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Missing years (Jewish calendar)

Topic: History

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Short description: Date discrepancy in the Hebrew calendar

The missing years in the Hebrew calendar refer to a chronological discrepancy between the rabbinic dating for the destruction of the First Temple in 422 BCE (3338 Anno Mundi)[1] and the academic dating of it in 587 BCE. In a larger sense, it also refers to the discrepancy between conventional chronology versus that of Seder Olam in what concerns the Persian period during which time it exercised hegemony over Israel, a period which spanned 207 years according to conventional chronology,[2] but only 34 years according to Seder Olam. Invariably, the resulting timeframe effects also the number of years in which stood the Second Temple, said by a late rabbinic tradition to have stood 420 years, but by conventional chronology 589 years.[3]

Dating in academic sources

The academic datings in question are confirmed by a variety of Persian, Babylonian and Greek sources, which include records of datable astronomical observations such as eclipses,[4] although there are disagreements among modern scholars, ranging from 1 to 2 years, over some of the dates in the conventional chronology.[5]

Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC)

Both the Babylonian Chronicles and the Bible indicate that Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem. The Babylonian Chronicles (as published by Donald Wiseman in 1956) establish that Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem the first time on 2 Adar (16 March) 597 BCE.[6] Before Wiseman's publication, E. R. Thiele had determined from the biblical texts that Nebuchadnezzar's initial capture of Jerusalem occurred in the spring of 597 BCE,[7] while other scholars, including William F. Albright, more frequently dated the event to 598 BCE.[8]

Second siege and destruction of the First Temple

According to the Bible, Nebuchadnezzar installed Zedekiah as king after his first siege,[9] and Zedekiah ruled for 11 years before the second siege resulted in the end of his kingdom.[10]

Although there is no dispute that Jerusalem fell the second time in the summer month of Tammuz,[11] Albright dates the end of Zedekiah's reign (and the fall of Jerusalem) to 587 BCE, whereas Thiele offers 586 BCE.[12] Thiele's reckoning is based on the presentation of Zedekiah's reign on an accession basis, which was used for most but not all of the kings of Judah. In that case, the year that Zedekiah came to the throne would be his first partial year; his first full year would be 597/596 BCE, and his eleventh year, the year Jerusalem fell, would be 587/586 BCE. Since Judah's regnal years were counted from Tishrei in autumn, this would place the end of his reign and the capture of Jerusalem in the summer of 586 BCE.[12][13]

Dating in traditional Jewish sources

A variety of rabbinic sources state that the Second Temple stood for 420 years.[14] In traditional Jewish calculations, based on Seder Olam Rabbah, the destruction of the Second Temple fell in the year 68 of the Common Era, implying that it was built in about 352 BCE.[15][16][17] Adding 70 years between the destruction of the First Temple and the construction of the Second Temple, it follows that the First Temple was destroyed in around 422 BCE.[15][18] While acceptance of this chronology was widespread among ancient rabbis, it was not universal: Pirkei deRabbi Eliezer, Midrash Lekach Tov, and numerous rishonim disagree with the chronology of Seder Olam Rabbah.[19]

The traditional Jewish date recognized by the rabbis as the "year of destruction" is approximately 165 years later than the accepted year of 587 or 586 BCE. This discrepancy is referred to as the "missing years".

Details of rabbinic chronology

According to the Talmud[20] and Seder Olam Rabbah,[21] the Second Temple stood for 420 years, with the years divided up as follows:

103 years (35 BCE – 68 CE) = Herod's Dynasty.
103 years (138–35 BCE) = Hasmonean Dynasty.
180 years (318–138 BCE) = Grecian rule over Israel
34 years (352–318 BCE) = Persian rule while the Second Temple stood (not including additional years of Persian rule before the Temple's construction).

The date of 318 BCE for the Greek conquest of Persia is evident from the Talmud, which implies that that Greek rule began six years before the beginning of the Seleucid era (which occurred in 312/11 BCE).[22][23][24] (Note that in academic chronology, Alexander conquered the Persian empire between 334–330 BCE.)

Seventy years passed between the destruction of the First Temple and the building of the Second Temple in the seventy first year,[25] so construction of the Second Temple in 352 BCE implies that the First Temple was destroyed in 423 BCE.

Similarly, Megillat Antiochus implies that the Second Temple was built in 352 BCE, and thus that the First Temple was destroyed in 423 BCE.[26]

The figure of 420 years is likely derived from the prophecy of seventy weeks in Daniel 9:24–27. The rabbis this passage interpreted as referring to a period of 490 years which would pass between the destructions of the First and Second Temple—70 years between the Temples, plus 420 years of the Second Temple, starting in the 71st year after the destruction,[27][19] though the passage can plausibly be interpreted in other ways.[19]

Proposed explanations

If traditional dates are assumed to be based on the standard Hebrew calendar, then the differing traditional and modern academic dating of events cannot both be correct. Attempts to reconcile the two systems must show one or both to have errors.

Missing years in Jewish tradition

Scholars see the discrepancy between the traditional and academic date of the destruction of the First Temple arising as a result of Jewish sages missing out the reign lengths of several Persian kings during the Persian Empire's rule over Israel. Modern scholars tally 14 Persian kings whose combined reigns total 207 years.[28][29] By contrast, ancient Jewish sages only mention four Persian kings totaling 52 years. The reigns of several Persian kings appear to be missing from the traditional calculations.

Azariah dei Rossi[30] was likely the first Jewish authority to claim that the traditional Hebrew dating is not historically precise regarding the years before the Second Temple,[31]:262[19]:82[32]:77 and suggests that the Sages of Israel may have chosen to include in their chronology only those years of the period of Persian dominion that were clearly expressed or implied in the Bible.[33] Additional time, the length of which was not clearly stated, was chosen to be ignored.[33] Nachman Krochmal[34] agreed with dei Rossi,[19]:51 pointing to the Greek name Antigonos mentioned in Pirkei Avot 1:3 as proof that there must have been a longer period to account for this sign of Hellenic influence. Dei Rossi and Krochmal argued that when the length of a historical period was unknown, Seder Olam Rabbah took the method of assuming the shortest possible length.[19]:126

Astrologer and chronicler, Raḥamim Sar-Shalom, following the view of dei Rossi, suggests that the purpose of the author of Seder Olam was only to state the number of years of the Persian period that were included in the Bible, and that a lack of understanding of the purpose by the Amoraim is what caused them, among other things, to calculate the date from creation erroneously.[35] The "missing years" not only offset the span of the Persian period, but also offset the number of years collected since the first man, Adam, walked the face of the earth.

Solomon Judah Loeb Rapoport noted that the traditional Jewish chronology, when combined with another rabbinic tradition, places the Exodus from Egypt at exactly 1000 years prior to the Seleucid era (known in Jewish sources as "Minyan Shtarot"). He suggests that the authors of the traditional Jewish chronology intentionally omitted years from the Persian period to obtain the round number with the intent of allowing Jews who had counted years from the Exodus to easily switch to the Seleucid era system, used by Greek rulers at the time.[36]

David Zvi Hoffmann points out that the Mishnah in Avot (1:4) in describing the chain of tradition uses the plural "accepted from them" even though the previous Mishnah mentions only one person. He posits that there must have been another Mishnah mentioning two sages that was later removed.[citation needed]

Shimon Schwab interpreted the Biblical words "seal the words and close the book" (Daniel 12:4) as a commandment to obscure the Biblical chronology so that it would not be possible to accurately calculate the time of the Messiah's arrival. Thus, according to Schwab, the traditional Jewish calendar intentionally omitted years from the Persian period.[37] However, Schwab later withdrew that suggestion for numerous reasons.[31]:281-285 [19]:66–67 [32]:67–68, 93

A 2006 article in Ḥakirah journal suggested that the sages were concerned with the acceptance of the Mishnah. There existed a rabbinical tradition that the year 4000 marked the close of the "era of Torah". Thus, it is proposed, the sages arranged the chronology so that the redaction of the Mishnah should coincide with that date and thus have a better chance of acceptance.[32]:67–115

Mordechai Breuer suggested that like other works of midrash, the tradition chronology in Seder Olam Rabbah was never meant to be taken literally but rather was intended to be symbolic.[38]

Some Jewish thinkers, including Isaac Abarbanel, Chaim Hirschensohn and Adin Steinsaltz, have argued that the original Jewish chronology agreed with the academic chronology, but later misunderstandings or textual corruptions of Seder Olam Rabbah gave the impression that it refers to a shorter period of time.[19] However, Seder Olam Rabbah's chronology is implicit in many different passages, and it is difficult to plausibly explain all of the passages in a way that agrees with the academic chronology.[19]:116

Seder Olam versus Conventional chronology
Successive Chaldean rulers Conventional chronology[39] Seder Olam's chronology[40]
It is to be noted here that where conventional chronology goes on to cite another 3 successive Chaldean kings (spanning a period of nearly 22 years), Talmudic chronology cites only one Chaldean king that reigned after Amel-Marduk, namely, Baltasar (co-regent with Nabonidus), and who is said by the Talmudic record to have reigned a mere 3 years.
Labosordacus 9 months[41] ---
Total number of years: 67 years 71 years
Successive Persian rulers Conventional chronology[39] Seder Olam's chronology[42]
Cyrus the Great 29 years[43][lower-alpha 1] 3 years[44][lower-alpha 2]
Xerxes (Artaxerxes), the Great, b. Darius[lower-alpha 3] 21 years[45] ---
Artabanus 7 months[45] ---
Artaxerxes (Cyrus) b. Xerxes the Great
(Ahasuerus)[lower-alpha 4]		 41 years[45] ---
Xerxes 2 months[45][47] ---
Sogdianus 7 months[45] ---
Darius, the son of Xerxes 19 years[45][47] ---
Artaxerxes III Ochus 21 years[47] ---
Artaxerxes IV Arses 2 years[47] ---
Darius III Codomannus 4 years[47][48] ---
Total number of years: 228 years + 4 mo.[lower-alpha 5] 53 years

Critiques of academic dating

Attempts have been made to reinterpret the historical evidence to agree with the rabbinic tradition. Specifically, arguments against Herodotus as a reliable historian, which is used primarily for academic sources. The reinterpretation of the Greek, Babylonian and Persian sources that is required to support the traditional dating has been achieved only in parts and rejected by mainstream scholarship.[citation needed]; David Rohl also believes there is an issue with the chronology of secular sources vs. scripture, arguing that there is a missing approximate 200 year period that would make the Exodus and events of the Bible largely historical. Rabbinical sources seem to agree with this argument, as Rohl's revised chronology would make their chronology more plausible.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ In Parker's and Dubberstein's Babylonian Chronology, 626 B.C.–A.D. 75, p. 14, Cyrus' reign takes up where Nabonidus' reign ends. The nine years given for Cyrus only reflect the number of regnal years remaining after Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon in 539 BCE, bringing an end to Nabonidus' seventeen-year reign. Cyrus is thought to have died in 530 BCE.
  2. ↑ The only reference in the Hebrew Bible mentioning the regnal years of Cyrus the Great is found in Daniel 10:1, viz., "In the third year of Cyrus king of Persia, etc." There is no indication as to how long he reigned.
  3. ↑ According to Josephus (Antiquities 11.5.1-5), Ezra ascends to the Land of Israel, in 7th year of his reign.
  4. ↑ By some accounts, he is said to have also borne the name Ahasuerus, a contemporary of Esther and Mordecai.[46]
  5. ↑ Years may vary depending on source used. Most authorities hold that the Persian period in the Land of Israel commenced in the year 539 BCE, and ended in 332 BCE, with Alexander the Great's victory over the Persians.[49] Mitchell First, who puts the Persian period at 207 years, reckons these years from when Cyrus first took Babylon in 539 BCE, rather than from Cyrus' first year of reign.

References

  1. ↑ Rashi on Babylonian Talmud, Avodah Zara 9a; Seder hadoroth year 3338 Anno Mundi
  2. ↑ First, Mitchell (1997). Jewish History in Conflict. Northvale, New Jersey / Jerusalem: Jason Aronson. p. 5. ISBN 1-56821-970-9. "In the conventional chronology, the Persian period commenced in the year 539 BCE... and the entire Persian period spanned the years 539 to 332 BCE." 
  3. ↑ First, Mitchell (1997). Jewish History in Conflict. Northvale, New Jersey / Jerusalem: Jason Aronson. p. 4. ISBN 1-56821-970-9. 
  4. ↑ Missing years in the Hebrew calendar
  5. ↑ First, Mitchell (1997). Jewish History in Conflict. Northvale, New Jersey / Jerusalem: Jason Aronson. p. 4 (note 10). ISBN 1-56821-970-9. 
  6. ↑ D. J. Wiseman, Chronicles of Chaldean Kings in the British Museum (London: Trustees of the British Museum, 1956) 73.
  7. ↑ Edwin Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings, (1st ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1951; 2d ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965; 3rd ed.; Grand Rapids: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983). ISBN:0-8254-3825-X, 9780825438257, 217.
  8. ↑ Kenneth Strand, "Thiele's Biblical Chronology As a Corrective for Extrabiblical Dates," Andrews University Seminary Studies 34 (1996) 310, 317.
  9. ↑ 2 Chronicles 36:6–10
  10. ↑ 2 Chronicles 36:11
  11. ↑ Jeremiah 52:6
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Edwin Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings, (1st ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1951; 2d ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965; 3rd ed.; Grand Rapids: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983). ISBN:0-8254-3825-X, 9780825438257.
  13. ↑ Leslie McFall, "A Translation Guide to the Chronological Data in Kings and Chronicles," Bibliotheca Sacra 148 (1991) 45.
  14. ↑ Seder Olam Rabbah chapter 30; Tosefta Zevahim 13:6; Jerusalem Talmud Megillah 18a; Babylonian Talmud Megillah 11b-12a, Arakhin 12b
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 (in he) Sefer Maʻaśe avot (4 ed.). Beer Sheba: Kodesh Books. 2005. p. 364. OCLC 74311775.  (with endorsements by Rabbi Ovadia Yosef, Rabbi Shlomo Amar, and Rabbi Yona Metzger)
  16. ↑ Sar-Shalom, Rahamim (1984) (in he). She'harim La'Luah Ha'ivry (Gates to the Hebrew Calendar). Tel-Aviv. p. 161 (Comparative chronological dates). OCLC 854906532. 
  17. ↑ Maimonides (1974) (in he). Sefer Mishneh Torah - HaYad Ha-Chazakah (Maimonides' Code of Jewish Law). 4. Jerusalem: Pe'er HaTorah. pp. 184–185 [92b–93a] (Hil. Shmitta ve-yovel 10:2–4). OCLC 122758200. "According to this calculation, this year which is one-thousand, one-hundred and seven years following the destruction, which year in the Seleucid era counting is [today] the 1,487th year (corresponding with Tishri 1175–Elul 1176 CE), being the year 4,936 anno mundi, it is a Seventh Year [of the seven-year cycle], and it is the 21st year of the Jubilee" (END QUOTE). = the destruction occurring in the lunar month of Av, two months preceding the New Year of 3,829 anno mundi." 
  18. ↑ Maimonides (1989). Jehoshua Blau. ed (in he). R. Moses b. Maimon Responsa. 2. Jerusalem: Meḳitse nirdamim / Rubin Mass Ltd.. pp. 666–668 (responsum #389). OCLC 78411726. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 First, Mitchell (1997) (in en). Jewish History in Conflict: A Study of the Major Discrepancy between Rabbinic and Conventional Chronology. Jason Aronson, Incorporated. ISBN 9781461629122. https://books.google.com/books?id=9lgZgT73jtEC. 
  20. ↑ Avodah Zarah 8b–9a
  21. ↑ Chapter 30
  22. ↑ Avodah Zarah 10a; see commentary of Rabbeinu Chananel there
  23. ↑ Feeney, D. (2007) (in en). Caesar's Calendar: Ancient Time and the Beginnings of History. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 139. ISBN 9780520251199. https://archive.org/details/caesarscalendara0000feen/page/139. 
  24. ↑ Stern, Sacha (2001) (in en). Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar Second Century BCE–Tenth Century CE. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 281 (note 33). ISBN 978-0-19-827034-8. https://archive.org/details/calendarcommunit00ster. 
  25. ↑ 2 Chronicles 36:21
  26. ↑ See Megillat Antiochus#Chronology in Megillat Antiochus
  27. ↑ Seder Olam Rabbah, chapter 28. According to Rabbi Jose in Seder Olam, this figure is had by an exegesis on Daniel 9:24–27 and where "seventy weeks" is explained as being seven years for every week, for a total of 490 years, beginning with the time of the destruction of the First Temple, and ending with the destruction of the Second Temple, and where for seventy years after the First Temple was destroyed there was no Temple. This leaves 420 years for the duration of the Second Temple. The same teaching can be found in the Babylonian Talmud (Nazir 32b).
  28. ↑ Abravanel, Isaac (1860). Maʻyenei ha-Yeshuʻah (Commentary on the Book of Daniel). Stettin, Poland: R. Grossmann & E. Shrentsel. p. 46a. OCLC 50864691.  (Amsterdam 1647)
  29. ↑ First, Mitchell (1997). Jewish History in Conflict. Northvale, New Jersey / Jerusalem: Jason Aronson. pp. 17, 19–20. ISBN 1-56821-970-9. 
  30. ↑ In Me'or Einayim (c. 1573)
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Schwab, Shimon (1991). "Comparative Jewish Chronology?". Selected speeches : a collection of addresses and essays on hashkafah, contemporary issues and Jewish history : including "Comparative Jewish chronology". CIS Publishers. ISBN 9781560620587. https://web.stevens.edu/golem/llevine/rsrh/comparative_jewish_chronology.pdf. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Epstein, Sheldon; Dickman, Bernard; Wilamowsky, Yonah (2006). "A Y2K Solution to the Chronology Problem". Hakirah 3. http://www.hakirah.org/Vol%203%20Epstein.pdf. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 First, Mitchell (1997). Jewish History in Conflict. Northvale, New Jersey / Jerusalem: Jason Aronson. p. 48. ISBN 1-56821-970-9. 
  34. ↑ In Guide to the perplexed of our times (Hebrew, 1851)
  35. ↑ First, Mitchell (1997). Jewish History in Conflict. Northvale, New Jersey / Jerusalem: Jason Aronson. p. 94. ISBN 1-56821-970-9. 
  36. ↑ Erekh Millin, p.74
  37. ↑ Simon Schwab (1962). "Comparative Jewish Chronology". Ateret Tsevi: Jubilee volume presented in honor of the eightieth birthday of Rabbi Dr. Joseph Breuer. New York: Feldheim. pp. 177–197. https://www.yutorah.org/_cdn/_materials/Rabbi-Shimon-Schwab-Comparative-Jewish-Chronology-Original-Version-526681.pdf. 
  38. ↑ הוראת ההיסטוריה ואמונת חכמים, ספרית המורה הדתי - תולדות ישראל א (תשלז) 71-82
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Parker, R.A.; Dubberstein, Waldo H. (1956) (in en). Babylonian Chronology, 626 B.C.–A.D. 75. Providence: Brown University Press. OCLC 460027103. https://archive.org/details/babylonianchrono0000park/page/n3/mode/2up. 
  40. ↑ Ben Halpetha, Jose (1971). M.D. Yerushalmi. ed (in he). Seder Olam Rabba. Gil Publishers, in affiliation with the Haredi Youth Organization. pp. 89, 91 (chapter 28). OCLC 233090728. https://www.hebrewbooks.org/46767.  (reprint of 1955 edition, Jerusalem)
  41. ↑ Josephus, Against Apion 1.148
  42. ↑ Ben Halpetha, Jose (1971). M.D. Yerushalmi. ed (in he). Seder Olam Rabba. Gil Publishers, in affiliation with the Haredi Youth Organization. p. 96 (chapter 29). OCLC 233090728. https://www.hebrewbooks.org/46767.  (reprint of 1955 edition, Jerusalem)
  43. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Herodotus 1975 https://archive.org/details/herodotus01hero/page/268/mode/2up?view=theater 269 s. 213–215 Book I
  44. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ReferenceA
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 45.4 45.5 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Cory1828
  46. ↑ In the Septuagint, the Book of Esther refers to the king as 'Artaxerxes,' (Ancient Greek: Ἀρταξέρξης); Josephus, Antiquities 11.6.1–13.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 Ptolemy's Canon
  48. ↑ According to Parker's and Dubberstein's Babylonian Chronology, p. 36, the 6th-year of Alexander the Great's reign over Macedonia, which fell-out in 331 BCE, was the 5th-year of Darius III. During the same year, the Macedonians put an end to Persian hegemony over Israel.
  49. ↑ (in en) Jewish History in Conflict: A Study of the Major Discrepancy between Rabbinic and Conventional Chronology. Lanham: Jason Aronson. 1997. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-56821-970-7. OCLC 845250409. https://books.google.com/books?id=9lgZgT73jtEC. 

Bibliography

  • Dawn of the Gods: The untold timeline of Genesis, by Marco Lupi Speranza (self published, 2018) – reconstruction in accordance with Sumerian history.
  • Jewish History in Conflict: A Study of the Major Discrepancy between Rabbinic and Conventional Chronology, by Mitchell First (Jason Aronson, 1997)
  • Talmudic and Rabbinic Chronology, by Edgar Frank (New York: Feldheim 1956)
  • Chronology of the Ancient World, by E.J. Bickerman (Cornell University Press, 1968, 1982)
  • The Crime of Claudius Ptolemy. Robert R. Newton (The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1977)
  • Daniel 9 in You Take Jesus and I'll Take God by S. Levine, revised edition, Hamoroh Press, Los Angeles, 1980 – explains the Jewish understanding of Daniel 9:24–27
  • The Romance of Biblical Chronology , by Martin Anstey (London: Marshall Brothers, 1913) – interprets Daniel as prophesying the crucifixion of Jesus, so the Temple as having been destroyed in 502 BCE
  • R' Shimon Schwab in "Comparative Jewish Chronology in Jubilee Volume for Rav Yosef Breuer" pp. 177–197.
  • David Zvi Hoffmann "Ha'mishna Rishona" (Heb.)
  • Fixing the History Books, Dr. Chaim S. Heifetz's Revision of Persian History, by Brad Aaronson – Jewish scholarly critique of secular dating
  • Fixing the Mind by Alexander Eterman – a rebuttal of Heifetz's critique.
  • Secular Chronology by Walter R. Dolen – Christian scholarly critique of secular dating
  • Significant Events In Jewish And World History – timeline based on traditional Jewish sources

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