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Banking in ancient Rome

Topic: Finance

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In ancient Rome there were a variety of officials tasked with banking. These were the argentarii, mensarii, coactores, and nummulari. The argentarii were money changers. The role of the mensarii was to help people through economic hardships, the coactores were hired to collect money and give it to their employer, and the nummulari minted and tested currency. They offered credit systems and loans. Between 260 and the fourth century CE Roman bankers disappear from the historical record, likely because of economic difficulties caused by the debasement of the currency.

History

The earliest banks in ancient Rome were located in temples.[1][2][3] They would charge interest on loans, exchange money, and track their finances through written records. Due to the piety of the officials and employees of these temples, the upper class of ancient Rome trusted these places to protect and hold their wealth. Typically, their money was stored in multiple temples. This practice was designed to protect their wealth in case an individual temple was destroyed or attacked in some way.

Another banking group in ancient Rome were the trapezites.[4] They were predecessors of the argentarii,[5] and they provided banking services in counting houses near the Forum. Roman bankers disappear from the historical record between 260 CE and the fourth century;[6] likely because the continued debasement of the currency hurt the economy, creating difficulties for the banking profession.[1][2] By the mid-fourth century CE the argentarii and numularii are mentioned again in ancient sources; however they acquired different roles.[3]

Types

Argentarii

Arch of the Argentarii in Rome[7][8][9]

The argentarii, also known as argenteae mensae exercitores, negotiatores stipis argentariae,[10][11] and argenti distractores, were private money changers in ancient Rome supervised by the government.[12][13][14] This group was organized into a guild with a limited number of members. They were commonly located at stalls, shops, tabernae, and in the forum.[15] These locations were built by the censors and owned by the state.[16][17]

The argentarii provided numerous services, such as providing loans,[18] holding money, circulating money, exchanging currency,[19] providing credit at auctions, and determining the quality and material of currency. They were also entrusted with paying off debts.[20] Their powers would expand to include almost all forms of financial transactions. Despite this, their primary goal was to exchange foreign currency for Roman currency.[17] Typically the clients of this group were not wealthy, as the upper class of ancient Rome had more secure methods of storing wealth.[21]

Another group known as the expectores were tasked with keeping financial records, including those of the argentarii.[22] The argentarii were likely founded around the 4th century BCE. When they were established, they likely only functioned as a replacement for the previous Greek trapezitai and their abilities were likely limited to money-handling.[23] By the 1st century BCE they were capable of providing credit.[24] They disappeared from the historical record for around 70 to 80 years after 250 CE for unknown reasons.[25]

Mensarii

The mensarii were state-appointed public bankers.[26][27][28] Usually they were appointed during periods of poverty or war. Their goal was to prevent social unrest and help the plebeians overcome debt and economic hardships.[29][30][31] This organization was established in 352 BCE to combat high levels of debt as a five-man commission known as the quinqueviri mensarii.[32][33] They accomplished this by providing the population access to public services and loans as well as managing the circulation of currency.[34][35][36]

This group would evolve into the triumviri mensarii in 216 BCE.[37][38][39] This was a commission of only three people, but performed the same duties as the previous organization.[40][41] These two groups could perform similar functions to the argentarii, such as money holding and assaying currency.[17][42][15]

Coactores

An ancient Roman coin produced by the Imperial mint

The coactores collected and gave money to their employers.[43][44][45] They were used by the argentarii for this function since the 1st century BCE, and they disappeared from the historical record after the 2nd century CE. This organization was distinct from the argentarii.[46]

There was another group in ancient Rome known as the coactores argentarii, who were responsible for depositing money and collecting debts at auctions.[47][48] Neither of these groups provided credit to companies,[clarification needed] nor did they grant loans to finance consumption; although they granted short-term commercial loans.[49]

Nummularii

The nummularii were a group designed to mint and test new currency. To do this they examined the metal which was used to make the coins using their senses and the patterns of the coins.[27] They first appeared in the historical record in the 2nd century BCE as money-changers. By the 2nd century CE they began to provide loans, deposit currency, and operate bank accounts.

They ran a bank and put new currency into circulation and they removed foreign or old coins from circulation.[50] Alongside this they could hold money, sell goods, work at auctions, maintain records, exchange currency, and make payments on behalf of their clients.[17][38] By the 3rd century, they were the last banking profession in ancient Rome, and they handled all banking affairs.[46][51]

Privileges and organization

Ancient Roman denarius

Roman bankers provided a wide variety of services. They would serve as cashiers and money changers, they could sell goods at auctions, and they could determine the material and quality of currency or open money bases. If this base was irregular or open then the banker was permitted to reinvest or reuse the client's money. Their activities were concluded and recorded with written agreements.[52] In early Roman history most contracts were conducted orally, with witnesses used to confirm the legitimacy of the agreement. Later notaries were used to keep public written records of contracts.[47][53] Roman bankers belonged to the plebeian or freedmen classes rather than the aristocracy.[54][55][56] However they sometimes became very wealthy. Typically they organized themselves into groups of two or three members. Many children of these bankers achieved equestrian rank.[25]

Roman bankers were allowed to open bank accounts.[57] These accounts were entered in a register. If a Roman was involved in a lawsuit, they were required to create these accounts. This was because these accounts were considered reliable proof in lawsuit cases. Bankers participated in the receptum argentarii,[58] an agreement that involved three people: the banker, the client, and the third party. The banker would pay the money the client owned to the third party.[clarification needed][59] Stipulation was common in ancient Rome: the debtor was questioned by the creditor in the presence of witnesses, about their willingness to pay back the debt. Written contracts were used to document the transfer of the creditor's loan to the debtor. These contracts were usually simple due to the illiteracy of the Roman population.[60] Since Roman banks lacked any incentive to ensure that their client's deposits would remain safe during a bank run, they usually kept less in reserves than the full amount of their clients deposits; they were not required to insure their customers' deposits.[48][61] There was very little regulation of Roman bankers, with most banks and bankers relying on trust. This meant that the clients lacked any protection or safety net in the event of a bank run or a financial crisis.

Credit

The nummularii offered a rudimentary credit system and they provided moneylending services.[62] The coactores and the argentarii also gave credit to buyers at auctions.[21][25][24] Credit services may also have been provided by entrepreneurs known as the faeneratores.[63][44] Aristocratic financers were another source of credit. They used their own wealth to fund their loans to other members of the upper class or to foreign cities and nobles. Following auctions the coactores and the argentarii would impose on the buyers a time-limit for their payment, and they would pay the vendors the money which was owed to them.[46][64] Although these financial services were necessary for starting a business, almost all Romans would have engaged in credit.[65] Most credit arrangements lasted a month, with an interest rate of 1% (per month).[60] The Romans believed that anyone involved in trade should use credit.[61] People who provided credit might also have sold their right to collect the debt to another party. In ancient Rome credit transactions relied on trust. It was common for people to lose trust in their creditors, often resulting in a significant negative impact on the economy and the credit industry.[66][67]

Loans

Loan defaults carried severe penalties, as their borrowers could be enslaved, mutilated, or sued.[68] Most ancient Roman loans were linked to consumption, which is the use of resources to satisfy wants or needs.[69] These loans allowed merchants to restock their goods more quickly and it allowed them to purchase more goods.[25] They were often essential, as it was almost impossible for many people to live in ancient Rome without debt.[70] Usually Roman loans were given to young nobles and they generally had high interest rates.[71][72][73] Another common option was to give loans to close family or friends as a method of averting risk.[74] It is possible that ancient Roman loans lacked a security deposit.[75][76] However, ancient loans did require some form of security.[77] Usually, loans were made and credits were extended on risky terms because the available capital typically exceeded the amount needed by borrowers.[78] The senatorial elite were involved heavily in private lending, as both creditors and borrowers, and made loans from their personal fortunes on the basis of social connections.[48][61]

There were a variety of types of ancient Roman loans. One kind, known as a mutuum, was made without interest. Under this kind of loan the property rights passed to the banker. They were returned when the debt was paid off. Loans with interest were known as fenus or usura. Another kind of loan was the fenus nauticum or pecunia traiecticia. It was contracted between two individuals with the aid of an intermediary. It was common for the banks to play the role of the intermediary.[79][80]

See also

  • Roman finance

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Depeyrot, Georges; Porter, Catherine; Stahl, Alan M. StahlAlan M. (1 January 2005) (in en), Money-changing, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195105070.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-510507-0, https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195105070.001.0001/acref-9780195105070-e-0509, retrieved 2022-08-03 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Kay, Philip (2014). "After the Credit Crunch". Rome's Economic Revolution. Oxford University Press. pp. 235–265. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199681549.003.0011. ISBN 978-0-19-968154-9. https://academic.oup.com/book/2823/chapter-abstract/143394211?redirectedFrom=fulltext. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Elliott, Colin P. (2014). "The Acceptance and Value of Roman Silver Coinage in the Second and Third Centuries AD". The Numismatic Chronicle 174: 129–152. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44710189. 
  4. ↑ Temin, Peter (September 2004). "Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire". The Journal of Economic History (Cambridge University Press) 64 (3): 705–733. doi:10.1017/S0022050704002943. ProQuest 216404189. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history/article/abs/financial-intermediation-in-the-early-roman-empire/90504E48AC16EA9F1EC6B968F5D173BC. 
  5. ↑ Munro, John; Thomas, W. A. (2007) (in en), Banking and Credit, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195130751.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-513075-1, https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195130751.001.0001/acref-9780195130751-e-0065, retrieved 2022-08-03 
  6. ↑ Silver, Morris (2011). "Finding the Roman Empire's disappeared deposit bankers". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 60 (3): 301–327. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41342853. 
  7. ↑ Fischer, Julia C. (26 July 2019) (in en). Art in Rome: From Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 98–100. ISBN 978-1-5275-3752-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=TtGmDwAAQBAJ&dq=Argentarii&pg=PA98. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  8. ↑ Aicher, Peter J. (2004) (in la). Rome Alive: A Source-Guide to the Ancient City Volume II. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. pp. 157. ISBN 978-0-86516-507-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=1voLNaL68NwC&dq=Argentarii&pg=PA157. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  9. ↑ Elsner, Jaś (2005). "Sacrifice and narrative on the Arch of the Argentarii at Rome". Journal of Roman Archaeology 18: 83–98. doi:10.1017/S1047759400007224. 
  10. ↑ Nauta, Lodi (2018). "Latin as a Common Language: The Coherence of Lorenzo Valla's Humanist Program". Renaissance Quarterly 71 (1): 1–32. doi:10.1086/696885. https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/aab84ba1-d121-4ec5-95b6-c9eb3ff1e09d. Retrieved 2022-08-22. 
  11. ↑ Peneder, Michael (January 2022). "Digitization and the evolution of money as a social technology of account". Journal of Evolutionary Economics 32 (1): 175–203. doi:10.1007/s00191-021-00729-4. 
  12. ↑ Mayumi, Kozo Torasan (2020). "Beyond the Conventional View: Reconsidering Money, Credit and Interest". Sustainable Energy and Economics in an Aging Population. Lecture Notes in Energy. 76. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 79–97. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-43225-6_4. ISBN 978-3-030-43224-9. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-43225-6_4. 
  13. ↑ Darley, Rebecca (22 March 2018), "argentarius" (in en), The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity (Oxford University Press), doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-411, retrieved 2022-08-01 
  14. ↑ Campbell, Gordon (2007) (in en), Severus, (Lucius) Septimius, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195300826.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-530082-6, https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195300826.001.0001/acref-9780195300826-e-0908, retrieved 2022-08-02 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Smith, William (24 July 2021). "Mensarii". A Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. DigiCat. pp. 254–255. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65909. Retrieved 2022-08-03. 
  16. ↑ Schmitz, Leonhard (1875). "Argentarii". A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray. pp. 130–132. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Argentarii.html. Retrieved 2022-08-22. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Labate, Victor (17 November 2016). "Banking in the Roman World" (in en). https://www.worldhistory.org/article/974/banking-in-the-roman-world/. 
  18. ↑ Rauh, Nicholas K. (1989). "Finance and Estate Sales in Republican Rome". Aevum 63 (1): 45–76. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20858375. 
  19. ↑ Lothian, James R. LothianJames R. (1 January 2005) (in en), Exchange Rates, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195105070.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-510507-0, https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195105070.001.0001/acref-9780195105070-e-0252, retrieved 2022-08-02 
  20. ↑ Moshenskyi, Sergii (2008) (in en). History of the Weksel: Bill of Exchange and Promissory Note. New York: Xlibris. pp. 40–41. ISBN 978-1-4363-0694-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=8UBDndXgNIYC&dq=Argentarii&pg=PA41. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 MacDonald, Scott B. (12 July 2017) (in en). A History of Credit and Power in the Western World. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-53532-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=KGymDwAAQBAJ&dq=Argentarii&pg=PT45. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  22. ↑ Last, Richard (May 2021). "A Fictive Membership Rush and Curatorial Fraud in the Lex of the Collegivm of Ivory and Citrus-Wood Merchants (Cil 6.3885 = Ils 7214)". The Classical Quarterly (Cambridge University Press) 71 (1): 347–358. doi:10.1017/S0009838821000392. ProQuest 2548800396. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/classical-quarterly/article/abs/fictive-membership-rush-and-curatorial-fraud-in-the-lex-of-the-collegivm-of-ivory-and-citruswood-merchants-cil-63885-ils-7214/C572BED42CBB355FC4D5784C008706B3. 
  23. ↑ Sarris, Peter (22 March 2018), "finance" (in en), The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity (Oxford University Press), doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-1862, retrieved 2022-08-01 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Lintott, Andrew (2002). "Freedmen and Slaves in the Light of Legal Documents from First-Century A.D. Campania". The Classical Quarterly (Cambridge University Press) 52 (2): 555–565. doi:10.1093/cq/52.2.555. INIST:14564960 ProQuest 201672538. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/classical-quarterly/article/abs/freedmen-and-slaves-in-the-light-of-legal-documents-from-firstcentury-ad-campania1/60BCDC423612AE7BFD9AE05DD7F673D5. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Andreau, J. (2000). "Commerce and finance". The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 769–786. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521263351.027. ISBN 9781139054393. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-ancient-history/commerce-and-finance/0B67913FF3E9A0911FD718FF24D7D53A. 
  26. ↑ Niczyporuk, Piotr (15 March 2014). "Bankierzy w Żywotach cezarów Swetoniusza" (in pl). Krytyka Prawa 2014 (1). doi:10.7206/kp.2080-1084.54. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Niczyporuk, Piotr (2014). "Nummularii – государственные и частные банкиры в древнем Риме" (in Russian). Miscellanea Historico-Iuridica 12 (1): 57–74. doi:10.15290/mhi.2013.12.03. 
  28. ↑ Abramova, Marianna G.; Vasilieva, Oxana N.; Milovanova, Marina M.; Popova, Anna V.; Yudenkov, Yuri N.; Safonov, Maxim S. (1 November 2016). "Banks: Old Actors of the New Economy". International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues 6 (8): 84–89. ProQuest 1846293526. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ijefi/issue/32018/354072. Retrieved 22 August 2022. 
  29. ↑ Bernard, Seth (16 August 2018) (in en). Building Mid-Republican Rome: Labor, Architecture, and the Urban Economy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-087880-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=FXBoDwAAQBAJ&dq=Mensarii&pg=PT134. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  30. ↑ Bringmann, Klaus (2014). "The Roman Republic and its Internal Politics between 232 and 167bc". A Companion to Livy. pp. 394–406. doi:10.1002/9781118339015.ch29. ISBN 978-1-118-33901-5. 
  31. ↑ Develin, Robert (2005). "The Integration of the Plebeians into the Political Order After 366 B.C.". Social Struggles in Archaic Rome. pp. 293–311. doi:10.1002/9780470752753.ch12. ISBN 9780470752753. 
  32. ↑ Bernard, Seth (November 2018). "The Social History of Early Roman Coinage". Journal of Roman Studies 108: 1–26. doi:10.1017/S0075435818000497. ProQuest 2193724986. 
  33. ↑ Humm, Michel (2014). "From 390bcto Sentinum: Political and Ideological Aspects". A Companion to Livy. pp. 342–366. doi:10.1002/9781118339015.ch26. ISBN 978-1-118-33901-5. 
  34. ↑ Vishnia, Rachel Feig (12 November 2012) (in en). State, Society and Popular Leaders in Mid-Republican Rome 241-167 B.C.. Routledge. pp. 86–89. ISBN 978-1-135-09371-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=n-TGXUFuE28C&dq=Mensarii&pg=PA86. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  35. ↑ Niczyporuk, Piotr (2012). "Mensarii – как банкиры" (in Russian). Miscellanea Historico-Iuridica 11 (1): 61–76. doi:10.15290/mhi.2012.11.03. 
  36. ↑ Potter, David S. (2010) (in en), Magistrates and Officials, Roman, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-517072-6, https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001/acref-9780195170726-e-750, retrieved 2022-08-02 
  37. ↑ Smith, Christopher (2018). "Introduction". Omnium Annalium Monumenta: Historical Writing and Historical Evidence in Republican Rome. pp. 1–13. doi:10.1163/9789004355552_002. ISBN 978-90-04-35555-2. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Hollander, D. B. (2007). "Financial Instruments". Money in the Late Roman Republic. pp. 31–58. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004156494.i-196.17. ISBN 978-90-474-1912-9. 
  39. ↑ Ñaco Del Hoyo, Toni (2011). "Roman Economy, Finance, and Politics in the Second Punic War". A Companion to the Punic Wars. pp. 376–392. doi:10.1002/9781444393712.ch21. ISBN 978-1-4443-9371-2. 
  40. ↑ "triumviri" (in en). https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803105808232. 
  41. ↑ Bernard, Seth (2016). "Debt, Land, and Labor in the Early Republican Economy". Phoenix 70 (3/4): 317–338. doi:10.7834/phoenix.70.3-4.0317. Project MUSE 808005 ProQuest 1937846677. 
  42. ↑ von Reden, Sitta (18 November 2010). Money in Classical Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-1-139-78863-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZPZnUsMx0MoC&dq=Mensarii&pg=PA115. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  43. ↑ Westgate, Ruth (November 2001). "K. M. D. Dunbabin, Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. xxii + 357, 40 pls, 318 figs, 8 maps. ISBN 0-521-46143-X. £75.00.". Journal of Roman Studies 91: 200–201. doi:10.2307/3184782. ProQuest 2212074666. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Harris, W. V. (2006). "A Revisionist View of Roman Money". The Journal of Roman Studies 96: 1–24. doi:10.3815/000000006784016215. ProQuest 2212083681. 
  45. ↑ Howgego, Christopher (November 1992). "The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300". Journal of Roman Studies 82: 1–31. doi:10.2307/301282. ProQuest 2212059771. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 Ligt, L. De (1 January 1991). "J. Andreau, La Vie Financière dans le Monde Romain. Les Métiers de Manieurs d'Argent (IVe Siècle av. J.C.-IIIe Siècle ap. J.C.) (Bibliothèque des Ecoles Françaises d'Athènes et de Rome, 265). Rome, Ecole Française de Rome, 1987. VIII, 792 p., 20 pl. Pr. FF. 570". Mnemosyne 44 (3–4): 490–497. doi:10.1163/156852591X00378. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Grossman, Richard S. (26 May 2020) (in en). Unsettled Account: The Evolution of Banking in the Industrialized World Since 1800. Princeton University Press. pp. 32, 35. ISBN 978-0-691-20278-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=4cvADwAAQBAJ&dq=Argentarii&pg=PA32. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 Jean Andreau (1999). Banking and business in the Roman world. Internet Archive. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38932-7. http://archive.org/details/bankingbusinessi00andr. 
  49. ↑ Geva, Benjamin (1 November 2011) (in en). The Payment Order of Antiquity and the Middle Ages: A Legal History. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 135–145. ISBN 978-1-84731-843-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=4yHcBAAAQBAJ&dq=Coactores&pg=PA135. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  50. ↑ Focardi, Sergio M. (19 March 2018) (in en). Money: What It Is, How It's Created, Who Gets It, and Why It Matters. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-39104-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=ARdSDwAAQBAJ&dq=Mensarii&pg=PT62. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  51. ↑ Niczyporuk, Piotr (2014). "Bankierzy publiczni w starożytnym Rzymie" (in Polish). Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego - Seria Prawnicza (14): 145–161. http://repozytorium.ur.edu.pl/handle/item/396. Retrieved 2022-08-22. 
  52. ↑ García Morcillo, Marta (2018). Banking in the Roman World. doi:10.1093/OBO/9780195389661-0312. 
  53. ↑ Encyclopedia of the Bible and its Reception. 3. De Gruyter. 2011. doi:10.1515/ebr. ISBN 978-3-11-018371-9. https://serval.unil.ch/notice/serval:BIB_57EE15789391. Retrieved 2022-08-23. [page needed]
  54. ↑ Millet, Paul (2012). "Banks" (in en). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001/acref-9780199545568-e-1049?rskey=1m18mp&result=1. 
  55. ↑ Rathbone, D. W. (November 2001). "J. Andreau, Banking and Business in the Roman World (Key Themes in Ancient History).. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. xix + 176, ISBN 0-521-38031-6(bound); 0-521-38932-1(paper). £37.50 (bound); £13.95 (paper).". Journal of Roman Studies 91: 201. doi:10.2307/3184783. http://www.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam032/98048325.html. 
  56. ↑ Millett, Paul C. (20 December 2012), "banks" (in en), The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford University Press), doi:10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8, https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001/acref-9780199545568-e-1049, retrieved 2022-08-03 
  57. ↑ Morcillo, Marta (24 May 2018). "Banking in the Roman World" (in en). https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195389661/obo-9780195389661-0312.xml. 
  58. ↑ De Vries, T.; Zwalve, W. J. (2004). "Roman actuarial science and Ulpian's life expectancy table". Roman Rule and Civic Life: Local and Regional Perspectives. Brill. pp. 275–297. doi:10.1163/9789004401655_016. ISBN 978-90-04-40165-5. 
  59. ↑ Andreau, Jean (2020). "Banks". The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. pp. 1–3. doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah06036.pub2. ISBN 978-1-4051-7935-5. 
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Moshenskyi, Sergii (2008) (in en). History of the Weksel: Bill of Exchange and Promissory Note. New York: Xlibris. pp. 40–42. ISBN 978-1-4363-0694-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=8UBDndXgNIYC&dq=Loans+ancient+rome&pg=PA40. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 Harris, W. V. (2008). "The Nature of Roman Money". The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans. pp. 174–207. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199233359.003.0010. ISBN 978-0-19-923335-9. 
  62. ↑ Millett, Paul C. (22 December 2015). "credit" (in en). doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1919. https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1919. 
  63. ↑ Erdkamp, Paul; Verboven, Koenraad; Zuiderhoek, Arjan (18 February 2020) (in en). Capital, Investment, and Innovation in the Roman World. Oxford University Press. pp. 382–384. ISBN 978-0-19-257896-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=l93QDwAAQBAJ&q=Banking+in+ancient+Rome. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  64. ↑ Schwei, David (2020). "An Explanation for the Addition of the Aureus to the Roman Imperial Coinage System". Classical Journal 116 (2): 199–214. doi:10.1353/tcj.2020.0030. Project MUSE 801278 ProQuest 2466060172. 
  65. ↑ Marzano, Annalisa (2022). "Chapter 5 the Personal Infrastructure of Maritime Trade". Roman Law and Maritime Commerce. pp. 57–76. doi:10.1515/9781474478168-009. ISBN 9781474478168. 
  66. ↑ Hollander, David B. (2012). "Credit". The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah06091. ISBN 9781444338386. 
  67. ↑ Kay, Philip (2014). Rome's Economic Revolution. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199681549.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-968154-9. 
  68. ↑ Homer, Sidney; Sylla, Richard (23 March 2011) (in en). A History of Interest Rates. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 59. ISBN 978-1-118-04622-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=aASnQujNgzoC&q=Loans+ancient+rome. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  69. ↑ The Penguin Dictionary of Economics, Eighth Edition. Penguin Books. 2011. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-141-04523-8. 
  70. ↑ Kehoe, Dennis (2018). "Production in Rome". A Companion to the City of Rome. pp. 443–458. doi:10.1002/9781118300664.ch21. ISBN 978-1-118-30066-4. 
  71. ↑ Niczyporuk, Piotr (2013). "Operacje wykonywane przez bankierów rzymskich (argentarii)" (in Polish). Krytyka Prawa 5 (1): 481–506. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=613933. Retrieved 2022-08-03. 
  72. ↑ Louis, Paul (5 November 2013) (in en). Ancient Rome at Work: An Economic History of Rome From the Origins to the Empire. Routledge. pp. 84–88. ISBN 978-1-136-60351-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=AcP5AQAAQBAJ&dq=Credit+ancient+rome&pg=PA85. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  73. ↑ Toner, J. P. (25 April 2013) (in en). Popular Culture in Ancient Rome. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-7456-5490-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=duDO_Ncb4FEC&dq=Loans+ancient+rome&pg=PT12. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  74. ↑ Wilson, Andrew; Bowmann, Alan (9 November 2017) (in en). Trade, Commerce, and the State in the Roman World. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198790662.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-250797-6. https://academic.oup.com/book/9102. [page needed]
  75. ↑ Adams, Samuel L.; Bradbury, Carlee; Bühler, Axel; Cheong, John; Chryssides, George D.; Chung-Kim, Esther; Gvaryahu, Amit; Hudnut-Beumler, James et al.. "Moneylending". Encyclopedia of the Bible and its Reception. doi:10.1515/ebr.moneylending. 
  76. ↑ Dari-Mattiacci, Giuseppe; Kehoe, Dennis P. (26 May 2020) (in en). Roman Law and Economics: Volume II: Exchange, Ownership, and Disputes. Oxford University Press. pp. 97–101. ISBN 978-0-19-109099-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=PTjpDwAAQBAJ&dq=Coactores&pg=PA89. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  77. ↑ Holleran, Claire (26 April 2012) (in en). Shopping in Ancient Rome: The Retail Trade in the Late Republic and the Principate. Oxford University Press. pp. 46. ISBN 978-0-19-162641-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=pQJREAAAQBAJ&dq=Coactores&pg=PA81. Retrieved 2022-08-05. 
  78. ↑ Harris, W. V. (14 February 2008) (in en). The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans. OUP Oxford. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199233359.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-923335-9. https://academic.oup.com/book/5991. [page needed]
  79. ↑ Rovira-Guardiola, Charo (2012). "Loan, Greek and Roman". The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah13175. ISBN 978-1-4443-3838-6. 
  80. ↑ Collins, Andrew; Walsh, John (2014). "Fractional Reserve Banking in the Roman Republic and Empire". Ancient Society 44: 179–212. 



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