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Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide

Topic: Earth

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 11 min

Short description: Used to help answer questions about Earth's carbon cycle

Artist's conception of OCO-2, the second successful high precision (better than 0.3%) CO
2 observing satellite.

Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide (CO
2) are used to help answer questions about Earth's carbon cycle. There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere from space. The first satellite mission designed to measure CO
2 was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases (IMG) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996. This mission lasted less than a year. Since then, additional space-based measurements have begun, including those from two high-precision (better than 0.3% or 1 ppm) satellites (GOSAT and OCO-2). Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions.

Purposes and highlights of findings

Template:Carbon cycle

There are outstanding questions in carbon cycle science that satellite observations can help answer. The Earth system absorbs about half of all anthropogenic CO
2 emissions.[1] However, it is unclear exactly how this uptake is partitioned to different regions across the globe. It is also uncertain how different regions will behave in terms of CO
2 flux under a different climate. For example, a forest may increase CO
2 uptake due to the fertilization or β-effect,[2] or it could release CO
2 due to increased metabolism by microbes at higher temperatures.[3] These questions are difficult to answer with historically spatially and temporally limited data sets.

Even though satellite observations of CO
2 are somewhat recent, they have been used for a number of different purposes, some of which are highlighted here:

  • Megacity CO
    2     enhancements were observed with the GOSAT satellite and minimum observable space-based changes in emissions were estimated.[4]
  • Satellite observations have been used for visualizing how CO
    2     is distributed globally,[5] including studies that have focused on anthropogenic emissions.[6]
  • Flux estimates were made of CO
    2     into and out of different regions.[7][8]
  • Correlations were observed between anomalous temperatures and CO
    2     measurements in boreal regions.[9]
  • Zonal asymmetric patterns of CO
    2     were used to observe fossil fuel signatures.[10]
  • Emission ratios with methane were measured from forest fires.[11]
  • CO
    2     emission ratios with carbon monoxide (a marker of incomplete combustion) measured by the MOPITT instrument were analyzed over major urban regions across the globe to measure developing/developed status.[12]
  • OCO-2 observations were used to estimate CO
    2     emissions from wildfires in Indonesia in 2015.[13]
  • OCO-2 observations were also used to estimate the excess land-ocean flux due to the 2014–16 El Niño event.[14][15]
  • GOSAT observations were used to attribute 2010-2011 El Niño Modoki on the Brazilian carbon balance.[16]
  • OCO-2 observations were used to quantify CO
    2     emissions from individual power plants, demonstrating the potential for future space-based CO
    2     emission monitoring.[17]

Challenges

Water vapor can dilute other gases in air and thus change the amount of CO
2 in a column above the surface of the Earth, so often column-average dry-air mole fractions (XCO
2) are reported instead. To calculate this, instruments may also measure O2, which is diluted similarly to other gases, or the algorithms may account for water and surface pressure from other measurements.[18] Clouds may interfere with accurate measurements so platforms may include instruments to measure clouds. Because of measurement imperfections and errors in fitting signals to obtain XCO
2, space-based observations may also be compared with ground-based observations such as those from the TCCON.[19]

List of instruments

Instrument/satellite Primary institution(s) Service dates Approximate usable
daily soundings		 Approximate
sounding size		 Public data Notes Refs
HIRS-2/TOVS (NOAA-10) NOAA (U.S.) July 1987–
June 1991		 100 × 100 km No Measuring CO
2 was not an original mission goal		 [20]
IMG (ADEOS I) NASDA (Japan) 17 August 1996–
June 1997		 50 8 × 8 km No FTS system [21]
SCIAMACHY (Envisat) ESA, IUP University of Bremen (Germany) 1 March 2002–
May 2012		 5,000 30 × 60 km Yes[22] [23]
AIRS (Aqua) JPL (U.S.) 4 May 2002–
ongoing		 18,000 90 × 90 km Yes[24] [25][26]
IASI (MetOp) CNES/EUMETSAT (ESA) 19 October 2006 20-39 km diameter Yes (only a few days)[27] [28]
GOSAT JAXA (Japan) 23 January 2009–
ongoing		 10,000 10.5 km diameter Yes[29] First dedicated high precision (<0.3%) mission, also measures CH4 [30][31]
OCO JPL (U.S.) 24 February 2009 100,000 1.3 × 2.2 km N/A Failed to reach orbit[32]
OCO-2 JPL (U.S.) 2 July 2014–
ongoing		 100,000 1.3 × 2.2 km Yes[33] High precision (<0.3%) [34]
GHGSat-D (or Claire) GHGSat (Canada) 21 June 2016–
ongoing		 ~2–5 images,
10,000+ pixels each		 12 × 12 km,
50 m resolution image		 available to selected partners only CubeSat and imaging spectrometer using Fabry-Pérot interferometer [35]
TanSat (or CarbonSat) CAS (China) 21 December 2016–
ongoing		 100,000 1 × 2 km Yes (L1B radiances)[36] [37][38]
GAS FTS aboard FY-3D CMA (China) 15 November 2017–
ongoing[39]		 15,000 13 km diameter No [40][41]
GMI (GaoFen-5, (fr)) CAS (China) 8 May 2018–
ongoing[42]		 10.3 km diameter No Spatial heterodyne [43][44]
GOSAT-2 JAXA (Japan) 29 October 2018–
ongoing[45]		 10,000+ 9.7 km diameter Yes (L1B radiances)[46] Will also measure CH4 and CO [47]
OCO-3 JPL (U.S.) 4 May 2019–
ongoing[48]		 100,000 <4.5 × 4.5 km Yes[49] Mounted on the ISS [50]
GOSAT-GW JAXA (Japan) 28 June 2025–
ongoing
MicroCarb CNES (France) 26 July 2025-
ongoing [51]		 ~30,000 4.5 × 9 km 1 ppm measurement accuracy for CO
2 measurement. Likely replace OCO-2 by end-2025		 [52][53]
GeoCARB University of Oklahoma (U.S.) mission cancelled by NASA [54] ~800,000 3 × 6 km First CO
2-observing geosynchronous satellite, will also measure CH4 and CO		 [55][56]

Partial column measurements

In addition to the total column measurements of CO
2 down to the ground, there have been several limb sounders that have measured CO
2 through the edge of Earth's upper atmosphere, and thermal instruments that measure the upper atmosphere during the day and night.

  • Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) onboard TIMED launched 7 December 2001 makes measurements in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere in thermal bands.[57]
  • ACE-FTS (Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment-Fourier Transform Spectrometer) onboard SCISAT-1 launched 13 August 2003 measures solar spectra, from which profiles of CO
    2     can be calculated.[58]
  • SOFIE (Solar Occultation for Ice Experiment) is a limb sounder on board the AIM satellite launched 25 April 2007.[59]

Conceptual Missions

There have been other conceptual missions which have undergone initial evaluations but have not been chosen to become a part of space-based observing systems. These include:

  • Active Sensing of CO
    2     Emissions over Nights, Days, and Seasons (ASCENDS) is a lidar-based mission[60]
  • Geostationary Fourier Transform Spectrometer (GeoFTS)[61]
  • Atmospheric Imaging Mission for Northern regions (AIM-North) would involve a constellation of two satellites in elliptical orbits to focus on northern regions.[62][63] The concept is undergoing a Phase 0 study in 2019–2020.
  • Carbon Monitoring Satellite (CarbonSat) was a concept for an imaging satellite with global coverage approximately every 6 days. This mission never proceeded beyond the concept phase.[64]

References

  1. ↑ Schimel, David (November 2007). "Carbon cycle conundrums". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (47): 18353–18354. doi:10.1073/pnas.0709331104. PMID 17998533. Bibcode: 2007PNAS..10418353S. 
  2. ↑ Schimel, David; Stephens, Britton B.; Fisher, Joshua B. (January 2015). "Effect of increasing CO2 on the terrestrial carbon cycle". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112 (2): 436–441. doi:10.1073/pnas.1407302112. PMID 25548156. Bibcode: 2015PNAS..112..436S. 
  3. ↑ Cox, Peter M.; Pearson, David; Booth, Ben B. et al. (February 2013). "Sensitivity of tropical carbon to climate change constrained by carbon dioxide variability". Nature 494 (7437): 341–344. doi:10.1038/nature11882. PMID 23389447. Bibcode: 2013Natur.494..341C. http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/502356/1/N502356PP.pdf. 
  4. ↑ Kort, Eric A.; Frankenberg, Christian; Miller, Charles E. et al. (September 2012). "Space-based observations of megacity carbon dioxide". Geophysical Research Letters 39 (17): L17806. doi:10.1029/2012GL052738. Bibcode: 2012GeoRL..3917806K. https://authors.library.caltech.edu/57434/1/Kort_et_al-2012-Geophysical_Research_Letters_L17806.pdf. 
  5. ↑ Hammerling, Dorit M.; Michalak, Anna M.; O'Dell, Christopher et al. (April 2012). "Global CO
    2     distributions over land from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite (GOSAT)". Geophysical Research Letters 39 (8): L08804. doi:10.1029/2012GL051203. Bibcode: 2012GeoRL..39.8804H.     
  6. ↑ Hakkarainen, J.; Ialongo, I.; Tamminen, J. (November 2016). "Direct space-based observations of anthropogenic CO
    2     emission areas from OCO-2". Geophysical Research Letters 43 (21): 11,400–11,406. doi:10.1002/2016GL070885. Bibcode: 2016GeoRL..4311400H.     
  7. ↑ Basu, S.; Guerlet, S.; Butz, A. et al. (September 2013). "Global CO
    2     fluxes estimated from GOSAT retrievals of total column CO
    2    ". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 13 (17): 8695–8717. doi:10.5194/acp-13-8695-2013. Bibcode: 2013ACP....13.8695B.     
  8. ↑ Deng, F.; Jones, D. B. A.; Henze, D. K. et al. (April 2014). "Inferring regional sources and sinks of atmospheric CO
    2     from GOSAT XCO2 data". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 14 (7): 3703–3727. doi:10.5194/acp-14-3703-2014. Bibcode: 2014ACP....14.3703D.     
  9. ↑ Wunch, D.; Wennberg, P. O.; Messerschmidt, J. et al. (September 2013). "The covariation of Northern Hemisphere summertime CO
    2     with surface temperature in boreal regions". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 13 (18): 9447–9459. doi:10.5194/acp-13-9447-2013. Bibcode: 2013ACP....13.9447W.     
  10. ↑ Keppel-Aleks, G.; Wennberg, P. O.; O'Dell, C. W. et al. (April 2013). "Towards constraints on fossil fuel emissions from total column carbon dioxide". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 13 (8): 4349–4357. doi:10.5194/acp-13-4349-2013. Bibcode: 2013ACP....13.4349K. 
  11. ↑ Ross, Adrian N.; Wooster, Martin J.; Boesch, Hartmut et al. (August 2013). "First satellite measurements of carbon dioxide and methane emission ratios in wildfire plumes". Geophysical Research Letters 40 (15): 4098–4102. doi:10.1002/grl.50733. Bibcode: 2013GeoRL..40.4098R. https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/10221713. 
  12. ↑ Silva, Sam J.; Arellano, Avelino F.; Worden, Helen M. (September 2013). "Toward anthropogenic combustion emission constraints from space-based analysis of urban CO
    2    /CO sensitivity". Geophysical Research Letters 40 (18): 4971–4976. doi:10.1002/grl.50954. Bibcode: 2013GeoRL..40.4971S.     
  13. ↑ Heymann, J. et al. (February 2017). "CO
    2     emission of Indonesian fires in 2015 estimated from satellite-derived atmospheric CO
    2     concentrations". Geophysical Research Letters 44 (3): 1537. doi:10.1002/2016GL072042. Bibcode: 2017GeoRL..44.1537H.     
  14. ↑ Patra, Prabir Kumar; Crisp, David; Kaiser, Johannes W.; Wunch, Debra; Saeki, Tazu; Ichii, Kazuhito; Sekiya, Takashi; Wenneberg, Paul et al. (14 December 2016). "Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO-2) tracks increase of carbon release to the atmosphere during the 2014-2016 El Niño". 2016 AGU Fall Meeting. 12–16 December 2016. San Francisco, California.. https://agu.confex.com/agu/fm16/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/195912. 
  15. ↑ Liu, Junjie et al. (October 2017). "Contrasting carbon cycle responses of the tropical continents to the 2015–2016 El Niño". Science 358 (6360): eaam5690. doi:10.1126/science.aam5690. PMID 29026011. 
  16. ↑ Bowman, K. W. et al. (October 2017). "Global and Brazilian Carbon Response to El Niño Modoki 2011-2010". Earth and Space Science 4 (10): 637–660. doi:10.1002/2016ea000204. Bibcode: 2017E&SS....4..637B. 
  17. ↑ Nassar, R. et al. (October 2017). "Quantifying CO
    2     Emissions from Individual Power Plants From Space". Geophysical Research Letters 44 (19). doi:10.1002/2017GL074702. Bibcode: 2017GeoRL..4410045N.     
  18. ↑ Wunch, D.; Toon, G. C.; Blavier, J.-F. L. et al. (May 2011). "The Total Carbon Column Observing Network". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 369 (1943): 2087–2112. doi:10.1098/rsta.2010.0240. PMID 21502178. Bibcode: 2011RSPTA.369.2087W. 
  19. ↑ Butz, A.; Guerlet, S.; Hasekamp, O. et al. (July 2011). "Toward accurate CO2 and CH4 observations from GOSAT". Geophysical Research Letters 38 (14): L14812. doi:10.1029/2011GL047888. Bibcode: 2011GeoRL..3814812B. https://ro.uow.edu.au/scipapers/3212. 
  20. ↑ Chédin, A.; Serrar, S.; Scott, N. A. et al. (September 2003). "First global measurement of midtropospheric CO
    2     from NOAA polar satellites: Tropical zone". Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (D18): 4581. doi:10.1029/2003JD003439. Bibcode: 2003JGRD..108.4581C.     
  21. ↑ Kobayashi, Hirokazu; Shimota, Akiro; Kondo, Kayoko et al. (November 1999). "Development and Evaluation of the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases: a High-throughput Fourier-transform Infrared Radiometer for Nadir Earth Observation". Applied Optics 38 (33): 6801–6807. doi:10.1364/AO.38.006801. PMID 18324219. Bibcode: 1999ApOpt..38.6801K. 
  22. ↑ "SCIAMACHY Data Products at IUP/IFE Bremen". IUP Bremen. http://www.iup.uni-bremen.de/sciamachy/dataproducts/index.html. 
  23. ↑ Buchwitz, M.; de Beek, R.; Burrows, J. P. et al. (March 2005). "Atmospheric methane and carbon dioxide from SCIAMACHY satellite data: initial comparison with chemistry and transport models". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 5 (4): 941–962. doi:10.5194/acp-5-941-2005. Bibcode: 2005ACP.....5..941B. 
  24. ↑ "CO
    2     Documents"    . AIRS Version 5 Documentation. NASA / Goddard Space Flight Center. 19 November 2015. https://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov/AIRS/documentation/v5_docs/v5_docs_list.shtml#CO2_Documents.     
  25. ↑ Olsen, Edward T.; Chahine, Moustafa T.; Chen, Luke L. et al. (April 2008). Shen, Sylvia S; Lewis, Paul E. eds. "Retrieval of mid-tropospheric CO2 directly from AIRS measurements". Proceedings of the SPIE. Algorithms and Technologies for Multispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIV 6966: 696613. doi:10.1117/12.777920. Bibcode: 2008SPIE.6966E..13O. 
  26. ↑ Chahine, M. T.; Chen, Luke; Dimotakis, Paul et al. (September 2008). "Satellite remote sounding of mid-tropospheric CO
    2    "    . Geophysical Research Letters 35 (17): L17807. doi:10.1029/2008GL035022. Bibcode: 2008GeoRL..3517807C. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5q83q1nb.     
  27. ↑ "IASI Sounding Products". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. http://www.ospo.noaa.gov/Products/atmosphere/soundings/iasi/. 
  28. ↑ Liuzzia, G.; Masielloa, G.; Serioa, C. et al. (October 2016). "Physical inversion of the full IASI spectra: Assessment of atmospheric parameters retrievals, consistency of spectroscopy and forward modelling". Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer 182: 128–157. doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2016.05.022. Bibcode: 2016JQSRT.182..128L. 
  29. ↑ "GOSAT Data Archive Service (GDAS)". National Institute for Environmental Studies. https://data2.gosat.nies.go.jp/index_en.html. 
  30. ↑ Kuze, Akihiko; Suto, Hiroshi; Nakajima, Masakatsu et al. (December 2009). "Thermal and near infrared sensor for carbon observation Fourier-transform spectrometer on the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite for greenhouse gases monitoring". Applied Optics 48 (35): 6716. doi:10.1364/AO.48.006716. PMID 20011012. Bibcode: 2009ApOpt..48.6716K. 
  31. ↑ Kuze, Akihiko; Suto, Hiroshi; Shiomi, Kei et al. (June 2016). "Update on GOSAT TANSO-FTS performance, operations, and data products after more than 6 years in space". Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 9 (6): 2445–2461. doi:10.5194/amt-9-2445-2016. Bibcode: 2016AMT.....9.2445K. 
  32. ↑ Overview of the Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) Mishap Investigation Results For Public Release (Report). NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/369037main_OCOexecutivesummary_71609.pdf. Retrieved 5 November 2018. 
  33. ↑ "CO
    2     Virtual Science Data Environment"    . NASA / Jet Propulsion Laboratory. https://co2.jpl.nasa.gov/#mission=OCO-2.     
  34. ↑ Eldering, Annmarie; O'Dell, Chris W.; Wennberg, Paul O. et al. (February 2017). "The Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2: First 18 months of science data products". Atmospheric Measurement Techniques Discussions 10 (2): 549–563. doi:10.5194/amt-10-549-2017. Bibcode: 2017AMT....10..549E. 
  35. ↑ "GHGSat Global Emissions Monitoring". GHGSat. http://www.ghgsat.com/. 
  36. ↑ "FENGYUN Satellite Data Center". National Satellite Meteorological Center. http://satellite.nsmc.org.cn/portalsite/Data/DataView.aspx?SatelliteType=2&SatelliteCode=TAN1. 
  37. ↑ Liu, Yi; Yang, DongXu; Cai, ZhaoNan (May 2013). "A retrieval algorithm for TanSat XCO2 observation: Retrieval experiments using GOSAT data". Chinese Science Bulletin 58 (13): 1520–1523. doi:10.1007/s11434-013-5680-y. Bibcode: 2013ChSBu..58.1520L. 
  38. ↑ Liu, Jia (22 December 2016). "China Launches Satellite to Monitor Global Carbon Emissions". Chinese Academy of Sciences. http://english.cas.cn/head/201612/t20161222_172788.shtml. 
  39. ↑ Clark, Stephen (14 November 2017). "Chinese weather satellite launched into polar orbit". Spaceflight Now. https://spaceflightnow.com/2017/11/14/chinese-weather-satellite-launched-into-polar-orbit/. 
  40. ↑ "Satellite: FY-3D". WMO Observing Systems Capability Analysis and Review Tool. https://www.wmo-sat.info/oscar/satellites/view/116. 
  41. ↑ "China successfully launched FY-3D polar orbiting meteorological satellite". China Meteorological Administration. http://www.cma.gov.cn/en2014/news/News/201711/t20171115_456104.html. 
  42. ↑ Barbosa, Rui (8 May 2018). "Chinese weather satellite launched into polar orbit". https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2018/05/long-march-4c-lofts-gaofen-5/. 
  43. ↑ Chen, Liangfu (2016). "Mission Overview GaoFen-5". CEOS-ACC-12 meeting. 13–15 October 2016. Seoul, Korea.. http://ceos.org/document_management/Virtual_Constellations/ACC/Meetings/AC-VC-12/Day%201/5.%20Linagfu%20Chen%20-%20Gaofeng-5%201013.pdf. 
  44. ↑ Liu, Yi (2017). "CO
    2     Monitoring from Space: TanSat and GF-5/GMI Mission Status"    . The 9th GEOSS Asia-Pacific Symposium. 11–13 January 2017. Tokyo, Japan.. https://geoss-ap-symposium9.org/_public/20170112/wg3/20170112_wg3_02-1.pdf.     
  45. ↑ "Launch Results of the H-IIA F40 Encapsulating GOSAT-2 and KhalifaSat". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. 29 October 2018. http://global.jaxa.jp/press/2018/10/20181029_h2af40.html. 
  46. ↑ "GOSAT-2 Product Archive". National Institute for Environmental Studies. https://prdct.gosat-2.nies.go.jp/en/. 
  47. ↑ Matsunaga, T.; Maksyutov, S.; Morino, I.; Yoshida, Y.; Saito, M.; Noda, H.; Terao, T.; Nishizawa, T. et al. (2016). "The Status of NIES GOSAT-2 Project and NIES Satellite Observation Center". 12th International Workshop on Greenhouse Gas Measurements from Space. 7–9 June 2016. Kyoto, Japan.. https://www.omc.co.jp/iwggms12/pdf/Session_9/43_Tsuneo_Matsunaga.pdf. 
  48. ↑ Potter, Sean (4 May 2019). "SpaceX Dragon Heads to Space Station with NASA Science, Cargo". NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/spacex-dragon-heads-to-space-station-with-nasa-science-cargo. 
  49. ↑ "GES Disc Search, OCO-3". NASA. https://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov/datasets?keywords=OCO-3&page=1. 
  50. ↑ Eldering, Annmarie; Worden, John (October 2016). OCO-3 Science and Status for CEOS (Report). Committee on Earth Observation Satellites. http://ceos.org/document_management/Virtual_Constellations/ACC/Meetings/AC-VC-12/Day%202/7.%20Worden%20-%20OCO-3.pdf. 
  51. ↑ "Watch live: Vega-C to launch CO3D and MicroCarb". ESA. 23 July 2025. https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Transportation/Vega/Watch_live_Vega-C_to_launch_CO3D_and_MicroCarb. 
  52. ↑ Buisson, Francois; Pradines, Didier; Pascal, Veronique; Jouglet, Denis (9 June 2016). "An Introduction to MicroCarb, First European Program for CO
    2     Monitoring"    . 12th International Workshop on Greenhouse Gas Measurements from Space, 7–9 June 2016, Kyoto, Japan. https://www.omc.co.jp/iwggms12/pdf/Session_10/45_Francois_Buisson.pdf.     
  53. ↑ "MicroCarb". CNES. 16 July 2025. https://cnes.fr/en/projects/microcarb. 
  54. ↑ "NASA to Cancel GeoCarb Mission, Expands Greenhouse Gas Portfolio". NASA (Press release). 29 November 2022. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  55. ↑ Polonsky, I. N.; O'Brien, D. M.; Kumer, J. B. et al. (April 2014). "Performance of a geostationary mission, geoCARB, to measure CO2, CH4 and CO column-averaged concentrations". Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 7 (4): 959–981. doi:10.5194/amt-7-959-2014. Bibcode: 2014AMT.....7..959P. 
  56. ↑ Moore, Berrien III (8 June 2017). "GeoCARB, Geostationary Carbon Observatory". 13th International Workshop on Greenhouse Gas Measurements from Space. 6–8 June 2017. Helsinki, Finland.. http://iwggms13.fmi.fi/presentations/j08_s07_04_Moore.pdf. 
  57. ↑ "SABER: A Pioneer in Atmospheric Science". NASA Langley Research Center. 2001. https://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/SABER.html. 
  58. ↑ "ACE: Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment". University of Waterloo. http://www.ace.uwaterloo.ca/index.php. 
  59. ↑ "Solar Occultation For Ice Experiment". GATS, Inc. 2010. http://sofie.gats-inc.com/. 
  60. ↑ Wang, J. S.; Kawa, S. R.; Eluszkiewicz, J. et al. (December 2014). "A regional CO
    2     observing system simulation experiment for the ASCENDS satellite mission". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 14 (23): 12897–12914. doi:10.5194/acp-14-12897-2014. Bibcode: 2014ACP....1412897W.     
  61. ↑ Key, Richard; Sander, Stanley; Eldering, Annmarie; Rider, David; Blavier, Jean-Francois; Bekker, Dmitriy; Wu, Yen-Hung; Manatt, Ken (2012). "The Geostationary Fourier Transform Spectrometer". 2012 IEEE Aerospace Conference. 3–10 March 2012. Big Sky, Montana.. doi:10.1109/AERO.2012.6187164. 
  62. ↑ "AIM-North The Atmospheric Imaging Mission for Northern regions". http://aim-north.ca/. 
  63. ↑ Nassar, R.; McLinden, C.; Sioris, C. et al. (2019). "The Atmospheric Imaging Mission for Northern Regions: AIM-North". Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing 45 (3–4): 781–811. doi:10.1080/07038992.2019.1643707. Bibcode: 2019CaJRS..45..423N. 
  64. ↑ Bovensmann, H.; Buchwitz, M.; Burrows, J. P.; Reuter, M.; Krings, T.; Gerilowski, K.; Schneising, O.; Heymann, J. et al. (2010). "A remote sensing technique for global monitoring of power plant CO
    2     emissions from space and related applications". Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 3 (4): 423–442. doi:10.5194/amt-3-781-2010. ISSN 1867-8548. Bibcode: 2010AMT.....3..781B.     



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