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Rock analogs for structural geology

Topic: Earth

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 17 min

This is a compilation of the properties of different analog materials used to simulate deformational processes in structural geology. Such experiments are often called analog or analogue models. The organization of this page follows the review of rock analog materials in structural geology and tectonics of Reber et al. 2020.[1]

Materials used to simulate upper crustal deformation

A sample of light colored, fine grained sand that has been used in analog experiments. Other sands have various grain sizes, colors and compositions.

These materials need to exhibit brittle deformation upon failure as well as elastic and viscous deformation before failure.

Materials that simulate upper crustal deformation

Material Applications Studies
Plexiglas and glass Plexiglas and glass is useful for many applications. Some of which are: Erdogan & Sih 1963;[4] Thomas and Pollard 1993;[5] Cooke & Pollard,1996;[6] Daniels & Hayman, 2008;[2] Lu, Lapusta & Rosakis,2007;[7] Owens & Daniels, 2011;[3] Rubino, Rosakis, & Lapusta, 2019[8]
Gelatin Gelatin has been used to simulate: Bot, vanAmerongon, Groot, Hoekstra, & Agterof, 1996;[21] Brizzi, Funiciello, Corbi, Di Giuseppe, & Mojoli, 2016;[22] Canon-Tapia and Merle, 2006;[14] Corbi et al., 2011;[12] Corbi et al., 2013;[13] Di Giuseppe et al., 2009;[23] Hyndman & Alt, 1987;[15] Kavanagh, Menand, & Daniels, 2013;[24] Kavanagh, Menand, & Sparks, 2006;[16] Kervyn, Ernst, de Vires, Mathieu, & Jacobs, 2009;[17] Kobchenko et al., 2014;[9] Lee, Reber, Hayman, & Wheeler, 2016;[10] Menand & Tait, 2002;[18] Pollard, 1973;[19] Rivalta, Bottinger, & Dahm, 2005;[20] Touvet, Balmforth, Craster, & Sutherland, 2011;[11] van Otterloo & Cruden, 2016[25]
Foam Foam is mostly used as an analog simulating elastic loading on the crust between earthquake events.[26][27][28][29] If the foam used has a low stiffness, it can be dynamically scaled to preexisting fault surfaces' and earthquake cycles[30] Anooshehpoor & Brune,1999;[26] Anooshehpoor, Heaton, Shi & Brune, 1999;[27] Brune,1973;[28] Caniven et al., 2015;[29] Rosenau et al., 2017;[30] Rosenau, Lohrmann, & Oncken, 2009;[31] Rosenau & Oncken, 2009[32]
Clays Clay is used to simulate deformation in the upper crust through distributed deformation and localized failure. The properties of clay depend on the mineralogy, grain size distribution and water content. Bonanno, et al., 2017;[33] Bonini et al., 2016;[34] Cooke and van der Elst, 2012;[35] DeGroot & Lunne, 2007;[36] Eisenstadt & Sims, 2005;[37] Hatem, Cooke, & Toeneboehn, 2017;[38] Henza, Withjack, & Schlische, 2010;[39] Kenny, 1967;[40] Mitra & Paul, 2011;[41] Paul & Mitra, 2013;[42] Toeneboehn, 2017;[43] Toeneboehn, 2018;[44] White, 1949;[45] Withjack, Henza, & Schlische, 2017[46]

Dry granular materials

This is a picture of white plastic beads used as a material in analog experiments.
Material Applications Studies
Sand During deformation, sand exhibits distributed deformation, compaction followed by dilatation, prior to failure via grain rearrangement. Sand is often used to simulate folding or faulting.[47] Abdelmalak et al., 2016;[48] Cobbold, Durand, & Mourgues, 2001;[49] Daniels & Hayman, 2008;[2] Davis, Suppe, & Dahlen,1983;[47] Galland, Burchardt, Hallot, Mourgues, & Bulois, 2014;[50] Galland, Cobbold, Hallot, d'Ars, & Delavaud, 2006;[51] Gomes, 2013;[52] Hayman, Ducloue, Foco, & Daniels, 2011;[53] Herbert et al., 2015;[54] Klinkmuller et al., 2016;[55] Lohrmann et al, 2003;[56] Panien, Buiter, Schreurs, & Pfiffner, 2006;[57] Rosenau et al., 2009[31]
Micro beads Micro beads are useful for:
  • Situations where low friction and mechanical layering are desired in crustal and lithospheric models[58][59][60]
  • Salt tectonic modeling[61][62] because of adjustable density
 Boutelier, Schrank, & Cruden, 2008;[58] Dooley, Jackson, & Hudec, 2007;[61] Dooley, Jackson, & Hudec, 2009;[62] Duffy et al., 2018;[63] Hudec, Jackson, & Schttltz-Ela, 2009;[64] Jackson et al., 2019[65] Rossi & Storti, 2003;[59] Schellart, 2000[60]
Other Lentils Lentils have been used to study the distribution of shear surfaces observed in clay rich sediments. Tarling & Rowe, 2016[66]
Crushed Walnut Shells Crushed walnut shells have been used for their low density and non-abrasive nature. Cruz, Teyssier, Perg, Take, & Fayon, 2008[67]
Poppy Seeds Poppy seeds were used in an analog model as particles in suspension for determining the yield strength of subliquidus basalt. Hoover, Cashman, & Manga, 2001[68]
Rice Rice has been used to simulate earthquakes and fault roughness. Rosenau et al., 2009[31]
Sugar Sugar has been used:
  • In subduction earthquake cycle models[31]
  • As an analog for the brittle upper crust[69][70]
 Moore, Vendeville, & Wiltschko, 2005;[70] Rosenau et al., 2009;[31] Schellart, 2000;[60] Schellart & Strak, 2016[69]
Sand-hemihydrate calcium sulphate Sand-hemihydrate calcium sulphate mixtures, in different mixing ratios, are used as an "ultra-weak" sandstone to simulate fault and fracture processes in analogue modelling at the outcrop scale (about 10 m). Massaro et al., 2022;[71] Massaro et al., 2023[72]

Materials used to simulate deformation of the lower crust and mantle

This is a sample of silicone that is used in analog modelling experiments.

Various fluids are used to simulate deformation of the lower crust and mantle, such as: linear, non-linear, and yield stress fluids.

Fluid type Material Application Studies
Linear viscous fluids Silicone Oils/Polymers Silicone oils/polymers can have varying viscosities, which can be changed by adding fillers (dry granular materials) or aolic acid.

In combination with brittle model materials, silicone oils/polymers can investigate many processes in salt tectonics, including the deformation of sediments adjacent and above a salt body.

Boutelier, Schrank, & Cruden, 2008;[58] ten Grotenhuis et al., 2002;[73] Weijermars, 1986;[74] Brun & Fort, 2004;[75] Brun & Mauduit, 2009;[76] Cobbold, Szatmari, Demercian, Coelho, & Rossello, 1995;[77] Dooley & Hudec, 2017;[78] Dooley et al., 2009;[62] Dooley, Jackson & Hudec, 2013;[79] Dooley, Jackson & Hudec, 2015;[80] Duffy et al., 2018;[63] Letouzey, Colletta, Vially & Chermette, 1995;[81] Smit, Brun, Fort, Cloetingh, & Ben-Avraham, 2008;[82] Vendeville & Jackson, 1992;[83] Weijermars, 1986;[74] Weijermars, Jackson, & Vendeville, 1993[84]
Honey* Honey, glucose syrup, and molasses exhibit strain independent deformation. The viscosity depends on the sugar content and temperature of the material. This makes them suitable to simulate the lower crust and mantle.

*Honey can also be used as a non-linear viscous fluid under certain conditions.

Schellart, 2011[85]
Glucose Syrup
Molasses
Gum Rosin Gum rosin was used to study thermomechanical processes in the lithospheric mantle. Cobbold & Jackson, 1992[86]
Water Water has been used to model any low viscosity material. Paola et al., 2006[87]
Non-linear viscous fluids Silicone Oils/Polymers Silicone is also used as a non-linear viscous material by adding high amounts of filler. The most common filler material used is plasticine. Boutelier et al., 2008;[58] Rudolf, Boutelier, Rosenau, Schreurs, & Oncken, 2016[88]
Bingham fluid Paraffin Wax Paraffin wax can be used in analog experiments as a linear or non-linear yield stress fluid. By mixing paraffin wax with petrolatum, the yield stress, shear thinning, and shear softening behavior can be modified. Duarte et al., 2014;[89] Rossetti et al.,1999[90]
Petrolatum Petrolatum is commonly used as:
  • A filler with paraffin wax
  • A lubricant

At this time, pure petrolatum has not been used for analog material.

Cobbold, 1975;[91] Duarte et al., 2014;[89] Neurath and Smith, 1892[92]
Hershel-Bulkley fluid Carbopol Carbopol has been used in analogue models of:
  • Gravity driven flow[93]
  • Rayleigh-Benard-like convection[94]
  • Localized shear zones[95]
  • Thermal intrusions[96]
  • Semi-brittle processes[97][98]
 Balmforth & Rust, 2009;[94] Birren & Reber, 2019;[97] Davaille et al., 2013;[96] Di Federico et al., 2017;[93] Reber et al., 2015;[98] Schrank, Boutelier, & Cruden, 2008[95]

Materials used to simulate deformation of the middle crust

Composite Model Materials

The material photographed above is polyurethane discs. The left side of image shows the discs under normal light. The right side of the image what can be observed when a polarizer is placed above the discs.

Composite materials combine phases with different physical properties. A common composite mixture contains dry granular materials and fluids. These analog materials have been used:

  • Sediment transport (Parker et al., 1982[99]) using low viscosity fluids
  • Dynamics in the middle crust (Mookerjee et al., 2017;[100] Reber et al., 2014[101]) employing high viscosity fluids
  • Stick-slip dynamics (Higashi and Sumita, 2009;[102] Reber et al., 2014[101])
  • Strain softening and hardening processes (Panien et al., 2006[57])

The most commonly used granular materials in composite mixtures are:

  • Sand
  • Glass beads
  • Acrylic discs
A sample of carbopol. It is a clear, gel-like substance that is commonly used in modeling experiments.
A micro-photograph of the modeling material carbopol.

Common fluids used in composite mixtures are:

  • Carbopol
  • Silicone
  • Wax, which can behave as a brittle or viscous material depending on the melting temperature (Mookerjee et al., 2017[100])

Visco-elasto-plastic model materials

Visco-elasto-plastic deformation exhibits a combination of elastic, viscous, and plastic deformation at the same time. Various asphalts and bituminous materials demonstrate visco-elasto-plastic deformation but they are rarely as modeling materials (McBirney and Best, 1961[103]).Common modeling materials demonstrating complex rheology are;

  • Carbopol (Piau, 2007;[104] Shafiei et al., 2018[105])
  • Kaolinite clay (Cooke and van der Elst, 2012[35])

References

  1. ↑ Reber, Jacqueline E.; Cooke, Michele L.; Dooley, Tim P. (March 2020). "What model material to use? A Review on rock analogs for structural geology and tectonics". Earth-Science Reviews 202: 103107. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103107. Bibcode: 2020ESRv..20203107R. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Daniels, Karen E.; Hayman, Nicholas W. (2008-11-26). "Force chains in seismogenic faults visualized with photoelastic granular shear experiments". Journal of Geophysical Research 113 (B11): B11411. doi:10.1029/2008JB005781. ISSN 0148-0227. Bibcode: 2008JGRB..11311411D. http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/resolver/1840.20/34604. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Owens, E. T.; Daniels, K. E. (2011-06-01). "Sound propagation and force chains in granular materials". EPL (Europhysics Letters) 94 (5): 54005. doi:10.1209/0295-5075/94/54005. ISSN 0295-5075. Bibcode: 2011EL.....9454005O. http://stacks.iop.org/0295-5075/94/i=5/a=54005?key=crossref.e17e150df877dfc7f9a562912b78f121. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Erdogan, F.; Sih, G. C. (1 December 1963). "On the Crack Extension in Plates Under Plane Loading and Transverse Shear". Journal of Basic Engineering 85 (4): 519–525. doi:10.1115/1.3656897. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Thomas, Andrew L.; Pollard, David D. (March 1993). "The geometry of echelon fractures in rock: implications from laboratory and numerical experiments". Journal of Structural Geology 15 (3–5): 323–334. doi:10.1016/0191-8141(93)90129-X. Bibcode: 1993JSG....15..323T. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Cooke, Michele L.; Pollard, David D. (1996-02-10). "Fracture propagation paths under mixed mode loading within rectangular blocks of polymethyl methacrylate". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 101 (B2): 3387–3400. doi:10.1029/95JB02507. Bibcode: 1996JGR...101.3387C. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Lu, X.; Lapusta, N.; Rosakis, A. J. (2007-11-27). "Pulse-like and crack-like ruptures in experiments mimicking crustal earthquakes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (48): 18931–18936. doi:10.1073/pnas.0704268104. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 18025479. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Rubino, V.; Rosakis, A. J.; Lapusta, N. (June 2019). "Full-field Ultrahigh-speed Quantification of Dynamic Shear Ruptures Using Digital Image Correlation". Experimental Mechanics 59 (5): 551–582. doi:10.1007/s11340-019-00501-7. ISSN 0014-4851. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Kobchenko, Maya; Hafver, Andreas; Jettestuen, Espen; Renard, François; Galland, Olivier; Jamtveit, Bjørn; Meakin, Paul; Dysthe, Dag Kristian (2014-11-04). "Evolution of a fracture network in an elastic medium with internal fluid generation and expulsion". Physical Review E 90 (5): 052801. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.90.052801. ISSN 1539-3755. PMID 25493828. Bibcode: 2014PhRvE..90e2801K. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Lee, Sanghyun; Reber, Jacqueline E.; Hayman, Nicholas W.; Wheeler, Mary F. (2016-08-16). "Investigation of wing crack formation with a combined phase-field and experimental approach: WING CRACK WITH PHASE FIELD". Geophysical Research Letters 43 (15): 7946–7952. doi:10.1002/2016GL069979. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Touvet, T.; Balmforth, N. J.; Craster, R. V.; Sutherland, B. R. (2011-04-10). "Fingering instability in buoyancy-driven fluid-filled cracks". Journal of Fluid Mechanics 672: 60–77. doi:10.1017/S0022112010005860. ISSN 0022-1120. Bibcode: 2011JFM...672...60T. https://hal-ens-lyon.archives-ouvertes.fr/ensl-00822596/file/Touvet11.pdf. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Corbi, F.; Funiciello, F.; Faccenna, C.; Ranalli, G.; Heuret, A. (2011-06-17). "Seismic variability of subduction thrust faults: Insights from laboratory models". Journal of Geophysical Research 116 (B6): B06304. doi:10.1029/2010JB007993. ISSN 0148-0227. Bibcode: 2011JGRB..116.6304C. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Corbi, F.; Funiciello, F.; Moroni, M.; van Dinther, Y.; Mai, P. M.; Dalguer, L. A.; Faccenna, C. (April 2013). "The seismic cycle at subduction thrusts: 1. Insights from laboratory models: SUBDUCTION SEISMIC CYCLE SIMULATIONS: 1". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 118 (4): 1483–1501. doi:10.1029/2012JB009481. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Cañón-Tapia, E.; Merle, O. (November 2006). "Dyke nucleation and early growth from pressurized magma chambers: Insights from analogue models". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 158 (3–4): 207–220. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.05.003. Bibcode: 2006JVGR..158..207C. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Hyndman, D. W.; Alt, D. (November 1987). "Radial Dikes, Laccoliths, and Gelatin Models". The Journal of Geology 95 (6): 763–774. doi:10.1086/629176. ISSN 0022-1376. Bibcode: 1987JG.....95..763H. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Kavanagh, Janine L.; Menand, Thierry; Sparks, R. Stephen J. (May 2006). "An experimental investigation of sill formation and propagation in layered elastic media". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 245 (3–4): 799–813. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.03.025. Bibcode: 2006E&PSL.245..799K. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Kervyn, M.; Ernst, G. G. J.; van Wyk de Vries, B.; Mathieu, L.; Jacobs, P. (2009-03-03). "Volcano load control on dyke propagation and vent distribution: Insights from analogue modeling". Journal of Geophysical Research 114 (B3): B03401. doi:10.1029/2008JB005653. ISSN 0148-0227. Bibcode: 2009JGRB..114.3401K. https://constellation.uqac.ca/5294/1/__sfserv_sbi%24_n2villen_Mes%20Documents_Services%20aux%20chercheurs_Lucie%20Mathieu_PDF_Volcano%20load%20control%20on%20dyke%20propagation%20and%20vent%20distribution.pdf. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Menand, Thierry; Tait, Stephen R. (November 2002). "The propagation of a buoyant liquid-filled fissure from a source under constant pressure: An experimental approach: LIQUID-FILLED CRACK PROPAGATION". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 107 (B11): ECV 16–1–ECV 16-14. doi:10.1029/2001JB000589. https://hal.uca.fr/hal-01892313/file/2001JB000589.pdf. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Pollard, David D. (October 1973). "Derivation and evaluation of a mechanical model for sheet intrusions". Tectonophysics 19 (3): 233–269. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(73)90021-8. Bibcode: 1973Tectp..19..233P. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Rivalta, E.; Böttinger, M.; Dahm, T. (June 2005). "Buoyancy-driven fracture ascent: Experiments in layered gelatine". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 144 (1–4): 273–285. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.11.030. Bibcode: 2005JVGR..144..273R. 
  21. ↑ Bot, Arjen; van Amerongen, Ivo A.; Groot, Robert D.; Hoekstra, Niko L.; Agterof, Wim G.M. (January 1996). "Large deformation rheology of gelatin gels". Polymer Gels and Networks 4 (3): 189–227. doi:10.1016/0966-7822(96)00011-1. 
  22. ↑ Brizzi, S.; Funiciello, F.; Corbi, F.; Di Giuseppe, E.; Mojoli, G. (June 2016). "Salt matters: How salt affects the rheological and physical properties of gelatine for analogue modelling". Tectonophysics 679: 88–101. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2016.04.021. Bibcode: 2016Tectp.679...88B. 
  23. ↑ Di Giuseppe, E.; Funiciello, F.; Corbi, F.; Ranalli, G.; Mojoli, G. (August 2009). "Gelatins as rock analogs: A systematic study of their rheological and physical properties". Tectonophysics 473 (3–4): 391–403. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2009.03.012. Bibcode: 2009Tectp.473..391D. 
  24. ↑ Kavanagh, J.L.; Menand, T.; Daniels, K.A. (January 2013). "Gelatine as a crustal analogue: Determining elastic properties for modelling magmatic intrusions". Tectonophysics 582: 101–111. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2012.09.032. Bibcode: 2013Tectp.582..101K. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00811444/file/Kavanagh_et_al-2013.pdf. 
  25. ↑ van Otterloo, Jozua; Cruden, Alexander R. (June 2016). "Rheology of pig skin gelatine: Defining the elastic domain and its thermal and mechanical properties for geological analogue experiment applications". Tectonophysics 683: 86–97. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2016.06.019. Bibcode: 2016Tectp.683...86V. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Anooshehpoor, Abdolrasool; Brune, James N. (1999-07-01). "Wrinkle-like Weertman pulse at the interface between two blocks of foam rubber with different velocities". Geophysical Research Letters 26 (13): 2025–2028. doi:10.1029/1999GL900397. Bibcode: 1999GeoRL..26.2025A. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Anooshehpoor, A., Heaton, T. H., Shi, B. P., & Brune, J. N. (1999). Estimates of the ground accelerations at Point Reyes Station during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 89(4), 845-853.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Brune, J. N. (1973). Earthquake modeling by stick-slip along precut surfaces in stressed foam rubber    Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 63(6), 2105-2119.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Caniven, Y.; Dominguez, S.; Soliva, R.; Cattin, R.; Peyret, M.; Marchandon, M.; Romano, C.; Strak, V. (2015). "A new multilayered visco-elasto-plastic experimental model to study strike-slip fault seismic cycle: An analog model of earthquake cycle". Tectonics 34 (2): 232–264. doi:10.1002/2014TC003701. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Rosenau, Matthias; Corbi, Fabio; Dominguez, Stephane (2017-05-19). "Analogue earthquakes and seismic cycles: experimental modelling across timescales". Solid Earth 8 (3): 597–635. doi:10.5194/se-8-597-2017. ISSN 1869-9529. Bibcode: 2017SolE....8..597R. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 Rosenau, Matthias; Lohrmann, Jo; Oncken, Onno (January 2009). "Shocks in a box: An analogue model of subduction earthquake cycles with application to seismotectonic forearc evolution: SUBDUCTION EARTHQUAKE MODEL". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 114 (B1). doi:10.1029/2008JB005665. 
  32. ↑ Rosenau, Matthias; Oncken, Onno (2009-10-27). "Fore-arc deformation controls frequency-size distribution of megathrust earthquakes in subduction zones". Journal of Geophysical Research 114 (B10): B10311. doi:10.1029/2009JB006359. ISSN 0148-0227. Bibcode: 2009JGRB..11410311R. http://gfzpublic.gfz-potsdam.de/pubman/item/escidoc:239140. 
  33. ↑ Bonanno, Emanuele; Bonini, Lorenzo; Basili, Roberto; Toscani, Giovanni; Seno, Silvio (September 2017). "How do horizontal, frictional discontinuities affect reverse fault-propagation folding?". Journal of Structural Geology 102: 147–167. doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2017.08.001. Bibcode: 2017JSG...102..147B. 
  34. ↑ Bonini, Lorenzo; Basili, Roberto; Toscani, Giovanni; Burrato, Pierfrancesco; Seno, Silvio; Valensise, Gianluca (August 2016). "The effects of pre-existing discontinuities on the surface expression of normal faults: Insights from wet-clay analog modeling". Tectonophysics 684: 157–175. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2015.12.015. Bibcode: 2016Tectp.684..157B. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Cooke, Michele L.; van der Elst, Nicholas J. (2012). "Rheologic testing of wet kaolin reveals frictional and bi-viscous behavior typical of crustal materials". Geophysical Research Letters 39 (1): n/a. doi:10.1029/2011GL050186. Bibcode: 2012GeoRL..39.1308C. 
  36. ↑ DeGroot, D. J., & Lunne, T. (2007). Measurement of Remoulded Shear Strength. Norwegian Geotechnical Institute. Report, 20061021--20061023.
  37. ↑ Eisenstadt, Gloria; Sims, Darrell (August 2005). "Evaluating sand and clay models: do rheological differences matter?". Journal of Structural Geology 27 (8): 1399–1412. doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2005.04.010. Bibcode: 2005JSG....27.1399E. 
  38. ↑ Hatem, Alexandra E.; Cooke, Michele L.; Toeneboehn, Kevin (August 2017). "Strain localization and evolving kinematic efficiency of initiating strike-slip faults within wet kaolin experiments". Journal of Structural Geology 101: 96–108. doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2017.06.011. Bibcode: 2017JSG...101...96H. 
  39. ↑ Henza, Alissa A.; Withjack, Martha O.; Schlische, Roy W. (November 2010). "Normal-fault development during two phases of non-coaxial extension: An experimental study". Journal of Structural Geology 32 (11): 1656–1667. doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2009.07.007. Bibcode: 2010JSG....32.1656H. 
  40. ↑ Kenny, T. C. (1967). The influence of mineral composition on the residual strength of natural soils. TRID, 1, 123-129.
  41. ↑ Mitra, Shankar; Paul, Debapriya (July 2011). "Structural geometry and evolution of releasing and restraining bends: Insights from laser-scanned experimental models". AAPG Bulletin 95 (7): 1147–1180. doi:10.1306/09271010060. ISSN 0149-1423. Bibcode: 2011BAAPG..95.1147M. 
  42. ↑ Paul, Debapriya; Mitra, Shankar (May 2013). "Experimental models of transfer zones in rift systems". AAPG Bulletin 97 (5): 759–780. doi:10.1306/10161212105. ISSN 0149-1423. Bibcode: 2013BAAPG..97..759P. 
  43. ↑ Toeneboehn, K., 2017, Exploring Long-term Fault Evolution in Obliquely Loaded Systems Using Tabletop Experiments and Digital Image Correlation Techniques [MS: University of Massachusetts Amherst].
  44. ↑ Toeneboehn, Kevin; Cooke, Michele L.; Bemis, Sean P.; Fendick, Anne M. (2018-10-10). "Stereovision Combined With Particle Tracking Velocimetry Reveals Advection and Uplift Within a Restraining Bend Simulating the Denali Fault". Frontiers in Earth Science 6: 152. doi:10.3389/feart.2018.00152. ISSN 2296-6463. Bibcode: 2018FrEaS...6..152T. 
  45. ↑ White, A. W. (1949). Atterberg plastic limits of clay minerals. American Mineralogist: Journal of Earth and Planetary Materials, 34, 508-512.
  46. ↑ Withjack, Martha Oliver; Henza, Alissa A.; Schlische, Roy W. (November 2017). "Three-dimensional fault geometries and interactions within experimental models of multiphase extension". AAPG Bulletin 101 (11): 1767–1789. doi:10.1306/02071716090. ISSN 0149-1423. Bibcode: 2017BAAPG.101.1767W. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Davis, Dan; Suppe, John; Dahlen, F. A. (1983). "Mechanics of fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges". Journal of Geophysical Research 88 (B2): 1153. doi:10.1029/JB088iB02p01153. ISSN 0148-0227. Bibcode: 1983JGR....88.1153D. 
  48. ↑ Abdelmalak, M.M.; Bulois, C.; Mourgues, R.; Galland, O.; Legland, J.-B.; Gruber, C. (August 2016). "Description of new dry granular materials of variable cohesion and friction coefficient: Implications for laboratory modeling of the brittle crust". Tectonophysics 684: 39–51. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2016.03.003. Bibcode: 2016Tectp.684...39A. 
  49. ↑ Cobbold, P.R.; Durand, S.; Mourgues, R. (June 2001). "Sandbox modelling of thrust wedges with fluid-assisted detachments". Tectonophysics 334 (3–4): 245–258. doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(01)00070-1. Bibcode: 2001Tectp.334..245C. 
  50. ↑ Galland, Olivier; Burchardt, Steffi; Hallot, Erwan; Mourgues, Régis; Bulois, Cédric (August 2014). "Dynamics of dikes versus cone sheets in volcanic systems: Dynamics of dikes versus cone sheets". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 119 (8): 6178–6192. doi:10.1002/2014JB011059. https://hal-insu.archives-ouvertes.fr/insu-01064709/file/Galland-JGR-2014.pdf. 
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  55. ↑ Klinkmüller, M.; Schreurs, G.; Rosenau, M.; Kemnitz, H. (August 2016). "Properties of granular analogue model materials: A community wide survey". Tectonophysics 684: 23–38. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2016.01.017. Bibcode: 2016Tectp.684...23K. http://gfzpublic.gfz-potsdam.de/pubman/item/escidoc:1478161. 
  56. ↑ Lohrmann, Jo; Kukowski, Nina; Adam, Jürgen; Oncken, Onno (2003). "The impact of analogue material properties on the geometry, kinematics, and dynamics of convergent sand wedges". Journal of Structural Geology 25 (10): 1691–1711. doi:10.1016/S0191-8141(03)00005-1. Bibcode: 2003JSG....25.1691L. 
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  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Rossi, David; Storti, Fabrizio (November 2003). "New artificial granular materials for analogue laboratory experiments: aluminium and siliceous microspheres". Journal of Structural Geology 25 (11): 1893–1899. doi:10.1016/S0191-8141(03)00041-5. Bibcode: 2003JSG....25.1893R. 
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 Schellart, W.P. (September 2000). "Shear test results for cohesion and friction coefficients for different granular materials: scaling implications for their usage in analogue modelling". Tectonophysics 324 (1–2): 1–16. doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00111-6. Bibcode: 2000Tectp.324....1S. 
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Dooley, Tim P.; Jackson, Martin P. A.; Hudec, Michael R. (January 2007). "Initiation and growth of salt-based thrust belts on passive margins: results from physical models". Basin Research 19 (1): 165–177. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2117.2007.00317.x. ISSN 0950-091X. Bibcode: 2007BasR...19..165D. 
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  68. ↑ Hoover, S.R; Cashman, K.V; Manga, M (June 2001). "The yield strength of subliquidus basalts — experimental results". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 107 (1–3): 1–18. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(00)00317-6. Bibcode: 2001JVGR..107....1H. 
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  83. ↑ Vendeville, B.C.; Jackson, M.P.A. (August 1992). "The rise of diapirs during thin-skinned extension". Marine and Petroleum Geology 9 (4): 331–354. doi:10.1016/0264-8172(92)90047-I. Bibcode: 1992MarPG...9..331V. 
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