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Lake freighter

Topic: Engineering

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 22 min

Short description: North American Great Lakes "boats" (ships)

Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist., with pilothouse forward and engine room astern, also equipped with a self-unloading boom.

Lake freighters, or lakers, are bulk carriers operating on the Great Lakes of North America. These vessels are traditionally called boats, although classified as ships.[1][2] Freighters typically have a long, narrow hull, a raised pilothouse, and the engine located at the rear of the ship.

Lakers have been used since the late 19th century to haul raw material from docks in the Great Lakes and St Lawrence Seaway regions to the industrial centers of Ontario, Quebec, and the American Midwest. The navigation season typically runs from late March through next mid-January due to the formation of ice on the lakes.[3]

The largest lake freighters can travel up to 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph)[4] and can carry as much as 78,850 long tons (80,120 t) of bulk cargo. Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist., which sank in 1975, became widely known as the largest vessel to be wrecked on the Great Lakes.

History

The wood-hulled R. J. Hackett, the first modern Great Lakes bulk freighter

The lake freighter's recognizable design emerged from many years of innovation in Great Lakes shipping. By the late 1860s, most bulk cargo was still carried by unpowered barges and sailing ships. Often, these ships had accessible deck hatches, useful for loading and unloading cargo. Also around this time, passenger steamboats were gaining popularity for their steam-powered shipping abilities, which were faster and more reliable.[5]

In 1869, the wood-hulled missing name was launched. It was designed specifically for the iron ore trade and had an experimental design that would soon set the standard for subsequent bulk carriers on the Great Lakes. R. J. Hackett featured a raised pilothouse at the bow, situated on top of a set of cabins, and a boxy hull to maximize cargo capacity. Between the raised forecastle and engine funnel at the stern was a long, unbroken deck lined with hatches spaced 24 feet (7.3 m) apart. This spacing was to match the chutes of the gravity ore dock in Marquette, Michigan.[5][6]

The State Lock at the Michigan State Locks (now Soo Locks)[7]

The falls of the St. Marys River forced ships to portage their cargo 1.25 miles (2.01 km) around the falls. In an effort to make shipping more efficient and profitable, Michigan representatives appealed to the federal government for funding to build a canal. In 1855, the Michigan State Locks (now Soo Locks) opened, allowing vessels to keep up with demands for iron ore from further east. This would fuel the development of bulk carriers on the Great Lakes.[8]

Early lakers often had a wooden hull, or a composite hull consisting of an oak frame wrapped in iron plating. With the depletion of high-quality timber near the lakeshore, shipbuilders increasingly opted for metal hulls. In 1881 and 1882, the first entirely iron-hulled freighters, Brunswick and Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist., were launched. Around this time, steel was quickly becoming a standard hull material as a result of the Bessemer process making it more affordable. The first steel-hulled freighter, Spokane, launched in 1886. Soon both iron and composite hulls were phased out. Wood was used for smaller vessels into the early 1900s.[8][5][9]

Whaleback Joseph L. Colby

An early variation on the lake freighter was the whaleback, designed by Alexander McDougall. These had cigar-shaped bodies that barely rose out of the water when fully loaded, and carried bulk cargo on the lakes from 1888 through 1970.[10][11]

The early lake freighters required cargo to be manually unloaded, or with assistance from unloading machinery at the docks.[12] In 1902, Hennepin was the first ship to be retrofitted with self-unloading equipment, allowing its cargo to be landed in a fraction of the time.[5]

Around 1916, 600-foot (180 m) vessels more or less became the standard size.[13]

After World War II, several oceangoing freighters and tankers were transported to the Great Lakes and converted to bulk carriers as a way to acquire ships cheaply. The oil tanker missing name became the bulk freighter MV Lee A. Tregurtha[14] In addition, the freighter Outer Island was originally commissioned as LCT-203 for use as a tank landing craft during World War II.[15]

In the mid-20th century, 300 lakers worked the lakes, but by the early 21st century, there were fewer than 140 active.[16] By the 1990s, older and smaller self-unloaders and straight-deck freighters were converted into tug-barges.[4]

Landmark vessels

Name Launched Notes
R. J. Hackett 1869 First of the lake freighters. R. J. Hackett burned at Whaleback Shoal in 1905.[6]
Brunswick 1881 First iron-hulled lake freighter.
Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist. 1882 Followed Brunswick in advancing the design of what would become the Great Lakes boat
Spokane 1886 First steel-hulled lake freighter.
Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist. 1888 Originally Str. George H. Dyer, it was the first ship retrofitted to have self-unloading equipment in 1902. Hennepin sank in a storm in 1927.[5]
SS Western Reserve 1890 First steel bulk carrier of the classic Great Lakes design (superstructures at bow and stern). Sank in a storm in 1892.[17]
Wyandotte 1908 First ship built as a self-unloader.
Henry Ford II, missing name 1924 First lake freighters with diesel engines.[18]
S. T. Crapo 1927 The last coal-fired freighter on the Great Lakes. In 1995, the ship's boiler was converted to be oil-firing. The 95-year-old ship was scrapped in 2022.[19]
Feux Follets 1967 Last ship built with a steam turbine.
Stewart J. Cort 1972 First 1,000-footer lake freighter. Originally Hull 1173 and nicknamed "Stubby", the ship only consisted of the bow and stern sections. It was then sailed to Erie, Pennsylvania and lengthened by over 700 feet.[2][20]
Presque Isle 1973 The first 1,000-foot integrated tugboat/barge and the second 1,000 footer overall.[21]
missing name 1976 First standard construction 1,000-footer.
missing name 1978 The most powerful freighter when launched with two engines rated at 19,500 brake horsepower (14,500 kW) each.[22][23] In 2011, it was repowered with two engines rated at 9,650 bhp (7,200 kW) each.[24]
missing name 1981 The largest ship currently on the lakes at 1,013.5 feet (308.9 m).[25]

Types of lake freighters

The many lake freighters operating on the Great Lakes can be differentiated by how they are used. They may be classified according to where they work, their design, their size, or other factors. The ships are not always exclusive to one category. These types include:

  • Laker – a bulk carrier operating primarily in the upper Great Lakes.[26]
  • Longboats – lakers noted for their slender appearance.
  • Oreboat/Ironboat – a bulk carrier used primarily to transport iron ore and taconite pellets.[26]
  • Saltie – ocean-going, seawaymax vessels that access the Great Lakes through the Saint Lawrence Seaway.[27]
  • Self-unloader – a lake freighter equipped with self-unloading gear.
  • Stern-ender – a lake freighter with all cabins aft.
  • Straight decker (bulker) – a freighter built without conveyors and cranes to offload cargo, instead using port facilities.[28]
  • Tug-barge - a bulk carrier created by pairing barges (former self-unloaders and straight-deckers) with a tugboat.[4]

Some of the newer classes of lake freighters include:

  • Script error: The function "sclass" does not exist. – a new class of lake freighter, several of which entered service in the 2010s for Seaway Marine Transport, a division of Algoma Central. A class of vessel is created any time a new design is used to build a ship and is notable when multiple ships are built to the same design plans.[29] The ships are used as dry-bulk lake freighters (two gearless bulk freighter and three self-unloading vessel).[30] The first in the series, missing name, was launched in 2013.
  • Script error: The function "sclass" does not exist. – a new class of lake freighter delivered for Canada Steamship Lines in 2012 ( missing name) and 2013 ( missing name, missing name and missing name). An additional pair (CSL Welland and CSL St. Laurent) began service on the Great Lakes in 2015.
  • Script error: The function "sclass" does not exist. – a new class of lake freighter, one of which, missing name, was commissioned by Interlake Steamship Company and entered service on July 1, 2022.[31]

Cargo

Average yearly cargoes 2018–2022
(million tons)
Iron ore 42.3
Coal 10.0
Limestone 22.9
Cement 3.4
Salt 0.9
Sand 0.5
Grain 0.3
Total 80.4
Source: "Cargo Reports – Year-in-Review 2023 – U.S.-Flag Vessels"[32]

In 2023, 81.4 million tons of cargo were shipped on the Great Lakes.[33] The most common cargoes include taconite, limestone, grain, salt, coal, cement, gypsum, and sand.[34] The cargo is carried in large contiguous holds, not packed into containers.

The iron ore transported from the upper Great Lakes primarily supplies the steel mills of the Midwest.[35] Iron ore makes up a majority of the cargo shipped annually.[36]

The 1940s saw the rise in the use of taconite pellets, as sources of higher quality ore diminished.[37]

Cason J. Callaway laid up in Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin. (2021)


Because of their deeper draft and freshwater's lower buoyancy, salties often take on partial loads.[38] Conversely, the Seaway allows smaller lakers to access the Atlantic Ocean. The larger, newer ships are restricted to the upper lakes.

Design

Lakers feature a design distinct from their ocean-going counterparts. Because of the R. J. Hackett (1869), lake freighters typically had the bridge and associated superstructure at the bow. Additionally, a second island would be located over the engine room in the stern. In 1974, missing name was the final vessel designed this way.

Self-unloading freighter discharging bulk cargo at Duluth, Minnesota.
Freighter MV James R Barker passing through the Straits of Mackinac
MV John B. Aird, a laker with a single aft superstructure.

The more recently built lakers, like CSL Niagara, have a single large superstructure island at the stern.


Another distinguishing feature of lake vessels versus ocean vessels is the cargo hatch configuration. On the lake vessels, the hatches are traditionally spaced 24 feet (7.3 m) apart. This configuration was needed to match the chutes at loading facilities.


Size

1000-footer George A. Stinson (now American Spirit) pounds through Lake Huron waves.

The size of a lake freighter determines where it may work. The shallow draft imposed by the St. Marys River and Lake St. Clair restrict the cargo capacity of lakers. Poe Lock at the Soo Locks is the largest deep lock at 1,200 feet (370 m) long and 110 feet (34 m) wide.[39]

Many of the larger American ships are unable to navigate the locks of the St. Lawrence Seaway, which restricts vessel size to 740 feet (230 m) in length and 78 feet (24 m) in breadth.[40] Seawaymax vessels are able to access the Great Lakes and the ocean. The Canadian fleet needs to travel to and from its major cities along the St. Lawrence Seaway, so the largest length for the Canadian vessels is 740 feet (230 m). Lake boats in the 600-and-700-foot (180 and 210 m) classes are more common, because of the limitations of the Welland Canal. These vessels vary greatly in configuration and cargo capacity, being capable of hauling between 10,000 and 40,000 tons per trip depending on the individual boat. The smaller boats serve smaller harbors around the lakes which have irregular need for their services.

1000-footers

See also: List of bulk carriers § Lake freighters

These are the largest vessels on the lakes. Thirteen were built between 1976 and 1981, and all remain in service today. These are all U.S.-flagged vessels between 1,000 and 1,013.5 feet (304.8 and 308.9 m) long, 105 feet (32 m) wide and of 56 ft (17 m) hull depth.

List of 1000-footers operating on the Great Lakes
Name Type Dimensions Cargo capacity Notes
missing name Bulk freighter (self unloading) 1,000 ft × 105 ft
American Spirit Bulk freighter (self unloading) 1,004 ft × 105 ft
missing name Bulk freighter (self unloading) 1,000 ft × 105 ft
Edgar B. Speer Bulk freighter (self unloading) 1,004 ft × 105 ft
missing name Bulk freighter (self unloading) 1,000 ft × 105 ft Most powerful engines on the Great Lakes.
missing name Bulk freighter (self unloading) 1,000 ft × 105 ft First standard construction 1000-footer.
missing name Bulk freighter (self unloading) 1,004 ft × 105 ft
missing name Bulk freighter (self unloading) 1,013.5 ft × 105 ft Longest vessel operating on the Great Lakes.[41]
Stewart J. Cort Bulk freighter (self unloading) 1,000 ft × 105 ft First 1000-footer on the lakes, and the only one with a forward pilothouse, following the traditional Great Lakes style.[42][43]
missing name Bulk freighter (self unloading) 1,000 ft × 105 ft
missing name Bulk freighter (self unloading) 1,000 ft × 105 ft
missing name Bulk freighter (self unloading) 1,000 ft × 105 ft - Presque Isle Tug/barge combination 1,000 ft × 104 ft 7 in[clarification needed] Only 1000 ft tug/barge combination unit

Lifespan

In 2006, missing name (left) in use for cement storage at age 102 with J. A. W. Iglehart (right) in her last month of a 70-year sailing career, which included surviving a U-boat attack in the Atlantic during World War II.

Modern lakers are usually designed and constructed for a 45-50 year old service life, outlasting ocean-going bulk carriers.[44] As of 2023, ocean-going bulk freighters average an 11-year lifespan, due in part to the corrosive effects of saltwater.[45][46]

Some of the lakers have been known to have long careers. The Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist. launched in 1906 and worked independently until 2013. The St. Marys Challenger is still in service as a barge at 118 years old.[47] E. M. Ford had one of the longest careers, having been built in 1898 until being sold for scrap in November 2008.[48]

Some shipping companies are building new freighters to ply the waters of the Great Lakes. The following are new freighters in use or will be launched for use in the Great Lakes:

  • missing name – built by Chengxi Shipyard of Jiangyin, China, delivered in August 2011 for Algoma Central Corporation.[49][30]

Ship losses and incidents

Cedarglen beset in ice during a December trip until freed by two US Coast Guard icebreakers.

The Great Lakes have a long history of shipwrecks, groundings, storms, and collisions. From the 1679 sinking of Le Griffon with its cargo of furs to the 1975 loss of Edmund Fitzgerald, thousands of ships and thousands of lives have been lost, many involving vessels in the cargo trade. The Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum uses the approximate 6,000 ships and 30,000 lives lost.[50] David D. Swayze has compiled a list which details over 4,750 well-documented shipwrecks, mostly of commercial vessels and a list of known names of over 5,000 victims of those sinkings.[51] Maritime historian Mark Thompson reports that based on nautical records, nearly 6,000 shipwrecks on the Great Lakes occurred between 1878 and 1994, with about a quarter of those being listed as total losses with a total of 1,166 lives lost.[52]

The most recent losses of modern lakers were:

  • Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist., November 10, 1975, Lake Superior, 29 of 29 crew died, (unknown cause during a storm)
  • Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist., November 29, 1966, Lake Huron, 28 of 29 crew died, (split in half by hogging during a storm)
  • Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist., May 7, 1965, Straits of Mackinac, 10 of 35 crew died, (collision with the saltie Topdalsfjord)
  • Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist., November 18, 1958, Lake Michigan, 33 of 35 crew died, (split in half by hogging during a storm)[53]
  • Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist., June 20, 1953, Lake Superior, 1 of 29 crew died, (rammed by freighter Burlington in heavy fog)
  • Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist., May 11, 1953, Lake Superior, 17 of 31 crew died, (flooded after the cargo hatch covers were lost during a storm)
  • SS Emperor, June 4, 1947, Lake Superior, 12 of 33 crew died, (ran into rocks at Isle Royale)
  • SS Superior City, August 20, 1920, Lake Superior, 29 of 33 crew died, (collision with freighter Willis L. King)

The salties Prins Willem V and Monrovia sank in the Great Lakes during the 1950s; both in collisions with other ships. The saltie Francisco Morazan was a total loss after running aground off South Manitou Island on November 29, 1960. Another saltie Nordmeer grounded on Thunder Bay Island Shoal in November 1966, but before it could be refloated, it was further damaged in the same storm that sank the Morrell and was declared a total loss.

Ships on the lakes have been involved in many lesser incidents. Lakers have been subject to frequent groundings in ports and channels because of varying lake levels and silting, collisions with objects (such as the 1993 collision of the Indiana Harbor with the Lansing Shoals Light Station),[52] icing in during winter trips and shipboard fires (including the unusual case in 2001 where a drawbridge ran into the Canadian grain carrier Windoc causing a fire). To prevent collisions and groundings, the Great Lakes are well-served with lighthouses and lights, and floating navigation aids. The U.S. Coast Guard and Canadian Coast Guard maintain stations around the Great Lakes including icebreakers and rescue helicopters. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and other agencies maintain the harbors and seaways to limit groundings by dredging and seawalling.[54]

November was the traditional last month of shipping before the winter layup (and lake freeze-up). During November, much of the worst weather of the navigation season occurs which has resulted in a disproportionate number of accidents. One study shows that over half of all strandings and one-third of all vessels lost to foundering between 1900 and 1950 were lost during November.[55]

Famous vessels

The SS Edmund Fitzgerald is possibly the most famous shipwreck in the Great Lakes.

The most well-known lake freighter was Edmund Fitzgerald, which sank during a storm on Lake Superior on November 10, 1975. Gordon Lightfoot's ballad, "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald", publicized the incident.[56] The Edmund Fitzgerald became the largest ship on the lakes at 729 feet (222 m) when launched in 1958. In addition to this, the ship was regarded for its "DJ Captain", Peter Pulcer, who frequently played music to entertain onlookers.[57]

Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist.. launched in 1952, is known for having last contact with Edmund Fitzgerald and was the first vessel on-scene to search for the Edmund Fitzgerald.[58]

MV Paul R. Tregurtha currently holds the title "Queen of the Lakes" as the largest ship on the lakes since launching in 1981. The modern stern-ender was first launched MV William J. Delancy and measures 1013.5 feet (308.9 m).[59]

Notable vessels

See also: Queen of the Lakes

Onoko was the second iron-hulled laker, launched in 1882. At 302 ft, Onoko was the longest ship on the lakes and became the first bulk carrier to hold the unofficial title of "Queen of the Lakes". The title that has been passed down to record-breaking lake freighters since. Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist. held the title for 22 years, longer than any other laker of the classic design. Ford Motor Company's Henry Ford II and missing name of 1924 were the first lakeboats with diesel engines.[60] The Canadian grainboat Feux-Follets of 1967 was the last laker built with a steam turbine on the lakes.

missing name on winter lay-up in Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin, on February 19, 2008.

Wilfred Sykes (1949 – 678 ft, 207 m) is considered to be the first of the modern lakers, and when converted to a self-unloader in 1975 was the first to have the equipment mounted aft. Since then all self-unloading equipment has been mounted aft. Algoisle (formerly Silver Isle) (1962 – 715.9 ft, 218.2 m) was the first modern laker built with all cabins aft (a "stern-ender"), following the lead of ocean-going bulk carriers and reprising a century old form used by little river steam barges and the whalebacks. missing name (1974–2015 730 ft, 220 m) was the last laker built in the classic style. Also of note is the steamer Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist., widely known for her artistic design and being the only remaining straight-decker still in active service on the US side of the Great Lakes. In mid 2006, Edward L. Ryerson was fitted out and put into service following a long-term lay-up that began in 1998. Edward L. Ryerson has been in long-term layup since 2009.[61]

Museum ships and surviving hulls

Museum ships

Cleveland, Ohio

The Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist. was first built in 1925 and served as the Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Company's flagship until 1980. In 1987, the ship was donated to the Great Lakes Historical Society for restoration and preservation. In 2005, the ship was moved to its present location at Cleveland's North Coast Harbor. Then, in 2006, the ship was acquired by the Great Lakes Science Center for use as a museum ship. The ship is available to tour seasonally.[62][63]

Duluth-Superior, Minnesota-Wisconsin

The Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist. served as the flagship of U.S. Steel's Great Lakes fleet from 1938 to 1975. The William A. Irvin was retired in 1978 and purchased eight years later by the Duluth Entertainment Convention Center and is available for touring.[64][65]

The SS Meteor, the last surviving whaleback ship, floats as a museum less than a mile from where it was launched in Superior, Wisconsin. The ship is permanently land-berthed on Barker's Island.[66]

Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan

Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist. launched as Louis W. Hill in 1917 and transported cargo until retiring in 1966. Two years later, in 1968, the ship arrived in Sault Ste. Marie Michigan on July 6, during the town's tri-centennial celebrations for use as a museum ship.[67] The museum ship displays many relics of the sinking of Edmund Fitzgerald including two of Edmund Fitzgerald's mauled lifeboats.[68]

The SS Col James M Schoonmaker docked in Toledo, Ohio in 2018.

Toledo, Ohio

The 118-year-old SS St. Mary's Challenger's pilothouse is set to be displayed in the National Museum of the Great Lakes' upcoming museum expansion.[69]

The Script error: The function "ship_prefix_templates" does not exist. (formerly Willis B. Boyer) floats in the Maumee River as a museum ship for the National Museum of the Great Lakes. When launched in 1911, it was the largest bulk freighter in the world.[70] The Col. James M. Schoonmaker formerly served as a floating museum after being purchased by the City of Toledo, Ohio in 1987.[71]

Surviving hulls and partial ships

DeTour Village, Michigan

Lewis G. Harriman's bow and bow superstructure are preserved as a residence in DeTour, Michigan. The ship was christened as the SS John W. Boardman in 1923. In 1965, the John W. Boardman was renamed Lewis G. Harriman and used to store cement during the Poe Lock construction in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. The ship was sold for scrap 2003, but the pilothouse and hull of Lewis G. Harriman were saved and now are used as a residence along the lake shore.[72]

SS John Sherwin, not sailed since 1981, is currently docked in DeTour, Michigan after conversion to a self-unloader and repowering was halted in November 2008.[73]

Detroit, Michigan

The pilothouse of SS William Clay Ford is part of the Dossin Great Lakes Museum on Belle Isle.[74] The pilothouse is open for tours and overlooks the Detroit River.

Mississauga, Ontario

SS Ridgetown was partially sunk as a breakwater (with stack and cabins intact) near Toronto at Port Credit. It was built in 1905 and is one of the oldest surviving hulls on the lake. Its silhouette provides an example of the appearance of early 1900s lake freighters.

South Bass Island, Ohio

MV Benson Ford was the flagship of the Ford Motor Company fleet when launched in 1924. The forward cabin and pilothouse was moved in 1986 to a cliff on South Bass Island, near the village of Put-in-Bay, Ohio in Lake Erie. It has been a private island residence since 1999 and they offer tours on select dates.[75][76]

Failed museum attempts, ships scrapped

MV Maumee, one of the long-lived bulk freighters on the Lakes, unloads in Holland, Michigan. Scrapped in 2012 when she was 83 years old.

Several other lakers nearly became museums, but were scrapped for lack of funding, political opposition, and other causes.

  • SS Niagara: 1897-built freighter, later converted to a sand-sucker. Scrapped in 1997 by Liberty Iron & Metal of Erie, Pennsylvania, after a failed attempt to convert the ship into a museum in Erie. She had been saved from the scrapyard 11 years earlier.
  • John Ericsson: The second-to-last whaleback freighter. John Ericsson was scrapped in 1969 in the city of Hamilton, Ontario. Politics, as was the case with Canadiana, played a central role in the loss of the ship.
  • SS Seaway Queen: The Canadian straight decker Seaway Queen, formerly owned by Upper Lakes Shipping, and the setting for the movie version of David Mamet's play Lakeboat, was involved in an attempt to save the ship as a museum. In the end, the company failed to locate an organization that was capable and willing to preserve the ship and she was sold and scrapped in Alang, India, in 2004.
  • J. B. Ford: 1904 freighter that survived the 1905 Mataafa storm and the Great Lakes Storm of 1913 with the last three-cycle reciprocating steam engine was too expensive to turn into a museum and was sent to Azcon Metals in Duluth to be scrapped in 2015.[77]

See also

  • Canal
  • Glossary of nautical terms (disambiguation)
  • Great Lakes Maritime Academy, training center for merchant mariners on the Great Lakes
  • Great Lakes passenger steamers
  • Great Lakes Storm of 1913
  • Great Lakes Waterway
  • Merchant vessel
  • Navigability
  • Ship transport
  • Watercraft
  • Waterway

References

  1. ↑ Brown, Chris W. III; Young, Claiborne S. (1998). Cruising Guide to New York Waterways & Lake Champlain (1st ed.). Gretna, LA: Pelican Publishing. p. 53. ISBN 9781565542501. https://books.google.com/books?id=idtuEhZvPk0C&q=%22lake%20freighter%20called%20boat%22&pg=PA53. Retrieved November 15, 2012. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Thompson, Mark L. (1991). Steamboats & Sailors of the Great Lakes. Wayne State University Press. pp. 78–98. ISBN 9780814323595. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/27/oa_monograph/chapter/2185233. Retrieved November 17, 2012. 
  3. ↑ LCA. "Icebreaking FAQs" (in en-US). https://lcaships.com/icebreaking-faqs-3/. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 "Great Lakes ships". https://www.eekwi.org/great-lakes/humans-and-great-lakes/great-lakes-ships. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Thompson, Mark L. (1991) (in en). Steamboats & Sailors of the Great Lakes. Wayne State University Press. pp. 38. ISBN 978-0-8143-2359-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=KRLZDXIEWCsC&pg=PA30. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Hackett, R.J.". Bowling Green State University University Libraries. https://greatlakes.bgsu.edu/item/433135. 
  7. ↑ Brotherton, R. S. (1955). "The Soo Locks – One Hundred Years Ago" (in en-US). https://nmgl.org/the-soo-locks-one-hundred-years-ago-summer-1955/. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "iron ore & taconite". https://project.geo.msu.edu/geogmich/iron_ore__taconite.html. 
  9. ↑ Lengieza, Joseph (April 2016). "Vernacular in Curves: The Mythologizing of the Great Lakes Whaleback". East Carolina University. https://thescholarship.ecu.edu/bitstream/handle/10342/5333/LENGIEZA-MASTERSTHESIS-2016.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. 
  10. ↑ Thompson, Mark L. (1994) (in en). Queen of the Lakes. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8143-2393-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=irtD2o_uQ88C&pg=PA22. 
  11. ↑ "Whaleback Boats on the Great Lakes | Minnesota Digital Library". https://mndigital.org/projects/primary-source-sets/whaleback-boats-great-lakes. 
  12. ↑ "Giant Jaws Upload Ore Ship". Popular Mechanics, May 1953, pp. 74–77.
  13. ↑ Harkins, Wesley (November 1954). "Iron Ore Traffic on the Great Lakes". U. S. Naval Institute 80 (11): 621. https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1954/november/iron-ore-traffic-great-lakes. 
  14. ↑ Wharton, George (April 20, 2021). "Lee A. Tregurtha" (in en-US). https://boatnerd.com/lee-a-tregurtha/. 
  15. ↑ "LCT-203 - Historical Collections of the Great Lakes - BGSU University Libraries". https://greatlakes.bgsu.edu/item/438634. 
  16. ↑ "Ship fans mourn scrapping of the Calumet". The Grand Rapids Press. December 30, 2007. http://blog.mlive.com/grpress/2007/12/port_colborne_ontario_killer.html. 
  17. ↑ Heinz, James (July 23, 2023). "The Wreck of the Western Reserve". Wisconsin Marine Historical Society. https://wmhs.org/the-wreck-of-the-western-reserve-steinbrenner-story-chapter-two/. 
  18. ↑ "The Ford Fleet -- The Henry Ford Blog - Blog - The Henry Ford". https://www.thehenryford.org/explore/blog/the-ford-fleet. 
  19. ↑ "95-year-old Laker S.T. Crapo to Be Scrapped". September 23, 2022. https://www.marinelink.com/news/yearold-laker-st-crapo-scrapped-499665. 
  20. ↑ "M/V Stewart J. Cort | Interlake Steamship". January 31, 2024. https://www.interlake-steamship.com/our-fleet/m-v-stewart-j-cort/. 
  21. ↑ "Presque Isle". April 27, 2020. https://greatlakesships.wordpress.com/presque-isle/. 
  22. ↑ "Edwin H. Gott". http://www.boatnerd.com/pictures/fleet/gott.htm. 
  23. ↑ Bawal, Raymond A. (2011). Superships of the Great Lakes: Thousand-foot Ships on the Great Lakes. Inland Expressions. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-9818157-4-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=_LTqoJtyM5MC&pg=PA55. 
  24. ↑ "M/V Gott Repowering Project Completion". Quarterly Update (Great Lakes Maritime Research Institute). April 2011. http://www.glmri.org/downloads/quarterlyReports/2011_04.pdf. 
  25. ↑ "M/V Paul R. Tregurtha | Interlake Steamship". January 31, 2024. https://www.interlake-steamship.com/our-fleet/m-v-paul-r-tregurtha/. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 "Boating Glossary" (in en). https://www.buyrope.co.uk/boating-glossary/. 
  27. ↑ McLean, Samuel (November 29, 2021). "Lakers and Salties and Bulkers, Oh My!" (in en-US). https://globalmaritimehistory.com/lakers-and-salties-and-bulkers-oh-my/. 
  28. ↑ Gross, Bob (May 18, 2015). "Fun facts about freighters" (in en-US). https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2015/05/18/great-lakes-freighters/27530795/. 
  29. ↑ Canadian company orders five lakers, Wheat Board orders two others , John Snyder, Issue #149, August 2011
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 "SMT Announces Equinox Class of Newbuild Vessels". http://www.seawaymarinetransport.com/images/TheCurrent71.pdf. 
  31. ↑ Lofton, Justine (July 6, 2022). "First new ship built for the Great Lakes in 35 years is underway" (in en). https://www.mlive.com/news/2022/07/first-new-ship-built-on-the-great-lakes-in-35-years-is-underway.html. 
  32. ↑ Cargo Reports – Year-in-Review 2023 – U.S.-Flag Vessels (Report). Lake Carriers’ Association. January 31, 2024. https://lcaships.com/cargo-reports-year-in-review-2023-u-s-flag-vessels/. Retrieved March 4, 2024. 
  33. ↑ matt (February 2, 2024). "U.S.-flag Great Lakes cargo float increased 6.5 percent in 2023" (in en-US). https://www.amo-union.org/great-lakes-cargo-float-2023/. 
  34. ↑ "Lake Carriers' Association" (in en-US). https://lcaships.com/. 
  35. ↑ Pete, Joseph S. (March 30, 2016). "Iron ore to flow to steel mills as Soo Locks reopen" (in en). https://www.nwitimes.com/business/local/iron-ore-to-flow-to-steel-mills-as-soo-locks-reopen/article_a474b533-230a-5a43-bad9-cae9eb8af45d.html. 
  36. ↑ Economic Impacts of the Soo Locks. Lancaster, PA: Martin Associates. July 2018. 
  37. ↑ "Taconite" (in en). https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/education/geology/digging/taconite.html. 
  38. ↑ "Marine shipping in the Great Lakes: What you need to know". January 17, 2023. https://clearseas.org/insights/marine-shipping-in-the-great-lakes-what-you-need-to-know/. 
  39. ↑ "Soo Locks History". https://www.lre.usace.army.mil/Missions/Recreation/Soo-Locks-Visitor-Center/Soo-Locks-History/. 
  40. ↑ "The Seaway" (in en-US). https://greatlakes-seaway.com/en/the-seaway/. 
  41. ↑ "M/V Paul R. Tregurtha". January 31, 2024. http://www.interlake-steamship.com/our-fleet/m-v-paul-r.-tregurtha/. 
  42. ↑ Stewart J. Cort
  43. ↑ "Great Lakes Fleet Page Vessel Feature -- Stewart J. Cort". http://www.boatnerd.com/pictures/fleet/cort.htm. 
  44. ↑ Waterhouse, John; Wren, Reginald; Johnson, Mike; Barczak, Nicholas; Lewandowski, M. J.; Tietje, E. David (November 2014). Ballast Water Treatment, U.S. Great Lakes Bulk Carrier Engineering and Cost Study. United States Coast Guard. pp. 22. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/5ps/Operating%20and%20Environmental%20Standards/OES-3/General%20Info/Volume%201_PublicationCopy.pdf?ver=2018-01-31-122046-873. 
  45. ↑ "An ageing bulk carrier fleet | Hellenic Shipping News Worldwide". https://www.hellenicshippingnews.com/an-ageing-bulk-carrier-fleet/. 
  46. ↑ Rashid, Kaosar; Oyshi, Sarah Jabin Chowdhury; Tahsin, Zarin (2023). "COMPARISON OF CORROSIVE NATURE OF SHIPBUILDING PLATES IN FRESH WATER AND SEA WATER" (in en). Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Marine Technology. doi:10.2139/ssrn.4441299. https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=4441299. 
  47. ↑ Bansek, Ed (November 15, 2023). "Meeting the Challenge: The St. Mary's Challenger" (in en-US). https://seawayreview.com/meeting-the-challenge-the-st-marys-challenger/. 
  48. ↑ Mid-Michigan, Amy L. Payne | Booth (November 11, 2008). "Attempts to save oldest freighter on Great Lakes fail; E.M. Ford headed to scrapyard" (in en). https://www.mlive.com/bctimes/2008/11/attempts_to_save_oldest_freigh.html. 
  49. ↑ "Fleet Renewal". http://www.seawaymarinetransport-new.com/index.php?title=Fleet_Renewal. 
  50. ↑ Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum , accessed February 28, 2009
  51. ↑ The Great Lakes Shipwreck File, David D. Swayze, October 3, 2008.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Thompson, Mark L. (2000). Graveyard of the Lakes. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 0814332269. https://books.google.com/books?id=Tog_ll_MYrkC&q=Graveyard+of+the+Lakes+by+Mark+L.+Thompson. Retrieved April 16, 2009. 
  53. ↑ Wreck of the Carl D., Michael Schumacher, Bloomsbury, 2008, ISBN 978-1-59691-484-1.
  54. ↑ Dredging on the Great Lakes, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, July 31, 2006.
  55. ↑ "Shipwrecks of the Lakes", Dana T. Bowen, Freshwater Press, January 1, 1952, quoted in the U.S. Coast Guard's Board of Inquiry report on the foundering of the SS Carl D. Bradley, published 1958.
  56. ↑ Ives, Mike (May 2, 2023). "How 'The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald' Defied Top 40 Logic" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/02/arts/music/gordon-lightfoot-edmund-fitzgerald-song.html. 
  57. ↑ Fisanick, Christina (May 4, 2023). "The Wheeling Connection to Gordon Lightfoot & His Ballad" (in en-US). https://www.archivingwheeling.org/blog/the-wheeling-connection-to-gordon-lightfoot-his-ballad. 
  58. ↑ Gmiter, Tanda (November 11, 2020). "45 years after Edmund Fitzgerald sank, Arthur Anderson crosses Lake Superior under gale warning, snowstorm" (in en). https://www.mlive.com/life/2020/11/45-years-after-edmund-fitzgerald-sank-arthur-anderson-crosses-lake-superior-under-gale-warning-snowstorm.html. 
  59. ↑ "M/V Paul R. Tregurtha | Interlake Steamship". January 31, 2024. https://www.interlake-steamship.com/our-fleet/m-v-paul-r-tregurtha/. 
  60. ↑ "The Ford Fleet -- The Henry Ford Blog - Blog - The Henry Ford" (in en). https://www.thehenryford.org/explore/blog/the-ford-fleet. 
  61. ↑ "Edward Ryerson returns to Cumming Slip" (in en). November 9, 2019. https://www.duluthnewstribune.com/news/edward-ryerson-returns-to-cumming-slip. 
  62. ↑ Yeoman. "William G. Mather" (in en-GB). https://museumships.us/merchantmarine/william-g-mather. 
  63. ↑ "William G. Mather Steamship" (in en). September 2, 2016. https://greatscience.com/explore/exhibits/william-g-mather-steamship. 
  64. ↑ "William A. Irvin –A History of Canal Park's Flagship". June 6, 2016. https://canalpark.com/the-history-of-william-a-irvin-the-flagship-of-canal-park/. 
  65. ↑ "History" (in en-US). August 3, 2015. https://decc.org/william-a-irvin/history/. 
  66. ↑ "SS Meteor" (in en-US). https://superiorpublicmuseums.org/ss-meteor/. 
  67. ↑ "Valley Camp History Sault Ste Marie" (in en-US). https://www.saulthistoricsites.com/museum-ship-valley-camp/valley-camp-history/. 
  68. ↑ "Explore an actual Great Lakes Freighter!". Sault Historic Sites. https://www.saulthistoricsites.com/museum-ship-valley-camp/. 
  69. ↑ "The Second Wave – National Museum of the Great Lakes" (in en-US). https://nmgl.org/thesecondwave/. 
  70. ↑ Dispatch, Steve Stephens. "On the waterfront: Relocated museum celebrates Great Lakes". https://www.dispatch.com/article/20141101/LIFESTYLE/311019660. 
  71. ↑ "Col. James M. Schoonmaker – National Museum of the Great Lakes" (in en-US). https://nmgl.org/col-james-m-schoonmaker/. 
  72. ↑ "John W. Boardman" (in en). October 1, 2020. https://greatlakesships.wordpress.com/john-w-boardman/. 
  73. ↑ "Shipwatching is a fun, addictive habit" (in en). August 15, 2016. https://www.kpcnews.com/columnists/jeff_jones/kpcnews/article_77de9e50-2581-5782-8b91-594da15b3372.html. 
  74. ↑ "William Clay Ford Pilot House | Detroit Historical Society". https://detroithistorical.org/dossin-great-lakes-museum/exhibitions/signature-exhibitions/william-clay-ford-pilot-house. 
  75. ↑ "History - Benson Ford Shiphouse" (in en-US). April 3, 2021. https://shiponthebay.com/history/. 
  76. ↑ "Tours - Benson Ford Shiphouse" (in en-US). April 3, 2021. https://shiponthebay.com/tours/. 
  77. ↑ Slater, Brady (October 8, 2015). "One final sail set for J.B. Ford". Duluth News Tribune. https://www.duluthnewstribune.com/news/3856974-one-final-sail-set-jb-ford. 

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