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Khalji dynasty

Topic: History

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Short description: 1290–1320 Turco-Afghan dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate

Khalji Dynasty
(Delhi Sultanate)
خلجي سلطنت

1290–1320
Flag of Khalji Dynasty
Flag of the Delhi Sultanate according to the contemporary Catalan Atlas (c. 1375).[lower-alpha 1][1]
Territory controlled by the Khaljis circa 1320.[2]
Territory controlled by the Khaljis circa 1320.[2]
CapitalDelhi
Kilokhri (Delhi suburb)[3]
Common languagesPersian (official)[4]
Religion
  • Sunni Islam
GovernmentSultanate
Sultan 
• 1290–1296
Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji
• 1296–1316
Alauddin Khalji
• 1316
Shihab ad-Din Umar
• 1316–1320
Qutb ad-Din Mubarak
History 
• Established
1290
• Disestablished
1320
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Mamluk dynasty of Delhi
Vaghela dynasty
Seuna (Yadava) dynasty
Tughlaq dynasty
Today part ofIndia
Pakistan

The Khalji or Khilji[lower-alpha 2] (Persian: خلجي) dynasty was the second dynasty which ruled the Delhi sultanate, covering large parts of the Indian subcontinent for nearly three decades between 1290 and 1320.[5][6][7] It was founded by Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji.[8]

Origins

Coin of Tegin Shah, described as "Iltäbar (sub-King) of the Khalaj", dated to the year 728 CE.[9][10]

The Khalji dynasty was of Turko-Afghan[11][12][13] origin whose ancestors, the Khalaj, are said to have been initially a Turkic people who migrated together with the Hunas and Hephthalites[14] from Central Asia, into the southern and eastern regions of modern-day Afghanistan as early as 660 CE, where they ruled the region of Kabul as the Buddhist Turk Shahis.[15] According to R.S. Chaurasia, the Khaljis slowly inherited many Afghan habits and customs, and that they were treated as Afghans by the Turkic nobles of the Delhi Sultanate. Even to the point where Turkic nobles in the Delhi Sultanate opposed Jalal-ud-din's acension to the throne of Delhi after the Khilji revolution.[16][17][18]

According to The New Cambridge History of Islam the seventh/thirteenth century the Khalji were regarded as a separate people distinct from the Turks. The so-called “Khalji revolution” was the transfer of power from a Turkish ruling elite to a non-Turkish one.[19]

André Wink however, states that Khaljis were a Turkicized group and remnants of early Indo-European nomads such as Kushans, Hephthalites, and Sakas who later merged with the Afghans. Also, stating that "at that time they were not perceived as Turks or Mongols. Contemporary historians clearly distinguish the Khaljis from the Turks" [20][21]

The Khalaj are according to Doerfer perhaps of Sogdians who were Turkicized.[22] These Khalaj were later Afghanized and are believed to be the ancestors of Ghilzai/Ghilji Pashtuns.[23]

According to C. E. Bosworth, the Ghilzai, who make up the majority of the Pashtuns in Afghanistan, are the modern result of the Khalaj assimilation into the Pashtuns.[24] Between the 10th and 13th centuries, some sources refer to the Khalaj people as of Turkic, but some others do not.[25] Minorsky argues that the early history of the Khalaj tribe is obscure and adds that the identity of the name Khalaj is still to be proved.[26] Mahmud al-Kashgari (11th century) does not include the Khalaj among the Oghuz Turkic tribes, but includes them among the Oghuz-Turkman (where Turkman meant "Like the Turks") tribes. Kashgari felt the Khalaj did not belong to the original stock of Turkish tribes but had associated with them and therefore, in language and dress, often appeared "like Turks".[25][27]

Minhaj-i-Siraj Juzjani (13th century) never identified Khalaj as Turks, but was careful not to refer to them as Pashtuns. They were always a category apart from Turks, Tajiks and Pashtuns.[25] Muhammad ibn Najib Bakran's Jahan-nama explicitly describes them as Turkic,[28] although he notes that their complexion had become darker (compared to the Turks) and their language had undergone enough alterations to become a distinct dialect. However, the Jahan-nama describes them as "tribe of Turks" going through a language shift, speaking the Khalaj dialect, which was summarized by V. Minorsky.[28]

History

Jalal-ud-din Khalji

Coinage of Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji. Delhi mint. Dated AH 691 (1291-2 AD). Legend citing the caliph Al-Musta'sim.

Khaljis were vassals of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi and served the Sultan of Delhi, Ghiyas ud din Balban, as a minor part of the Muslim nobility. The last major Turkic ruler, Balban, in his struggle to maintain power over his insubordinate Turkish officers, destroyed the power of the Forty. However this indirectly damaged the Turkish integrity of the nobility, which had opposed the power of the non-Turks. This left them vulnerable to the Khalji faction, which took power through a series of assassinations.[29] One by one the Mamluk officers were murdered, and the last ruler of the Turkic Mamluk dynasty - the 17-year old Muiz ud din Qaiqabad - was killed in the Kailu-gheri Palace during the coup known as the Khalji Revolution by Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji.[30]

Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji, who was around 70 years old at the time of his ascension, was known as a mild-mannered, humble and kind monarch to the general public.[31][32]

Jalaluddin succeeded in overcoming the opposition of the Turkish nobles and ascended the throne of Delhi in January 1290. Jalal-ud-din was not universally accepted: during his six-year reign (1290–96), Balban's nephew revolted due to his assumption of power and the subsequent sidelining of nobility and commanders serving the Mamluk dynasty.[33] Jalal-ud-din suppressed the revolt and executed some commanders, then led an unsuccessful expedition against Ranthambhor. Jalal-ud-din used an Afghan enclave in the suburb of Delhi, Kilokhri, as his de facto capital.[3]

He also repelled several Mongol attacks on India and was successful in destroying a Mongol force on the banks of the Sind River in central India with the help of his nephew Juna Khan.[34]

In a plot by his nephew, Jalaluddin was assassinated by Muhammad Salim of Samana, Punjab.[35][36]

Alauddin Khalji

The Alai Darwaza, completed in 1311 during the Khalji dynasty.

Alauddin Khalji was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din. He raided the Deccan peninsula and Deogiri - then the capital of the state of Maharashtra, looting their treasure.[30][37] He returned to Delhi in 1296, murdered Jalal-ud-din and assumed power as Sultan.[38] He would appoint his allies such as Zafar Khan (Minister of War),[39] Nusrat Khan (Wazir of Delhi),[40][41] Ayn al-Mulk Multani,[42] Malik Kafur, Malik Tughlaq,[43] and Malik Nayk (Master of the Horse).[44]

Gold coinage of Alauddin Khalji (AH 695-715 / AD 1296–1316). Dar al-Islam mint. Dated AH 709 (AD 1309–10).

At the beginning of his reign, defeated a major Mongol invasion, at the Battle of Jaran-Manjur (1298). The victory consolidated Alauddin's power and prestige, thus stabilizing his position on the throne of Delhi.

To secure a route to Gujarat's trading ports, Ayn al-Mulk Multani was sent to conquer the Paramara kingdom of Malwa. Its Rai defended it with a large Rajput army, but he was defeated by Multani who became the governor of the province.[45]

Then in 1299 Nusrat Khan was sent to conquer Gujarat itself, where he defeated its Solanki king.[46] Nusrat Khan plundered its chief cities and sacked its temples, such as the famous temple of Somnath which had been rebuilt in the twelfth century. It was here where Nusrat Khan captured Malik Kafur who would later become a military general.[47] Alauddin continued expanding Delhi Sultanate into South India, with the help of generals such as Malik Kafur and Khusraw Khan, collecting large war booty (Anwatan) from those they defeated.[48] His commanders collected war spoils from conquered kingdoms and paid khums (one fifth) on ghanima (booty collected during war) to Sultan's treasury, which helped strengthen the Khalji rule.[49]

Western coast of India, with the traditional Yadava capital of Diogil ("Deogiri", or Devagiri 15px) at the center, in the Catalan Atlas (1375). On top of the city of Diogil floats a peculiar flag (20px), while coastal cities are under the black flag of the Delhi Sultanate (20px).[50][1] Devagiri was ultimately captured by Alauddin Khalji in 1307.[51] The trading ship raises the flag of the Ilkhanate (20px).

Alauddin Khalji reigned for 20 years. He conquered Rajputana, attacking and seizing the states of Jaisalmer (1299), Ranthambhor (1301), Chittorgarh (1303), Malwa(1305), he also conquered Gujarat and plundered the wealthy state of Devagiri during his raids in the south.[52] He also withstood two Mongol raids.[53] Alauddin was also known for his cruelty against attacked kingdoms after wars. Historians note him as a tyrant, and that anyone Alauddin Khalji suspected of being a threat to this power was killed, along with the women and children of that family. In 1298, between 15,000 and 30,000 people near Delhi, who had recently converted to Islam, were slaughtered in a single day, due to fears of an uprising.[54] He also killed his own family members and nephews, in 1299–1300, after he suspected them of rebellion, by first gouging out their eyes and then beheading them.[37]

In 1308, Alauddin's lieutenant, Malik Kafur captured Warangal, overthrew the Hoysala Empire south of the Krishna River and raided Madurai in Tamil Nadu.[52] He then looted the treasury in capitals and from the temples of south India. Among these loots was the Warangal loot that included one of the largest known diamond in human history, the Koh-i-Noor.[49] Malik Kafur returned to Delhi in 1311, laden with loot and war booty from Deccan peninsula which he submitted to Alauddin Khalji. This made Malik Kafur, born in a Hindu family and who had converted to Islam before becoming Delhi Sultanate's army commander, a favorite of Alauddin Khalji.[34]

In 1311, Alauddin ordered a massacre of Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate wherein between 15,000 and 30,000 Mongol settlers, who had recently converted to Islam, were killed after Khalji suspected them of plotting an uprising against him.[54][55]

The last Khalji sultans

Alauddin Khalji died in January 1316. Thereafter, the sultanate witnessed chaos, coup and succession of assassinations.[30] Malik Kafur became the sultan but lacked support from the amirs and was killed within a few months.

Coinage of Khusrau Khan.

Over the next three years following Malik Kafur's death, another three sultans assumed power violently and/or were killed in coups. First, the amirs installed a six-year-old named Shihab-ud-din Omar as sultan and his teenage brother, Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah, as regent. Qutb killed his younger brother and appointed himself sultan; to win over the loyalty of the amirs and the Malik clan he offered Ghazi Malik the position of army commander in the Punjab. Others were given a choice between various offices and death. After ruling in his own name for less than four years, Mubarak Shah was murdered in 1320 by one of his generals, Khusraw Khan. Amirs persuaded Ghazi Malik, who was still army commander in the Punjab, to lead a coup. Ghazi Malik's forces marched on Delhi, captured Khusraw Khan, and beheaded him. Upon becoming sultan, Ghazi Malik renamed himself Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, becoming the first ruler of the Tughluq dynasty.[37]

Economic policy and administration

Alauddin Khalji changed the tax policies to strengthen his treasury to help pay the keep of his growing army and fund his wars of expansion.[56] He raised agriculture taxes from 20% to 50% – payable in grain and agricultural produce (or cash),[57] eliminating payments and commissions on taxes collected by local chiefs, banned socialization among his officials as well as inter-marriage between noble families to help prevent any opposition forming against him; he cut salaries of officials, poets and scholars in his kingdom.[56]

The Koh-i-Noor diamond was seized by Alauddin Khalji's army in 1310, from the Kakatiya dynasty in Warangal.[49]

Alauddin Khalji enforced four taxes on non-Muslims in the Sultanate - jizya (poll tax), kharaj (land tax), kari (house tax), and chari (pasture tax).[58][59] He also decreed that his Delhi-based revenue officers assisted by local Muslim jagirdars, khuts, mukkadims, chaudharis and zamindars seize by force half of all produce any farmer generates, as a tax on standing crop, so as to fill sultanate granaries.[60][61] His officers enforced tax payment by beating up middlemen responsible for rural tax collection.Furthermore, Alauddin Khalji demanded, state Kulke and Rothermund, from his "wise men in the court" to create "rules and regulations in order to grind down the common man, so as to reduce them to abject poverty and deprive them of wealth and any form of surplus property that could foster a rebellion;[58] At the same time, he confiscated all landed property from his courtiers and officers.[58] Revenue assignments to Muslim jagirdars were also cancelled and the revenue was collected by the central administration.[62] Henceforth, state Kulke and Rothermund, "everybody was busy with earning a living so that nobody could even think of rebellion."[58]

Alauddin Khalji taxation methods and increased taxes reduced agriculture output and the Sultanate witnessed massive inflation. In order to compensate for salaries that he had cut and fixed for Muslim officials and soldiers, Alauddin introduced price controls on all agriculture produce, goods, livestocks and slaves in the kingdom, as well as controls on where, how, and by whom these could be sold. Markets called shahana-i-mandi were created.[62][63][64] Muslim merchants were granted exclusive permits and monopoly in these mandi to buy and resell at official prices. No one other than these merchants could buy from farmers or sell in cities. Alauddin deployed an extensive network of Munhiyans (spies, secret police) who would monitor the mandi and had the power to seize anyone trying to buy or sell anything at a price different from the official controlled prices.[64][65] Those found violating these mandi rules were severely punished, such as by cutting out their flesh.[34] Taxes collected in form of seized crops and grains were stored in sultanate's granaries.[66] Over time, farmers quit farming for income and shifted to subsistence farming, the general food supply worsened in north India, shortages increased and Delhi Sultanate witnessed increasingly worse and extended periods of famines.[34][67] The Sultan banned private storage of food by anyone. Rationing system was introduced by Alauddin as shortages multiplied; however, the nobility and his army were exempt from the per family quota-based food rationing system.[67] During these famines, Khalji's sultanate granaries and wholesale mandi system with price controls ensured sufficient food for his army, court officials and the urban population in Delhi.[56][68] Price controls instituted by Khalji reduced prices, but also lowered wages to a point where ordinary people did not benefit from the low prices. The price control system collapsed shortly after the death of Alauddin Khalji, with prices of various agriculture products and wages doubling to quadrupling within a few years.[69]

Historical impact

The tax system introduced during the Khalji dynasty had a long term influence on Indian taxation system and state administration,

Alauddin Khalji's taxation system was probably the one institution from his reign that lasted the longest, surviving indeed into the nineteenth or even the twentieth century. From now on, the land tax (kharaj or mal) became the principal form in which the peasant's surplus was expropriated by the ruling class.
—The Cambridge Economic History of India: c.1200-c.1750, [70]

Slavery

Within Sultanate's capital city of Delhi, during Alauddin Khalji's reign, at least half of the population were slaves working as servants, concubines and guards for the Muslim nobles, amirs, court officials and commanders.[71] Slavery in India during the Khalji dynasty, and later Islamic dynasties, included two groups of people - persons seized during military campaigns, and people who defaulted on their taxes.[72][73] The institution of slavery and bondage labor became pervasive during the Khalji dynasty; male slaves were referred to as banda, qaid, ghulam, or burdah, while female slaves were called bandi, kaniz or laundi.[citation needed]

Architecture

Alauddin Khalji is credited with the early Indo-Mohammedan architecture, a style and construction campaign that flourished during Tughlaq dynasty. Among works completed during Khalji dynasty, are Alai Darwaza - the southern gateway of Qutb complex enclosure, the Idgah at Rapri, and the Jamat Khana Masjid in Delhi.[74] The Alai Darwaza, completed in 1311, was included as part of Qutb Minar and its Monuments UNESCO World Heritage site in 1993.[75]

Perso-Arabic inscriptions on monuments have been traced to the Khalji dynasty era.[4]

  • Alauddin Khalji's Madrasa, Qutb complex, Mehrauli, which also has his tomb to the south.

  • Courts to the east of Quwwat ul-Islam mosque, in Qutb complex added by Khalji in 1300 CE.

  • The unfinished Alai Minar

  • Window of Alai Darwaza.

Historical sources

Historians have questioned the reliability of historical accounts about the Khalji dynasty. Genuine primary sources and historical records from 1260 to 1349 period have not been found.[76] One exception is the short chapter on Delhi Sultanate from 1302 to 1303 AD by Wassaf in Persia, which is duplicated in Jami al-Tawarikh, and which covers the Balban rule, start of Jalal-ud-din Chili's rule and circumstances of the succession of Alauddin Khalji. A semi-fictional poetry (mathnawi) by Yamin al-Din Abul Hasan, also known as Amir Khusrau, is full of adulation for his employer, the reigning Sultan. Khusrau's adulation-filled narrative poetry has been used as a source of Khalji dynasty history, but this is a disputed source.[76][77] Three historical sources, composed 30 to 115 years after the end of Khalji dynasty, are considered more independent but also questioned given the gap in time. These are Isami's epic of 1349, Diya-yi Barani's work of 1357 and Sirhindi's account of 1434, which possibly relied on now lost text or memories of people in Khalji's court. Of these Barani's text is the most referred and cited in scholarly sources.[76][78]

List of rulers

Titular Name Personal Name Reign[79]
Shāyista Khān

(Jalal-ud-din)
جلال الدین

Malik Fīroz
ملک فیروز خلجی 		1290–1296
Ala-ud-din
علاءالدین 		Ali Gurshasp
علی گرشاسپ خلجی 		1296–1316
Shihab-ud-din
شھاب الدین 		Umar Khan
عمر خان خلجی 		1316
Qutb-ud-din
قطب الدین 		Mubarak Khan
مبارک خان خلجی 		1316–1320
Khusro Khan ended the Khalji dynasty in 1320.

See also

  • Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khalji
  • Persianate society
  • List of Sunni Muslim dynasties

Notes

  1. ↑ Grey flag with black vertical stripe according to the Catalan Atlas (c. 1375): Flag of the Delhi Tughlaq Sultanate according to the Catalan Atlas.jpg in the depiction of the Delhi Sultanate in the Catalan Atlas
  2. ↑ In medieval Persian manuscripts, the word can be read as either "Khalji" or "Khilji" because of the omission of short vowel signs in orthography,[80] but "Khalji" is the correct name.[81]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Kadoi, Yuka (2010). "On the Timurid flag". Beiträge zur islamischen Kunst und Archäologie 2: 148. doi:10.29091/9783954909537/009. https://www.academia.edu/17410816. ""...helps identify another curious flag found in northern India – a brown or originally silver flag with a vertical black line – as the flag of the Delhi Sultanate (602-962/1206-1555)."". 
  2. ↑ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 147, map XIV.3 (i). ISBN 0226742210. https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=185. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Lee, Jonathan L. (2022). Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present. Reaktion Books. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-78914-019-4. "The Khaljis and other Afghan tribes kept apart from their mostly Hindu subjects, living in cantonments, or mahalas, based on clan affiliation. Jalal al-Din Firuz, the first Khalji Sultan, even refused to attend the court in Delhi, and built a new capital a few kilometers away in the Afghan enclave of Kilokhri." 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Arabic and Persian Epigraphical Studies - Archaeological Survey of India". Asi.nic.in. http://asi.nic.in/asi_epigraphical_arabicpersian.asp. 
  5. ↑ "Khalji Dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045252/Khalji-Dynasty. "This dynasty, like the previous Slave dynasty, was of Turkish origin, though the Khaljī tribe had long been settled in Afghanistan. Its three kings were noted for their faithlessness, their ferocity, and their penetration to the South of India." 
  6. ↑ Dynastic Chart The Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 2, p. 368.
  7. ↑ Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. pp. 80–89. ISBN 978-9-38060-734-4. 
  8. ↑ Mohammad Aziz Ahmad (1939). "The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India. (1206-1290 A.d.)". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress (Indian History Congress) 3: 832–841. 
  9. ↑ "The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: Chorasan Tegin Shah". Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. 2012–2013. http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/coins/coin105?language=en. 
  10. ↑ ALRAM, MICHAEL (2014). "From the Sasanians to the Huns New Numismatic Evidence from the Hindu Kush". The Numismatic Chronicle 174: 279. ISSN 0078-2696. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44710198. 
  11. ↑ Khan, Yusuf Husain (1971) (in en). Indo-Muslim Polity (Turko-Afghan Period). Indian Institute of Advanced Study. https://books.google.com/books?id=a-_2b1sxbtAC&q=turco-afghan+khalji. 
  12. ↑ Fisher, Michael H. (18 October 2018) (in en). An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&q=turco-afghan+khalji&pg=PA86. "In 1290, the Turk-Afghan Khalji clan ended the first mamluk dynasty and then ruled in Delhi until one of their own Turkish mamluk commanders rebelled and established his own Tugluq dynasty" 
  13. ↑ Satish Chandra (2007) (in en). History of Medieval India:800-1700. Orient Longman. p. 93. ISBN 978-81-250-3226-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=qHnHHwAACAAJ. "The Khalji rebellion was welcomed by the non-Turkish sections in the nobility. The Khaljis who were of a mixed Turkish-Afghan origin, did not exclude the Turks from high offices, but the rise of the Khaljis to power ended the Turkish monopoly of high offices" 
  14. ↑ "ḴALAJ i. TRIBE – Encyclopaedia Iranica". https://iranicaonline.org/articles/khalaj-i-tribe-turkistan. 
  15. ↑ Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017-03-15) (in en). ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 165. ISBN 978-1-4744-0030-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=bjRWDwAAQBAJ&q=Turk+shahis+khalaj&pg=PA165. "A Bactrian Document (BD T) from this period brings interesting information about the area to our attention. In it, dated to BE 476 (701 AD), a princess identified as `Bag-aziyas, the Great Turkish Princess, the Queen of Qutlugh Tapaghligh Bilga Sävüg, the Princess of the Khalach, the Lady of Kadagestan offers alms to the local god of the region of Rob, known as Kamird, for the health of (her) child. Inaba, arguing for the Khalaj identity of the kings of Kabul, takes this document as a proof that the Khalaj princess is from Kabul and has been offered to the (Hephthalite) king of Kadagestan, thus becoming the lady of that region. The identification of Kadagestan as a Hephthalite stronghold is based on Grenet's suggestion of the survival of Hephthalite minor stares in this region,' and is in con-" 
  16. ↑ Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava 1966, p. 98: "His ancestors, after having migrated from Turkistan, had lived for over 200 years in the Helmand valley and Lamghan, parts of Afghanistan called Garmasir or the hot region, and had adopted Afghan manners and customs. They were, therefore, looked upon as Afghans by the Turkish nobles in India as they had intermarried with local Afghans and adopted their customs and manners. They were looked down as non Turks by Turks."
  17. ↑ Abraham Eraly (2015). The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin Books. p. 126. ISBN 978-93-5118-658-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=vyEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT178.  "The prejudice of Turks was however misplaced in this case, for Khaljis were actually ethnic Turks. But they had settled in Afghanistan long before the Turkish rule was established there, and had over the centuries adopted Afghan customs and practices, intermarried with the local people, and were therefore looked down on as non-Turks by pure-bred Turks."
  18. ↑ Radhey Shyam Chaurasia (2002). History of medieval India: from 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D.. Atlantic. p. 28. ISBN 81-269-0123-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=8XnaL7zPXPUC.  "The Khaljis were a Turkish tribe but having been long domiciled in Afghanistan, had adopted some Afghan habits and customs. They were treated as Afghans in Delhi Court. They were regarded as barbarians. The Turkish nobles had opposed the ascent of Jalal-ud-din to the throne of Delhi."
  19. ↑ (in English) The New Cambridge History of Islam (Volume 3 ed.). Cambridge University Press. 2010. ISBN 9781316184363. https://books.google.com/books?id=ANiaBAAAQBAJ&dq=%C2%A0seventh/thirteenth+century+they+were+regarded+as+a+separate+people,+distinct+from+the+Turks&pg=PT185. 
  20. ↑ Wink, André (2020) (in English). The Making of the Indo-Islamic World C.700-1800 CE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 80. ISBN 9781108417747. https://books.google.com/books?id=uPXvDwAAQBAJ&q=The+Making+of+the+Indo-Islamic+World%0A%0AC.700-1800+CE+archive+org. 
  21. ↑ Wink, André (1991) (in English). Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World (Volume 2 ed.). E.J. Brill. pp. 116. ISBN 9004102361. https://books.google.com/books?id=75FlxDhZWpwC&dq=khalaj+merged+with+afghana&pg=PA116. 
  22. ↑ Verb-Verb Complexes in Asian Languages. Oxford University Press. 2021. pp. 469. ISBN 9780191077432. https://books.google.com/books?id=PhIeEAAAQBAJ&dq=arghu+sogdian&pg=PA469. 
  23. ↑ Minorsky, Vladimir (1978). The Turks, Iran and the Caucasus in the Middle Ages. Variorum Reprints. pp. 53. ISBN 9780860780281. 
  24. ↑ Pierre Oberling (15 December 2010). "ḴALAJ i. TRIBE". Encyclopaedia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/khalaj-i-tribe-turkistan. Retrieved 4 July 2020. "Indeed, it seems very likely that [the Khalaj] formed the core of the Pashto-speaking Ghilji tribe, the name [Ghilji] being derived from Khalaj.". 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Sunil Kumar 1994, p. 36.
  26. ↑ Ahmad Hasan Dani 1999, pp. 180-181.
  27. ↑ Ahmad Hasan Dani 1999, pp. 180.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Sunil Kumar 1994, p. 31.
  29. ↑ Mohammad Aziz Ahmad (1939). "The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India. (1206-1290 A.d.)". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress (Indian History Congress) 3: 841. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Peter Jackson 2003.
  31. ↑ Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava 1966, p. 141.
  32. ↑ A. B. M. Habibullah (1992). "The Khaljis: Jalaluddin Khalji". The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206-1526). A Comprehensive History of India. 5. The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. p. 312. OCLC 31870180. https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ. 
  33. ↑ Peter Jackson 2003, pp. 81-86.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Vincent A Smith, The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911, Chapter 2, Oxford University Press
  35. ↑ New Indian Antiquary:Volume 2. the University of California. 1939. p. 545. https://books.google.com/books?id=0S62AAAAIAAJ&q=to+the+barge+with+the+arm+of+his+nephew+in+his+hand+,+Alauddin+gave+the+signal+and+in+a+twinkling+Muhammad+Salim+of+Samana+struck. 
  36. ↑ Journal of the University of Bombay: Volumes 17-18. University of Bombay. 1948. p. 8. https://books.google.com/books?id=1inCfdq20jUC&q=muhammad+salim+samana. "salim of samana, the silahdar, accompanied the position behind the Sultan" 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 William Wilson Hunter, The Indian Empire: Its Peoples, History, and Products, p. 334, at Google Books, WH Allen & Co., London, pp 334-336
  38. ↑ P. M. Holt et al. 1977, pp. 8-14.
  39. ↑ Satish Chandra (2004). Medieval India: From Sultanate to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526). Har-Anand Publications. p. 269. ISBN 9788124110645. https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&q=Medieval%20India%3A%20From%20Sultanat%20to%20the%20Mughals-Delhi%20Sultanat%20(1206-1526%20...&pg=PA269. 
  40. ↑ Yasin Mazhar Siddiqi (1972). "the Kotwals under the Sultans of Delhi". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress (Indian History Congress): 194. "Nusrat Khan Jalesari who was the Kotwal in the first year of the Alai reign was an Indian Muslim". 
  41. ↑ The Life and Works of Sultan Alauddin Khalji. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. 1992. ISBN 9788171563623. https://books.google.com/books?id=nbZgnqfXjnQC&q=nusrat%20khan%20follower%20of%20alauddin&pg=PA51. "the Sultan appointed his Wazir Nusrat Khan to deal with the Jalali nobles...Nusrat Khan confiscated property worth about one crore. This brought to an end the influence of the Jalali nobles and strengthened the government treasury. Also the Sultan got a happy riddance from a nobility, whose loyalty was always doubtful. After this he created a new nobility whose distinctive feature was its loyalty and friendship of Ala-ud-Din" 
  42. ↑ SHAIKH ABDUL LATIF (1993). "The Indian Elements in the Bureaucracy of the Delhi Sultanate". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress (Indian History Congress) 54: 159. 
  43. ↑ Fouzia Farooq Ahmed (27 September 2016). Muslim Rule in Medieval India: Power and Religion in the Delhi Sultanate. Bloomsbury. pp. 151. ISBN 9781786730824. https://books.google.com/books?id=remKDwAAQBAJ&q=balbanid%20noble&pg=PA151. 
  44. ↑ Kaushik Roy (2003). Warfare in Pre-British India - 1500BCE to 1740CE. Routledge. ISBN 9781317586913. https://books.google.com/books?id=oh7ICQAAQBAJ&pg=PT110. "Malik Naik(a Hindu convert to Islam)" 
  45. ↑ Satish Chandra (2004). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) = Part One. Har-Anand Publications. ISBN 9788124110645. https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&q=Medieval%20India%3A%20From%20Sultanat%20to%20the%20Mughals-Delhi%20Sultanat%20(1206-1526%20...&pg=PA90. 
  46. ↑ AL. P. Sharma (1987). History of medieval India (1000-1740 A.D.). TKonark Publishers. ISBN 9788122000429. https://books.google.com/books?id=18EKAQAAIAAJ&q=nusrat+khan+defeated+vaghela+king. 
  47. ↑ Old NCERT History Medieval India by Satish Chandra (Class 11). Mocktime Publications. https://books.google.com/books?id=POdjDwAAQBAJ&q=Old%20NCERT%20Histroy%20Medieval%20India%20by%20Satish%20Chandra%20(Class%2011)%20in%20PDF%20%26%20PRINT%3A%20Mocktime%20Publication&pg=PA53. 
  48. ↑ Frank Fanselow (1989), Muslim society in Tamil Nadu (India): an historical perspective, Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, 10(1), pp 264-289
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 Hermann Kulke & Dietmar Rothermund 2004.
  50. ↑ Antiquities from San Thomé and Mylapore. 1936. pp. 264–265. https://archive.org/details/AntiquitiesFromSanThomeAndMylaporeHenriHosten1936/page/n319/mode/2up?q=diogil. 
  51. ↑ Beaujard, Philippe (2019). "Chapter 8". The worlds of the Indian Ocean: a global history: a revised and updated translation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42456-1. "The sultan captured the Rajput fort of Chitor, in Rājasthān, and in 1310 he subjected most of the Deccan to his power. He took Devagiri – the capital of the Yādava – in 1307" 
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Sastri (1955), pp 206–208
  53. ↑ "Khalji Dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045252/Khalji-Dynasty. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Vincent A Smith, The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911, p. 217, at Google Books, Chapter 2, pp 231-235, Oxford University Press
  55. ↑ The Life and Works of Sultan Alauddin Khalji- By Ghulam Sarwar Khan Niazi
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 P. M. Holt et al. 1977, pp. 9-13.
  57. ↑ Irfan Habib 1982, pp. 61-62.
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 58.3 Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund (1998), A History of India, 3rd Edition, Routledge, ISBN:0-415-15482-0, pp 161-162
  59. ↑ Peter Jackson 2003, pp. 196-202.
  60. ↑ Elliot and Dowson (1871), The History of India as told by its own Historians, p. 182, at Google Books, Vol. 3, pp 182-188
  61. ↑ N. Jayapalan (2008), Economic History of India: Ancient to Present Day, Atlantic Publishers, pp. 81-83, ISBN:978-8-126-90697-0
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Kenneth Kehrer (1963), The Economic Policies of Ala-ud-Din Khalji, Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society, vol. 16, pp. 55-66
  63. ↑ Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava 1953, pp. 156-158.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Peter Jackson 2003, pp. 244-248.
  65. ↑ M.A. Farooqi (1991), The economic policy of the Sultans of Delhi, Konark publishers, ISBN:978-8122002263
  66. ↑ Irfan Habib (1984), The price regulations of Alauddin Khalji - a defense of Zia Barani, Indian Economic and Social History Review, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 393-414
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 K.S. Lal (1967), History of the Khaljis, Asian Publishing House, ISBN:978-8121502115, pp 201-204
  68. ↑ Vincent A Smith (1983), The Oxford History of India, Oxford University Press, pp 245-247
  69. ↑ Irfan Habib 1982, pp. 87-88.
  70. ↑ Irfan Habib 1982, pp. 62-63.
  71. ↑ Raychaudhuri et al. (1982), The Cambridge Economic History of India: c. 1200-1750, Orient Longman, pp 89-93
  72. ↑ Irfan Habib (January 1978). "Economic History of the Delhi Sultanate - An Essay in Interpretation". The Indian Historical Review IV (2): 293. 
  73. ↑ Scott Levi (November 2002). "Hindus beyond the Hindu Kush: Indians in the Central Asian Slave Trade". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 12 (3): 281–283. 
  74. ↑ Alexander Cunningham (1873), Archaeological Survey of India, Report for the year 1871-72, Volume 3, page 8
  75. ↑ UNESCO, Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi, World Heritage Site
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 76.2 Peter Jackson 2003, pp. 49-52.
  77. ↑ Elliot and Dawson (1871), The History of India as told by its own Historians, Vol. 3, pp 94-98
  78. ↑ Irfan Habib (1981), "Barani's theory of the history of the Delhi Sultanate", Indian Historical Review, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp 99-115
  79. ↑ Kishori Saran Lal 1950, p. 385.
  80. ↑ Peter Gottschalk (27 October 2005). Beyond Hindu and Muslim: Multiple Identity in Narratives from Village India. Oxford University Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-19-976052-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=fl53OdhuU7YC&pg=PA99. 
  81. ↑ Heramb Chaturvedi (2016). Allahabad School of History 1915-1955. Prabhat. p. 222. ISBN 978-81-8430-346-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=DqGaDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA222. 

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