scrub Woodland) that has the native California fan palm as the overstory species.[15] These Palm Oases can be found in California , Arizona, Baja California, and Sonora.[15]

Agroforestry

Djerid Oasis, Tunisia

People who live in an oasis must manage land and water use carefully. The most important plant in an oasis is the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.), which forms the upper layer. These palm trees provide shade for smaller understory trees like apricots, dates, figs, olives, and peach trees, which form the middle layer. Market-garden vegetables, some cereals (such as sorghum, barley, millet, and wheat), and/or mixed animal fodder, are grown in the bottom layer where there is more moisture.[16] The oasis is integrated into its desert environment through an often close association with nomadic transhumant livestock farming (very often pastoral and sedentary populations are clearly distinguished). The fertility of the oasis soil is restored by “cyclic organic inputs of animal origin.”[14] In summary, an oasis palm grove is a highly anthropized and irrigated area that supports a traditionally intensive and polyculture-based agriculture.[1]

Responding to environmental constraints, the three strata create what is called the "oasis effect."[1] The three layers and all their interaction points create a variety of combinations of “horizontal wind speed, relative air temperature and relative air humidity.”[9] The plantings—through a virtuous cycle of wind reduction, increased shade and evapotranspiration—create a microclimate favorable to crops; “measurements taken in different oases have showed that the potential evapotranspiration of the areas was reduced by 30 to 50 percent within the oasis.”[14]

The keystone date palm trees are “a main income source and staple food for local populations in many countries in which they are cultivated, and have played significant roles in the economy, society, and environment of those countries.”[17] Challenges for date palm oasis polycultures include “low rainfall, high temperatures, water resources often high in salt content, and high incidence of pests.”[18]

The oases consist of almost unbroken forests of date palms, divided up into many gardens that are separated by mud walls and intersected by innumerable irrigation and drainage ditches… In the shade of the palms are grown many other kinds of fruit trees—oranges, olives, figs, apricots, peaches, pomegranates, and jujubes—interlaced with large grape vines that often hang in festoons from the palm trunks. Beneath the trees are small plots of garden vegetables, barley, and alfalfa. Neither date palms nor other trees are planted with any regularity, and the growth is often so dense that the garden resembles a tropical jungle. Very beautiful are these gardens in the spring, when the apricot and peach trees are in blossom here and there among the palms and the figs and vines are putting forth their leaves. In autumn, when the dates are ripening, the color effects, especially when the tops of the palms are lit up by the last rays of the setting sun, are something that once seen can never be forgotten. The great clusters of fruit, displaying every tint from bright yellow, through orange, vermilion, and maroon, to plum purple and chestnut brown, with their brilliant yellow or rich orange ivory-like stalks, contrast superbly with the dull bluish or gray green of the feathery crowns of foliage. It is small wonder that a whole folklore of poetic legends and proverbs has grown up around the date palm in the regions where it flourishes.

— Kearney, Thomas H. (1906-09-06). Bulletin: Date Varieties and Date Culture in Tunis.

Distressed systems

Many historic oases have struggled with drought and inadequate maintenance.

According to a United Nations report on the future of oases in the Sahara and Sahel, “Increasingly…oases are subject to various pressures, heavily influenced by the effects of climate change, decreasing groundwater levels and a gradual loss of cultural heritage due to a fading historical memory concerning traditional water management techniques. These natural pressures are compounded by demographic pressures and the introduction of modern water pumping techniques that can disrupt traditional resource management schemes, particularly in the North Saharan oases.”[10]

For example, five historic oases in the Western Desert of Egypt (Kharga, Dakhla, Farafra, Baharyia, and Siwa) once had “flowing spring and wells” but due to the decline of groundwater heads because of overuse for land reclamation projects those water sources are no more and the oases suffer as a result.[19]

Morocco has lost two-thirds of its oasis habitat over the last 100 years due to heat, drought, and water scarcity.[11] The Ferkla Oases in Morocco once drew on water from the Ferkla, Sat and Tangarfa Rivers but they are now dry but for a few days a year.[11]

List of places called oases

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.

New World dryland systems with oasis-like attributes

  • Huacachina, Peru[21]
  • Quitobaquito, Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona[35]
  • Kitowok, Sonora, Mexico[35]
  • Fish Springs National Wildlife Refuge in Utah, United States
  • Havasu Falls, Grand Canyon, Arizona[36]
  • Zzyzx in Mojave National Preserve, California [37]
  • Cuatro Ciengas basin, Chihuahuan desert, Mexico[38]
  • Oasis Spring Ecological Reserve, Salton Sea, California[39]
  • Unidentified oasis in Africa, photographed c. 1930
    Unidentified oasis in Africa, photographed c. 1930
  • Bilma Oasis, Niger
    Bilma Oasis, Niger
  • Oasis de Santa Gertrudis, Baja California
    Oasis de Santa Gertrudis, Baja California
  • Al-Ahsa Oasis, also known as Al-Hasa Oasis, in Saudi Arabia is the largest oasis in the world.
    Al-Ahsa Oasis, also known as Al-Hasa Oasis, in Saudi Arabia is the largest oasis in the world.
  • Al Ain Oasis in the city of Al Ain in the United Arab Emirates
    Al Ain Oasis in the city of Al Ain in the United Arab Emirates
  • Taghit in Algeria, North Africa
    Taghit in Algeria, North Africa
  • Ein Gedi in Israel, Middle East
    Ein Gedi in Israel, Middle East
  • Rubaksa in a dry limestone environment in north Ethiopia is an oasis thanks to the existence of karstic springs.
    Rubaksa in a dry limestone environment in north Ethiopia is an oasis thanks to the existence of karstic springs.
  • Ubari Oasis in southwestern Libya
    Ubari Oasis in southwestern Libya
  • Date palm trees in Liwa Oasis
    Date palm trees in Liwa Oasis
  • Crescent Lake (Yueyaquan) in the Gobi Desert
    Crescent Lake (Yueyaquan) in the Gobi Desert
  • Huacachina in southwestern Peru
    Huacachina in southwestern Peru
  • Namibe desert oasis, Angola
    Namibe desert oasis, Angola
  • Palm trees and the moon in Figuig, Morocco
    Palm trees and the moon in Figuig, Morocco

Practical matters

A 1920 USGS publication about watering holes in the deserts of California and Arizona gave this advice for travelers seeking oases:[40]

The usual watering places are springs or wells. Springs are frequently clogged with gravel or rubbish or sometimes even with the bodies of dead animals, and it may be necessary to clean them out. For this work a shovel is needed. Wells may or may not be equipped with pumps. Frequently the pumps are broken and useless, and a rope and bucket are then necessary to obtain water. Most of the wells in this region are less than 100 feet deep, but some are deeper, and 100 feet of rope is not too much to provide. As a rule the rope and bucket at a well, if they were ever provided, soon disappear, and one should never trust the chance of finding them there. Open wells are sometimes contaminated in the same way as springs and need to be cleaned out, particularly in little-frequented places where they are unused for months at a time.

See also

  • Earth:Guelta – Pockets of water in the Sahara desert
  • Physics:Mirage – Naturally occurring optical phenomenon
  • Earth:Oasification – Antonym to desertification by soil erosion
  • Engineering:Qanat – Water management system using underground channels
  • Earth:Wadi – River valley, especially a dry riverbed that contains water only during times of heavy rain
  • Biology:Gallery forest – Type of riparian forest in dry regions
  • Lençóis Maranhenses National Park (Brazil)
  • Great Green Wall (disambiguation)
  • Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman
  • Palmeral of Elche
  • Fog oasis (South America)

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 (in French) Battesti, Vincent (2005) Jardins au désert: Évolution des pratiques et savoirs oasiens: Jérid tunisien. Paris: IRD éditions. ISBN 978-2-7177-2584-1.
  2. ↑ Douglas Harper. "Etymonline - Origin of 'Oasis'". Etymonline - Origin of 'Oasis'. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=oasis&searchmode=none. Retrieved 2011-07-30. 
  3. ↑ Gebel, Hans Georg K. (2013). "Arabia's fifth-millennium BCE pastoral well cultures: hypotheses on the origins of oasis life". Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 43: 111–126. ISSN 0308-8421. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43782872. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "oasis" (in en). National Geographic Society. 2011-06-10. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/oasis/. 
  5. ↑ Vincent Battesti, The Power of a Disappearance: Water in the Jerid region of Tunisia in B. R. Johnston et al. (eds), Water, Cultural Diversity & Global Environmental Change: Emerging Trends, Sustainable Futures?, 2012, UNESCO/Springer, p. 77-96. ISBN 978-9400717732.
  6. ↑ Battesti, Vincent (May 28, 2015). "Resources and Appropriations: Back to the Jerid Oases (Tunisia) after the Revolution". Études rurales 2 (192): 153–175. doi:10.4000/etudesrurales.9954. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01154717. 
  7. ↑ Cutler, B.  Environmental History of the Maghreb, 1800–Present. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. Retrieved 25 Jan. 2023, from https://oxfordre-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-983 .
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Lawton, Rebecca (2015-11-06). "Palm trees amid the sand: the origins of the oasis fantasy" (in en). https://aeon.co/essays/palm-trees-amid-the-sand-the-origins-of-the-oasis-fantasy. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Jaradat, Abdullah A.. "Biodiversity of Date Palm". https://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c10/E1-05A-66.pdf. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 "Oases Ecosystems". https://www.fao.org/3/az741e/az741e.pdf. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Bryce, Emma (2016-12-12). "A Drive to Save Saharan Oases As Climate Change Takes a Toll" (in en-US). https://e360.yale.edu/features/a_drive_to_save_sahran_oases_as_climate_change_takes_a_toll_cop22. 
  12. ↑ "Life in a Busy Oasis - Archaeology Magazine". https://www.archaeology.org/issues/340-1905/letter-from/7568-life-in-a-busy-oasis. 
  13. ↑ "Spring pool no.1 (Ain al Khudoud) and a water- lifting device, photographed by George Rendel, 1937". 2022-09-01. https://content.ebscohost.com/ContentServer.asp?T=P&P=AN&K=158872037&S=R&D=f6h&EbscoContent=dGJyMNHX8kSeqLI40dvuOLCmsEqep7JSs6y4S7WWxWXS&ContentCustomer=dGJyMOzpsE2xqbNRuePfgeyx43zx. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Hadagha, Fatma Zohra; Farhi, Bourhane Eddine; Farhi, Abdallah; Petrisor, Alexandru Ionut (2018-12-29). "Multifunctionality of the oasis ecosystem. Case study: Biskra Oasis, Algeria". Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs 2 (3): 31–39. doi:10.25034/ijcua.2018.4716. ISSN 2475-6156. https://ijcua.com/index.php/ijcua/article/view/111. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Laudenslayer, William F. Jr.. "Palm Oasis". https://nrm.dfg.ca.gov/FileHandler.ashx?DocumentID=67356. 
  16. ↑ "Oasis, geological feature" (in en). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/oasis-geological-feature. 
  17. ↑ Chao, Chih Cheng T.; Krueger, Robert R. (2007-08-01). "The Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.): Overview of Biology, Uses, and Cultivation". HortScience 42 (5): 1077–1082. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.42.5.1077. ISSN 0018-5345. https://journals.ashs.org/view/journals/hortsci/42/5/article-p1077.xml. 
  18. ↑ Cherif, Hanene; Marasco, Ramona; Rolli, Eleonora; Ferjani, Raoudha; Fusi, Marco; Soussi, Asma; Mapelli, Francesca; Blilou, Ikram et al. (2015-08-01). "Oasis desert farming selects environment-specific date palm root endophytic communities and cultivable bacteria that promote resistance to drought: Oasis palm endophytes promote drought resistance" (in en). Environmental Microbiology Reports 7 (4): 668–678. doi:10.1111/1758-2229.12304. PMID 26033617. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1758-2229.12304. 
  19. ↑ Aziz, Ameer; Sabet, Hassan S.; Ghoubachi, Saad Y.; Abu Risha, Usama A. (2022-07-01). "The origin and recharge conditions of groundwater in Farafra Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt" (in en). Scientific African 16: e01179. doi:10.1016/j.sciaf.2022.e01179. Bibcode: 2022SciAf..1601179A. 
  20. ↑ 20.000 20.001 20.002 20.003 20.004 20.005 20.006 20.007 20.008 20.009 20.010 20.011 20.012 20.013 20.014 20.015 20.016 20.017 20.018 20.019 20.020 20.021 20.022 20.023 20.024 20.025 20.026 20.027 20.028 20.029 20.030 20.031 20.032 20.033 20.034 20.035 20.036 20.037 20.038 20.039 20.040 20.041 20.042 20.043 20.044 20.045 20.046 20.047 20.048 20.049 20.050 20.051 20.052 20.053 20.054 20.055 20.056 20.057 20.058 20.059 20.060 20.061 20.062 20.063 20.064 20.065 20.066 20.067 20.068 20.069 20.070 20.071 20.072 20.073 20.074 20.075 20.076 20.077 20.078 20.079 20.080 20.081 20.082 20.083 20.084 20.085 20.086 20.087 20.088 20.089 20.090 20.091 20.092 20.093 20.094 20.095 20.096 20.097 20.098 20.099 20.100 20.101 20.102 20.103 20.104 20.105 20.106 20.107 20.108 20.109 20.110 20.111 20.112 20.113 20.114 20.115 20.116 20.117 20.118 20.119 20.120 20.121 20.122 20.123 20.124 20.125 20.126 20.127 20.128 20.129 20.130 20.131 20.132 20.133 20.134 20.135 20.136 20.137 20.138 20.139 20.140 20.141 20.142 20.143 20.144 20.145 20.146 20.147 20.148 20.149 20.150 20.151 20.152 20.153 20.154 20.155 20.156 20.157 20.158 20.159 20.160 20.161 20.162 20.163 20.164 20.165 20.166 20.167 20.168 20.169 20.170 20.171 20.172 20.173 20.174 20.175 20.176 20.177 20.178 20.179 "Algeria Traditional Oases". http://www.laboasis.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Algeria-Traditional-Oases_Localisation_Typology.pdf. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Lew, Josh (2021-05-05). "9 Stunningly Picturesque Oases". https://www.treehugger.com/stunningly-picturesque-oases-4869130. 
  22. ↑ 22.00 22.01 22.02 22.03 22.04 22.05 22.06 22.07 22.08 22.09 22.10 "Egitto Traditional Oases". http://www.laboasis.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Egitto-Traditional-Oases_Localisation_Typology.pdf. 
  23. ↑ 23.00 23.01 23.02 23.03 23.04 23.05 23.06 23.07 23.08 23.09 23.10 23.11 23.12 23.13 23.14 23.15 23.16 23.17 23.18 23.19 23.20 23.21 23.22 23.23 23.24 23.25 23.26 23.27 23.28 23.29 23.30 "Libya Traditional Oases". http://www.laboasis.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Libya-Traditional-Oases_Localisation_Typology.pdf. 
  24. ↑ 24.00 24.01 24.02 24.03 24.04 24.05 24.06 24.07 24.08 24.09 24.10 24.11 24.12 24.13 24.14 24.15 24.16 24.17 24.18 24.19 24.20 24.21 24.22 24.23 24.24 24.25 24.26 24.27 24.28 24.29 24.30 24.31 24.32 24.33 24.34 24.35 24.36 24.37 24.38 24.39 24.40 24.41 24.42 24.43 24.44 24.45 24.46 24.47 24.48 24.49 24.50 24.51 24.52 24.53 24.54 24.55 24.56 24.57 "Mauritania Traditional Oases". http://www.laboasis.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Mauritania-Traditional-Oases_Localisation_Typology.pdf. 
  25. ↑ 25.000 25.001 25.002 25.003 25.004 25.005 25.006 25.007 25.008 25.009 25.010 25.011 25.012 25.013 25.014 25.015 25.016 25.017 25.018 25.019 25.020 25.021 25.022 25.023 25.024 25.025 25.026 25.027 25.028 25.029 25.030 25.031 25.032 25.033 25.034 25.035 25.036 25.037 25.038 25.039 25.040 25.041 25.042 25.043 25.044 25.045 25.046 25.047 25.048 25.049 25.050 25.051 25.052 25.053 25.054 25.055 25.056 25.057 25.058 25.059 25.060 25.061 25.062 25.063 25.064 25.065 25.066 25.067 25.068 25.069 25.070 25.071 25.072 25.073 25.074 25.075 25.076 25.077 25.078 25.079 25.080 25.081 25.082 25.083 25.084 25.085 25.086 25.087 25.088 25.089 25.090 25.091 25.092 25.093 25.094 25.095 25.096 25.097 25.098 25.099 25.100 25.101 25.102 25.103 25.104 25.105 25.106 25.107 25.108 25.109 25.110 25.111 25.112 25.113 25.114 25.115 25.116 25.117 25.118 25.119 25.120 25.121 25.122 25.123 25.124 25.125 25.126 25.127 25.128 25.129 25.130 25.131 25.132 25.133 25.134 25.135 25.136 25.137 25.138 25.139 25.140 25.141 25.142 25.143 25.144 25.145 25.146 25.147 25.148 25.149 25.150 25.151 25.152 25.153 25.154 25.155 25.156 25.157 25.158 25.159 25.160 25.161 25.162 25.163 25.164 25.165 "Morocco Traditional Oases". http://www.laboasis.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Morocco-Traditional-Oases_Localisation_Typology.pdf. 
  26. ↑ Wallace, Eric J. (2019-04-01). "The Moroccan Food Forest That Inspired an Agricultural Revolution - Gastro Obscura". https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/what-is-permaculture-food-forests.amp. 
  27. ↑ 27.00 27.01 27.02 27.03 27.04 27.05 27.06 27.07 27.08 27.09 27.10 27.11 27.12 27.13 27.14 27.15 27.16 27.17 27.18 27.19 27.20 27.21 27.22 27.23 27.24 27.25 27.26 27.27 "Niger Traditional Oases". http://www.laboasis.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Niger-Traditional-Oases_Localisation_Typology.pdf. 
  28. ↑ 28.000 28.001 28.002 28.003 28.004 28.005 28.006 28.007 28.008 28.009 28.010 28.011 28.012 28.013 28.014 28.015 28.016 28.017 28.018 28.019 28.020 28.021 28.022 28.023 28.024 28.025 28.026 28.027 28.028 28.029 28.030 28.031 28.032 28.033 28.034 28.035 28.036 28.037 28.038 28.039 28.040 28.041 28.042 28.043 28.044 28.045 28.046 28.047 28.048 28.049 28.050 28.051 28.052 28.053 28.054 28.055 28.056 28.057 28.058 28.059 28.060 28.061 28.062 28.063 28.064 28.065 28.066 28.067 28.068 28.069 28.070 28.071 28.072 28.073 28.074 28.075 28.076 28.077 28.078 28.079 28.080 28.081 28.082 28.083 28.084 28.085 28.086 28.087 28.088 28.089 28.090 28.091 28.092 28.093 28.094 28.095 28.096 28.097 28.098 28.099 28.100 28.101 28.102 28.103 28.104 28.105 28.106 28.107 28.108 28.109 28.110 28.111 28.112 28.113 28.114 28.115 28.116 28.117 28.118 28.119 28.120 28.121 28.122 28.123 28.124 28.125 28.126 28.127 28.128 28.129 28.130 28.131 28.132 28.133 28.134 28.135 28.136 28.137 28.138 28.139 28.140 28.141 28.142 28.143 28.144 28.145 28.146 28.147 28.148 28.149 28.150 28.151 28.152 28.153 28.154 28.155 28.156 28.157 28.158 28.159 28.160 28.161 28.162 28.163 28.164 28.165 28.166 28.167 "Oman Traditional Oases". http://www.laboasis.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Oman-Traditional-Oases_Localisation_Typology.pdf. 
  29. ↑ 29.00 29.01 29.02 29.03 29.04 29.05 29.06 29.07 29.08 29.09 29.10 29.11 29.12 29.13 29.14 29.15 29.16 29.17 29.18 29.19 29.20 "Saudi Arabia Traditional Oases". http://www.laboasis.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Saudi-Arabia-Traditional-Oases_Localisation_Typology.pdf. 
  30. ↑ 30.00 30.01 30.02 30.03 30.04 30.05 30.06 30.07 30.08 30.09 30.10 30.11 30.12 30.13 30.14 30.15 30.16 30.17 30.18 30.19 30.20 30.21 30.22 30.23 30.24 30.25 30.26 30.27 30.28 30.29 30.30 30.31 30.32 30.33 30.34 30.35 30.36 "Tunisia Traditional Oases". http://www.laboasis.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Tunisia-Traditional-Oases_Localisation_Typology.pdf. 
  31. ↑ Joseph Bingham, Origines sive Antiquitates ecclesiasticae (sumtibus Orphanotrophei, 1727) p 529.
  32. ↑ Baker Brite, Elizabeth (2016-12-01). "Irrigation in the Khorezm oasis, past and present: a political ecology perspective". Journal of Political Ecology 23 (1). doi:10.2458/v23i1.20177. ISSN 1073-0451. http://journals.librarypublishing.arizona.edu/jpe/article/id/1948/. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "UAE Traditional Oases". http://www.laboasis.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/UAE-Traditional-Oases_Localisation_Typology.pdf. 
  34. ↑ 34.00 34.01 34.02 34.03 34.04 34.05 34.06 34.07 34.08 34.09 34.10 34.11 34.12 34.13 34.14 34.15 34.16 34.17 34.18 34.19 34.20 34.21 34.22 34.23 34.24 34.25 34.26 34.27 34.28 34.29 34.30 34.31 34.32 34.33 34.34 34.35 34.36 34.37 34.38 34.39 34.40 34.41 34.42 34.43 34.44 34.45 34.46 34.47 34.48 34.49 34.50 34.51 34.52 34.53 34.54 34.55 34.56 34.57 34.58 34.59 34.60 34.61 34.62 34.63 34.64 34.65 34.66 34.67 34.68 34.69 34.70 34.71 34.72 "Yemen Traditional Oases". http://www.laboasis.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Yemen-Traditional-Oases_Localisation_Typology.pdf. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Nabhan, Gary Paul (2002). The desert smells like rain : a naturalist in O'Odham country (1st University of Arizona pbk ed.). Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-2249-9. OCLC 49028733. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49028733. 
  36. ↑ "NatGeo Education: Oasis". https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/oasis. 
  37. ↑ "Zzyzx History". 2022-05-30. https://www.nps.gov/moja/learn/historyculture/zzyzx.htm. 
  38. ↑ willbibby (2012-08-27). "Trouble in Paradise? The untold story of the oasis biodiversity crisis" (in en). https://freshwaterblog.net/2012/08/27/trouble-in-paradise-the-untold-story-of-the-oasis-biodiversity-crisis/. 
  39. ↑ "Oasis Spring Ecological Reserve". https://wildlife.ca.gov/Lands/Places-to-Visit/Oasis-Spring-ER. 
  40. ↑ Brown, John S. [from old catalog] (1920). Routes to desert watering places in the Salton Sea region. California. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011211867. 

Bibliography



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