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Kingdom of Gwynedd

Topic: History

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 19 min

Short description: Kingdom in northwest Wales, c.5th c.–1283

Kingdom of Gwynedd

Guined  (Old Welsh)[1]
GỼynet  (Middle Welsh)[2]
Venedotia / Nor(th)wallia  (Latin)[lower-alpha 1]
c. 500 – 1283
Flag of Gwynedd
Arms of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn, Dafydd ap Llywelyn, and Llywelyn ap Gruffudd[8]
CapitalNone, with a 'chief' court at Aberffraw[9]
Common languages
Religion
Roman Catholicism
GovernmentMonarchy
Monarch 
• c. 520 – 547
Maelgwn Gwynedd (first attested)
• 1282 – 1283
Dafydd ap Gruffudd (last)
Distain 
• c. 1217 – 1246
Ednyfed Fychan
• 1256 – 1268
Goronwy ab Ednyfed Fychan
Historical eraMiddle Ages
• First appearance as VENEDOTI[A]
c. 500
• Battle of Heavenfield
634
• Accession of the Second Dynasty
c. 825
• Rule of Gruffudd ap Cynan
1101 – 1137
• Overlordship of Llywelyn ab Iorwerth
1216 – 1240
• Treaty of Montgomery, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd made Prince of Wales
29 September 1267
• Treaty of Aberconwy
9 November 1277
• Death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd
11 December 1282
• Statute of Rhuddlan
1284
Currency
  • keynyauc (c. 1250)[10]
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Ordovices
Principality of Wales
Today part ofWales
  1. ↑ Venedotia may also be rendered as Guenedot(i)a, reflecting the Old Welsh spelling Guined.[3][4] Welsh charters only render the name as Norwallia or Northwallia, derived from Old English Norþwealas.[5][6] The Latin Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan equates Venedotia and Northwallia.[7]

Template:History of Wales

The Kingdom of Gwynedd was a Welsh kingdom which first appears at the turn of the sixth century.[11] Based in northwest Wales, the rulers of Gwynedd repeatedly rose to dominance and were acclaimed as "King of the Britons" before losing their power in civil wars or invasions.Lua error: not enough memory. The kingdom of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn—the King of Wales from 1055 to 1063—was shattered by a Saxon invasion in 1063 just prior to the Norman invasion of Wales, but the House of Aberffraw restored by Gruffudd ap Cynan slowly recovered and Llywelyn the Great of Gwynedd was able to proclaim the Principality of Wales at the Aberdyfi gathering of Welsh princes in 1216.[12][13][14] In 1277, the Treaty of Aberconwy between Edward I of England and Llywelyn's grandson Llywelyn ap Gruffudd granted peace between the two but would also guarantee that Welsh self-rule would end upon Llywelyn's death, and so it represented the completion of the first stage of the conquest of Wales by Edward I.[15][lower-alpha 1]

Welsh tradition credited the founding of Gwynedd to the Brittonic polity of Gododdin (Old Welsh Guotodin, earlier Brittonic form Votadini) from Lothian invading the lands of the Brittonic polities of the Deceangli, Ordovices, and Gangani in the 5th century.[16] The sons of their leader, Cunedda, were said to have possessed the land between the rivers Dee and Teifi.[17] The true borders of the realm varied over time, but Gwynedd proper was generally thought to comprise the cantrefs of Aberffraw, Cemais, and Cantref Rhosyr on Anglesey and Arllechwedd, Arfon, Dunoding, Dyffryn Clwyd, Llŷn, Rhos, Rhufoniog, and Tegeingl at the mountainous mainland region of Snowdonia opposite.[18]

Etymology

The name Gwynedd is believed to be a borrowing from early Irish (reflective of Irish settlement in the area in antiquity), either cognate with the Old Irish ethnic name Féni, 'Irish people', from Primitive Irish*weidh-n- 'forest people' or 'wild people' (from Proto-Indo-European *weydʰ- 'wood, wilderness'), or alternatively Old Irish fían 'war band', from Proto-Celtic *weinā (from Proto-Indo-European *weyh₁- 'chase, pursue, suppress').[19][20][21][22]

Ptolemy in the 1st century marked the Llŷn Peninsula as the "Promontory of the Gangani",[23] which is also a name he recorded in Ireland. It is theorised in the 1st century BC some of the Gangani tribe may have landed in what is now the Llŷn Peninsula and had driven out the Deceangli or the Ordovices tribe from that area either peacefully or by force. In the late and post-Roman eras, Irish from Leinster[16] may have arrived in Anglesey and elsewhere in northwest Wales with the name Llŷn derived from Laigin, an Old Irish form that means 'Leinstermen', or simply 'Leinster'.[24]

The 5th-century Cantiorix Inscription now in Penmachno church seems to be the earliest record of the name.[16] It is in memory of a man named Cantiorix, and the Latin inscription is Cantiorix hic iacit / Venedotis cives fuit / consobrinos Magli magistrati: "Cantiorix lies here. He was a citizen of Gwynedd and a cousin of Maglos the magistrate".[16] The use of terms such as "citizen" and "magistrate" may be cited as evidence that Romano-British culture and institutions continued in Gwynedd long after the legions had withdrawn.[16]

History, background and familial descent

The background involving the Kingdom of Gwynedd starts with the history of Wales. After the last ice age, Wales was settled during the prehistoric times.[25] Neolithic sites have been discovered with tools made from flint, such as near Llanfaethlu, a long house excavated from 6000 years ago.[26][27] Further examples of human activity in Gwynedd and Anglesey are involved in places such as Bryn Celli Ddu on Anglesey, which was built in phases starting 5000 years ago.[28] Archeological findings from the Bronze Age, millennia ago, include findings such as the Arthog cauldron, a bronze cauldron from 1100 BC found near the Merioneth border, also named 'The Nannau Bucket' (similar to the Dowris bucket). And the Moel Hebog shield which is also 3,000 years old (similar to the Rhyd-y-gors example), and more recently the Trawsfynydd tankard, which was used to drink mead and beer between 100 BC and 75 AD.[29][30]

Bryn Eryr, recreation of pre Roman roundhouse, it's a 2,000-year-old Celtic Iron Age home.[31]

Examples of early settlement in Gwynedd are Bryn Eryr near Llansadwrn, Anglesey, now found at the St Fagans National Museum of History,[32] and Garn Boduan, a Celtic hillfort on the Llŷn Peninsula.[33] Iron Age forts were being adapted until after the Roman conquest of Britain, 'Castle of Buan' (Garn Boduan) in Llŷn was recorded as being fortified until the 7th century.Lua error: not enough memory.[34] During the Roman period, new roads and forts were constructed throughout the Roman empire and for centuries in Wales and England, Welsh examples include Caer Gybi (fort) on Anglesey, and Segontium in Caernarfon, Gwynedd.[35][36] The establishment of Christianity in Wales also gave rise to a new era; the Romans founded towns with churches and installed governors. During the centuries of sub-Roman Britain, new political structures were established.[37] The Brythonic Kingdom of Gwynedd was established in the 5th century, and it proved to be the most durable of these Brythonic states, surviving until the late 13th century.[11]

Boundaries and names emerging from the 1st millennium AD onwards are still being used today to define towns and counties of the region.[38] Noteworthy descendants from the Kingdom of Gwynedd include royalty such as Owain Glyndŵr,[39][40] and the titular Prince of Wales,[41][42] also the Salusbury family via Katheryn of Berain.[43] The people mentioned can be associated with the Anglesey based Tudors of Penmynydd family. The Tudors were ancestors and namesake to the former English Royal House of Tudor, they were descended from the Welshman Maredudd ap Tudur,[42] Ednyfed Fychan being his famous ancestor, his family were seneschals to the Kings of Gwynedd.[44] The Tudor dynasty became ancestors to the House of Stuart, and the Stuarts formed the European Jacobite family, they include direct descendants in United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Germany, Italy and other countries on the continent of Europe, and all around the world.[45][46]

Gwynedd in the Early Middle Ages

Cunedda and his sons

The region became known as Venedotia in Latin. The name was initially attributed to a specific Irish colony on Anglesey but broadened to refer to Irish settlers as a whole in North Wales by the 5th century.[47]Lua error: not enough memory. According to the 9th-century monk and chronicler Nennius, North Wales was left defenceless by the Roman withdrawal and subject to increasing raids by marauders from the Isle of Man and Ireland, a situation which led Cunedda,[48] his sons and their entourage, to migrate in the mid-5th century from Manaw Gododdin (now Clackmannanshire) to settle and defend North Wales against the raiders and bring the region within Romano-British control. Whether they were invited to keep out the invaders or were raiders themselves, however, is unknown.[16][49] According to traditional pedigrees, Cunedda's grandfather was Padarn Beisrudd, Paternus of the red cloak, "an epithet which suggests that he wore the cloak of a Roman officer",[16] and perhaps it was evidence of a high-ranking officer.[49][lower-alpha 2] Cunedda (Template:Fl) brought order to North Wales and after his death, Gwynedd was divided among his sons: Dynod was awarded Dunoding, another son Ceredig received Ceredigion," Afloeg by Aflogion in Lleyn, Dogfael by Dogfeiling in Dyffryn Clwyd, and Edern by Edeirnion ... Osfeilion of Osfael has not yet been located; Tybion, the eldest son, is said to have died in Manaw Gododdin, but his son Meirion (Marianus) comes into the picture as lord of Meirionydd. Einion Yrth completes the number". Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion one of his grandsons, was the final leader to defeat the Irish on Anglesey.[49] However, this overly neat origin myth has been met with skepticism,[lower-alpha 3]

"Early Welsh literature contains a wealth of stories seeking to explain place-names, and doubtless, the story is propaganda aimed at justifying the right of Cunedda and his descendants to territories beyond the borders of the original Kingdom of Gwynedd. That kingdom probably consisted of the two banks of the Menai Straits and the coast over towards the estuary of the River Conwy, the foundations upon which Cunedda's descendants created a more extensive realm."[16]

The inhabitants of Gwynedd remained conscious of their Romano-British heritage, and an affinity with Rome survived long after the Empire retreated from Britain, particularly with the use of Latin in writing and sustaining the Christian religion. The ruling classes continued to emphasise Roman ancestors within their pedigrees as a way to link their rule with the old imperial Roman order, suggesting stability and continuity with that old order.[16][50] According to Professor John Davies, "[T]here is a determinedly Brythonic, and indeed Roman, air to early Gwynedd."[16] So palpable was the Roman heritage felt that Professor Bryan Ward-Perkins of Trinity College, Oxford, wrote, "it took until 1282, when Edward I conquered Gwynedd, for the last part of Roman Britain to fall [and] a strong case can be made for Gwynedd as the very last part of the entire Roman Empire, east and west, to fall to the barbarians."[50][lower-alpha 4] Nevertheless, there was generally quick abandonment of Roman political, social, and ecclesiastical practices and institutions within Gwynedd and elsewhere in Wales. Roman knowledge was lost as the Romano-Britons shifted towards a streamlined militaristic near-tribal society that no longer included the use of coinage and other complex industries dependent on a money economy, architectural techniques using brick and mortar, and even more basic knowledge such as the use of the wheel in pottery production.[50] Ward-Perkins suggests the Welsh had to abandon those Roman ways that proved insufficient, or indeed superfluous, to meet the challenge of survival they faced: "Militarized tribal societies, despite their political fragmentation and internecine strife, seem to have offered better protection against Germanic invasion than exclusive dependence on a professional Roman army (that in the troubled years of the fifth century was all too prone to melt away or mutiny)."[50]


Kingdom of Gwynedd c. 620

In the post-Roman period, the earliest rulers of Wales and Gwynedd may have exerted authority over regions no larger than the cantrefi (hundreds) described in Welsh law codified centuries later, with their size somewhat comparable in size to the Irish tuath. These early petty kings or princelings (Lloyd[who?] uses the term chieftain) adopted the title rhi in Welsh (akin to the Irish Gaelic rí), later replaced by brenin, a title used to "denote a less archaic form of kingship," according to Professor John Davies. Genealogical lists compiled around 960 bear out that a number of these early rulers claimed degrees of association with the old Roman order, but do not appear in the official royal lineages. "It may be assumed that the stronger kings annexed the territories of their weaker neighbours and that the lineages of the victors are the only lineages to have survived," according to Davies. Smaller and weaker chieftains coalesced around more powerful princelings, sometimes through voluntary vassalage or inheritance, though at other times through conquest, and the lesser princelings coalesced around still greater princelings until a regional prince could claim authority over the whole of north Wales from the River Dyfi in the south to the Dee in the east, and incorporating Anglesey.[16] Other evidence supports Nennius's claim that a leader came to North Wales and brought the region a measure of stabilityLua error: not enough memory. although an Irish Gaelic element remained until the mid-5th century. Cunedda's heir Einion Yrth ap Cunedda defeated the remaining Gaelic Irish on Anglesey by 470, while his son, Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion, appears to have consolidated the realm during the time of relative peace following the Battle of Badon, where the Anglo-Saxons were defeated. During that peace, he established a mighty kingdom. After Cadwallon, Gwynedd appears to have held a pre-eminent position among the petty Cambrian states in the post-Roman period. The great-grandson of Cunedda, Maelgwn Hir (Maelgwn the Tall),[49][52][53] was regarded as an able military leader, impetuous and generous.[54] There are several legends about his life concerning either his own trickery and craftinessLua error: not enough memory. or, on the other hand, miracles performed against him by Christian saints.[55] He is attributed in some old stories as hosting the first Eisteddfod,Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; refs with no name must have content and he is also one of five Celtic British kings castigated for their sins by the contemporary Christian writer Gildas (who referred to him as Maglocunus, meaning 'Prince-Hound' in Brittonic),[56] written in the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. Maelgwn was curiously described as "the dragon of the island" by Gildas which was possibly a title, but explicitly as the most powerful of the five named British kings. "[Y]ou the last I write of but the first and greatest in evil, more than many in ability but also in malice, more generous in giving but also more liberal in sin, strong in war but stronger to destroy your soul."[57]

Maelgwn eventually died from the plague in 547,[54] leaving a succession crisis in his wake. His son-in-law, Elidyr Mwynfawr of the Kingdom of Strathclyde, claimed the throne and invaded Gwynedd to displace Maelgwn's son, Rhun Hir ap Maelgwn. Elidyr was killed in the attempt,[58] but his death was then avenged by his relatives, who ravaged the coast of Arfon. Rhun counter-attacked and exacted the same penalty on the lands of his foes in what is now South and Central Scotland.[59] The long distances these armies travelled suggests they were moving across the Irish Sea, but, because almost all of what is now northern England was at this point (c. 550) under Brittonic rule, it is possible that his army marched to Strathclyde overland. Rhun returned to Gwynedd, and the rest of his reign was for the majority uneventful until the relatives of Elidir renewed their aggressions against Rhun who was killed in the conflict. He was succeeded by his son or in some accounts nephew Beli ap Rhun in c. 586.[60]

On the accession of Beli's son Iago ap Beli in c. 599, the situation in Britain had deteriorated significantly. Most of northern England had been overrun by the invading Angles of Deira and Bernicia, who were in the process of forming the Kingdom of Northumbria. In a rare show of common interest, it appears that Gwynedd and the neighbouring Kingdom of Powys acted in concert to rebuff the Anglian advance but were defeated at the Battle of Chester in 613. Following this catastrophe, the approximate borders of northern Wales were set with the city of Caerlleon (now called Chester) and the surrounding Cheshire Plain falling under the control of the Anglo-Saxons. Beli's grandson was Cadfan ap Iago from the line of Maelgwn, his tombstone in Gwynedd wrote in Latin: "Catamanus rex sapientisimus opinatisimus" (most renowned), he was an ancestor of the future Kings of Gwynedd.[61][62]

Cadwallon ap Cadfan

Gravestone of Cadfan ap Iago, father of Cadwallon ap Cadfan

The Battle of Chester did not end the ability of the Welsh to seriously threaten the Anglo-Saxon polities.[63] Among the most powerful of the early kings was Cadwallon ap Cadfan (c. 624 – 634),[64][65] grandson of Iago ap Beli. He became engaged in an initially disastrous campaign against Northumbria where following a series of epic defeats he was confined first to Anglesey,[66] and then just to Puffin Island, before being forced into exile across the Irish Sea to Dublin, – a place which would come to host many royal refugees from Gwynedd. All must have seemed lost but Cadwallon (Welsh: Meigen) raised an enormous army and after a brief time in Guernsey he invaded Dumnonia, relieved the West Welsh who were suffering a Mercian invasion and forced the pagan Penda of Mercia into an alliance against Northumbria.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

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Template:Wales topics Template:Welsh kingdoms Template:Rulers of medieval Wales Template:Royal houses of Britain and Ireland


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  1. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  2. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  3. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  4. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  5. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  6. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  7. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  8. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  9. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  10. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "The lost kingdoms of Wales". 5 October 2017. https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/the-lost-kingdoms-of-wales-13721585. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Cynan
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Iorwerth
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Gruffudd_ab
  15. ↑ Pierre Chaplais; Michael Jones; Malcolm Vale (1 January 1989). England and Her Neighbours, 1066–1453: Essays in Honour of Pierre Chaplais. A&C Black. pp. 136. ISBN 978-1-85285-014-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=m4itAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA136. 
  16. ↑ 16.00 16.01 16.02 16.03 16.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 16.10 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Foundation
  17. ↑ Fitzpatrick-Matthews, K. (29 January 2013). "Harley MS 3859". http://www.kmatthews.org.uk/history/harleian_genealogies/33.html. "Harleian genealogies" 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 "Cantrefs and Commotes of Wales". http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/cantref.html. 
  19. ↑ Hamp, Eric P. (1995). Goidil, Feni, Gwynedd, Proc. Harvard Celtic Colloquium 12. pp. 43–50. 
  20. ↑ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture. ABC-Clio. p. 867. 
  21. ↑ Koch, John T. (1997a). The Gododdin of Aneirin. University of Wales. p. xcviii. 
  22. ↑ Matasović, Ranko (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Brill. pp. 414, 418. ISBN 9789004173361. 
  23. ↑ Ptolemy. "The Geography of Claudius Penelope". https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy/2/1*.html. 
  24. ↑ Rhys, John (1891). "The Early Irish Conquests of Wales and Dumnonia". The Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 1 (8): 644. 
  25. ↑ "After the Ice Age". 11 May 2007. https://museum.wales/articles/1318/After-the-Ice-Age/#:~:text=At%20the%20height%20of%20the%20last%20Ice%20Age%2C,. 
  26. ↑ "Wales' earliest village?". 5 October 2017. https://archaeology.co.uk/articles/features/wales-earliest-village.htm. 
  27. ↑ "Ancient Stone Age artifacts discovered at Anglesey water treatment works site". 11 June 2017. https://www.dailypost.co.uk/news/north-wales-news/ancient-stone-age-artefacts-discovered-13169018. 
  28. ↑ "Bryn Celli Ddu". https://cadw.gov.wales/more-about-bryn-celli-ddu. 
  29. ↑ "Eryri – Snowdonia". https://www.snowdonia.gov.wales/looking-after/projects/cyfoeth-ein-corsydd. 
  30. ↑ "Trawsfynydd Tankard". https://museum.wales/iron_age_teachers/artefacts/trawsfynydd/. 
  31. ↑ "Bryn Eryr Iron Age Roundhouses". https://museum.wales/stfagans/buildings/bryneryr/. 
  32. ↑ "Bryn Eryr Iron Age Farmstead". https://museum.wales/stfagans/buildings/bryneryr/. 
  33. ↑ "Garn Boduan". http://www.rhiw.com/y_pentra/llyn_to_do/llyn_walks/garn_boduan/garn_boduan.htm. 
  34. ↑ "North west Wales hill forts". BBC. http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/wales/archive/bbc-north-west-wales-celts.pdf. 
  35. ↑ "Segontium Roman Fort". Cadw. https://cadw.gov.wales/visit/places-to-visit/segontium-roman-fort. 
  36. ↑ "Caer Gybi". https://cadw.gov.wales/visit/places-to-visit/caer-gybi-roman-fortlet. 
  37. ↑ "The Roman Conquest of Wales". 15 January 2021. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2021/01/the-roman-conquest-of-wales/136796. 
  38. ↑ "Why do Welsh place names appear around the world?". BBC. 11 August 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-49240433. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Owain2
  40. ↑ "Family tree". https://www.owain-glyndwr.wales/html-folders/OwainGlyndwrFamilyTree/OwainGlyndwrFamilyTree.htm. 
  41. ↑ "DIRECT DESCENT OF QUEEN ELIZABETH II FROM HENRY VII AND ELIZABETH OF YORK". https://tudorhistory.org/trees/er2.html. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 "A royal dynasty". BBC. 5 August 2008. https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/periods/tudors_02.shtml. 
  43. ↑ Template:Cite DWB
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 Template:Cite DWB
  45. ↑ "Direct succession". http://www.royalstuartsociety.com/succession.html. 
  46. ↑ "Jacobite Studies Trust". http://jacobitestudiestrust.org/index.html. 
  47. ↑ Christopher A. Snyder (2003). The Britons. Blackwell Publishing. 
  48. ↑ "Cunedda Wledig "Imperator" ab Edern, Brenin Lothian a Gwenydd". 385. https://www.geni.com/people/Cunedda-Wledig-King-of-Gwynedd/6000000001994779327. 
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  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 Ward-Perkins, Bryan (1 June 2000). "Why Did the Anglo-Saxons Not Become More British". The English Historical Review 115 (462): 513–533. doi:10.1093/ehr/115.462.513. https://academic.oup.com/ehr/article/115/462/513/397935. Retrieved 11 December 2021. "Issue 462". 
  51. ↑ Campbell, James; Wormald, Patrick; John, Eric (6 August 1991). The Anglo-Saxons. Oxford: Penguin. p. 19. ISBN 0140143955. 
  52. ↑ "Maelgwn Gwynedd, King of Gwynedd". http://www.earlybritishkingdoms.com/bios/maelgggd.html. 
  53. ↑ "Maelgwyn ap Cadwallon, Brenin Gwynedd". 480. https://www.geni.com/people/Maelgwyn-ap-Cadwallon-Brenin-Gwynedd/6000000002577032099. 
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  55. ↑ Hughes, David (2007). The British Chronicles. Heritage. p. 1:206. ISBN 9780788444906. https://books.google.com/books?id=QnDtohOe8-QC&dq=Maelgwn+Hir+%22Maelgwn+the+Tall+legends+miracles&pg=PA206. Retrieved 19 February 2022. 
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  59. ↑ "Rhun Hir, King of Gwynedd". http://earlybritishkingdoms.com/bios/rhunhgd.html. 
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  61. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Cad
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  63. ↑ "Dating the Battle of Chester". http://www.carlanayland.org/essays/dating_battle_chester.htm. 
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  67. ↑ Bertram Colgrave; R. A. B. Mynors, eds (1969). "Bede's ecclesiastical history of the English people". Medieval Sourcebook: Bede (673735). Clarendon Press. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book2.asp. 
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  73. ↑ "When the Vikings invaded North Wales". 2 April 2007. https://museum.wales/articles/1019/When-the-Vikings-invaded-North-Wales/#:~:text=The%20first%20recorded%20raid%20on%20Wales%20occurred%20in,. 
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 Redknap, Mark (31 October 2008). "29". The Vikings in Wales from: The Viking World. Routledge. pp. 401–404. doi:10.4324/9780203412770. ISBN 9781134318261. https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203412770.ch29. Retrieved 28 August 2023. 
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  76. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Frych
  77. ↑ Template:Cite DWB
  78. ↑ Davies, John (1990), A History of Wales (First ed.), London: Penguin Group (published 1993), ISBN 0-7139-9098-8
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  119. ↑ "Plaque marks Welsh king's triumph". BBC. 26 January 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/north_east/7210284.stm. 
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  139. ↑ "Iorwerth (cyfraith)". http://www.cyfraith-hywel.org.uk/uploads/jones_models_organisation_iorwerth.pdf. 
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  148. ↑ Pierre Chaplais; Michael Jones; Malcolm Vale (1 January 1989). England and Her Neighbours, 1066–1453: Essays in Honour of Pierre Chaplais. A&C Black. pp. 136. ISBN 978-1-85285-014-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=m4itAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA136. Retrieved 13 December 2021. 
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  168. ↑ "Llywelyn ap Gruffydd". 17 December 2019. https://www.sarahwoodbury.com/llywelyn-ap-gruffydd/. 
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