Outline of evolution

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to evolution:

Part of a series on
Evolutionary biology
Darwin's finches by John Gould
Key topics Introduction to evolution Evidence of evolution Common descent Evidence of common descent
Processes and outcomes Population genetics Variation Diversity Mutation Natural selection Adaptation Polymorphism Genetic drift Gene flow Speciation Adaptive radiation Co-operation Coevolution Coextinction Divergence Convergence Parallel evolution Extinction
Natural history Origin of life History of life Timeline of evolution Human evolution Phylogeny Biodiversity Biogeography Classification Evolutionary taxonomy Cladistics Transitional fossil Extinction event
History of evolutionary theory Overview Renaissance Before Darwin Darwin Origin of Species Before synthesis Modern synthesis Molecular evolution Evo-devo Current research History of speciation History of paleontology (timeline)
Fields and applications Applications of evolution Biosocial criminology Ecological genetics Evolutionary aesthetics Evolutionary anthropology Evolutionary computation Evolutionary ecology Evolutionary economics Evolutionary epistemology Evolutionary ethics Evolutionary game theory Evolutionary linguistics Evolutionary medicine Evolutionary neuroscience Evolutionary physiology Evolutionary psychology Experimental evolution Phylogenetics Paleontology Selective breeding Speciation experiments Sociobiology Systematics Universal Darwinism
Social implications Evolution as fact and theory Social effects Creation–evolution controversy Objections to evolution Level of support
Category   Related topics
v t e

In biology, evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological organisms over generations due to natural selection, mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift. Also known as descent with modification. Over time these evolutionary processes lead to formation of new species (speciation), changes within lineages (anagenesis), and loss of species (extinction). "Evolution" is also another name for evolutionary biology, the subfield of biology concerned with studying evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth.

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(See also: Human timeline, and Nature timeline.)

• Introduction to evolution
• Evolution
• Evolution as fact and theory

• Biology:Macroevolution
  • Biology:Speciation – Evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species
    • Natural speciation
      • Biology:Allopatric speciation – Speciation that occurs between geographically isolated populations
      • Biology:Peripatric speciation – Mode of speciation in evolutionary biology
      • Biology:Parapatric speciation – Speciation within a population where subpopulations are reproductively isolated
      • Biology:Sympatric speciation – Evolution of a new species from an ancestor in the same location
    • Artificial speciation
      • Biology:Plant breeding – Science of changing the traits of plants
      • Biology:Genetic engineering – Manipulation of an organism's genome
    • Biology:Hybrid speciation – Form of speciation involving hybridization between two different species
  • Biology:Despeciation – Loss of a species of animal due to its combining with another species
  • Biology:Anagenesis
  • Biology:Extinction – Termination of a taxon by the death of its last member
• Biology:Microevolution – Change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population
  • Biology:Natural selection – Mechanism of evolution by differential reproduction
    • Biology:Sexual selection – Mode of natural selection involving the choosing of and competition for mates
  • Biology:Mutation
  • Biology:Gene flow – Transfer of genetic variation from one population to another
  • Biology:Genetic drift – Concept in genetics

• Biology:Biology – Science that studies life
  • Biology:Evolutionary biology – Study of the processes that produced the diversity of life
    • Biology:Evolutionary developmental biology – Comparison of organism developmental processes
  • Biology:Genetics – Science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms
• Earth:Biogeography – Study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time
• Earth:Ecological genetics – The study of genetics in natural populations
• Biology:Evolutionary biology – Study of the processes that produced the diversity of life
  • Biology:Evolutionary developmental biology – Comparison of organism developmental processes
• Biology:Evolutionary ecology – Interaction of biology and evolution
• Biology:Evolutionary physiology – Study of evolutionary changes in physiological characteristics
• Biology:Evolutionary taxonomy – Form of biological classification
• Biology:Experimental evolution – Use of laboratory and field experiments to explore evolutionary dynamics
• Biology:Molecular evolution – Process of change in the sequence composition of cellular molecules across generations
• Biology:Phylogenetics – Study of evolutionary relationships between organisms
• Biology:Population genetics – Subfield of genetics
• Biology:Paleontology – Study of life before 11,700 years ago
  • Biology:Paleovirology – The study of ancient viruses
  • Earth:Timeline of paleontology – Timeline of notable events in the sudy of ancient life
• Biology:Systematics

• Biography:Charles Darwin
  • Biology:Darwinism – Theory of biological evolution
  • By period or event
    • Philosophy:Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment – Changes in evolutionary philosophies
    • Biology:Transmutation of species – 18th and 19th-century evolutionary ideas
    • Religion:1860 Oxford evolution debate – Famous discussion about evolution featuring an exchange between Wilberforce and Huxley
    • Biology:Neo-Darwinism – Used to describe the combination of natural selection and genetics
    • Biology:The eclipse of Darwinism – Period when evolution was widely accepted, but natural selection was not
    • Religion:Scopes Trial – 1925 legal case in Tennessee, USA, testing the legality of teaching evolution in schools
    • Modern synthesis – Fusion of natural selection with Mendelian inheritance
      • Biology:Extended evolutionary synthesis – Set of theoretical concepts concerning evolutionary biology
  • By field
    • Biology:Evolutionary developmental biology – Comparison of organism developmental processes
    • Philosophy:History of evolutionary psychology
    • Biology:History of molecular evolution – History of the field of study of molecular evolution

See also Basic principles (above)

• Biology:Population genetics – Subfield of genetics
• Process
  • Biology:Mutation
    • Biology:Natural selection – Mechanism of evolution by differential reproduction
      • Biology:Sexual selection – Mode of natural selection involving the choosing of and competition for mates
    • Biology:Ecological selection – Natural selection without sexual selection
  • Biology:Gene flow – Transfer of genetic variation from one population to another
  • Biology:Genetic drift – Concept in genetics
    • Biology:Small population size – Statistical effects of small numbers on a population
    • Biology:Population bottleneck – Effects of a sharp reduction in numbers on the diversity and robustness of a population
    • Biology:Founder effect – Effect in population genetics
    • Biology:Coalescent theory – Model for tracing the history of genetic variation
• Variation
  • Biology:Genetic variation – Difference in DNA among individuals or populations
    • Biology:Genetic diversity – Total number of genetic characteristics in a species
    • Biology:Polymorphism – Occurrence of two or more clearly different morphs or forms in the population of a species
• Key concepts
  • Hardy-Weinberg law – Principle in genetics
  • Biology:Genetic linkage – Tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together
  • Biology:Identity by descent – Concept in genealogy and genetics
  • Biology:Linkage disequilibrium – Allele association in population genetics
  • Fisher's fundamental theorem – A principle relating genetic variance to fitness
  • Neutral theory – Theory of evolution by changes at the molecular level
  • Biology:Shifting balance theory – One version of the theory of evolution
  • Biology:Price equation – Description of how a trait or gene changes in frequency over time
  • Biology:Coefficient of relationship – Mathematical guess about inbreeding
  • Fitness – Expected reproductive success
  • Philosophy:Heritability – Estimation of effect of genetic variation on phenotypic variation of a trait
• Effects of selection
  • Biology:Genetic hitchhiking – Incidental selection of non-harmful genes which are close to a beneficial gene on the same DNA chain
  • Biology:Negative selection (natural selection) – Selective removal of alleles that are deleterious
• Related topics
  • Biology:Microevolution – Change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population
  • Evolutionary game theory – Application of game theory to evolving populations in biology
  • Biology:Fitness landscape – Model used to visualise relationship between genotypes and reproductive success
  • Biology:Genetic genealogy – DNA testing to infer relationships
  • Biology:Quantitative genetics – Study of the inheritance of continuously variable traits

• Biology:Adaptation
• Biology:Coevolution – Two or more species influencing each other's evolution
• Biology:Concerted evolution
• Biology:Convergent evolution – Independent evolution of similar features
  • Biology:List of examples of convergent evolution
• Biology:Divergent evolution – Accumulation of differences between closely related species populations, leading to speciation
• Biology:Evolution of ageing – Study of the evolutionary development of ageing processes
• Biology:Evolution of biological complexity – Tendency for maximum complexity to increase over time, though without any overall direction
• Biology:Evolution of photosynthesis – Origin and subsequent evolution of the process by which light energy is used to synthesize sugars
• Biology:Evolution of sexual reproduction
• Biology:Evolutionary arms race – Competition of sets of genes, traits, or species, that develop adaptations against each other
• Biology:Evolutionary capacitance – Evolutionary biology hypothesis
• Biology:Evolutionary fauna
• Biology:Evolutionary pressure – Any cause that reduces reproductive success in a proportion of a population
• Biology:Evolutionary trap – Cases in which an evolved, and presumably adaptive, trait has suddenly become maladaptive
• Biology:Evolvability – Capacity of a system for adaptive evolution
• Biology:Exaptation
• Biology:Extinction – Termination of a taxon by the death of its last member
• Biology:Fitness – Expected reproductive success
  • Biology:Inclusive fitness – Measure of evolutionary success based on the number of offspring the individual supports
    • Philosophy:Kin selection – Evolutionary strategy favoring relatives
  • Biology:Reproductive success – Passing of genes on to the next generation in a way that they too can pass on those genes
• Biology:Genetic recombination – Production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent
• Biology:Horizontal gene transfer in evolution – Concept in genetics
• Biology:Inversion (evolutionary biology) – Hypothesis in developmental biology
• Biology:Mosaic evolution – Evolution of characters at various rates both within and between species
• Biology:Parallel evolution – Similar evolution in distinct species
• Biology:Quantum evolution – Evolution where transitional forms are particularly unstable and do not last long
• Biology:Recurrent evolution – The repeated evolution of a particular character
• Biology:Robustness (evolution) – Persistence of a biological trait under uncertain conditions
• Biology:Speciation – Evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species

• Philosophy:Emergent evolution – Evolutionary biology
• Astronomy:Epic of evolution – Evolutionary narrative that blends views
• Evolution window – Narrow band of mutation step size that is conducive to significant evolutionary progress
• Biology:Evolutionary dynamics – Modelling evolution using differential equations
• Evolutionary game theory – Application of game theory to evolving populations in biology
• Evolutionary graph theory – Approach to studying how topology affects evolution of a population
• Evolutionary invasion analysis – Mathematical modeling of phenotypic evolution
• Biology:Largest-scale trends in evolution – Limits of increased complexity over time

• Taxonomy – Science of naming, defining and classifying organisms
  • Biology:Binomial nomenclature – System of identifying species of organisms using a two-part name
  • Biology:Evolutionary taxonomy – Form of biological classification
  • Biology:Homonym – Scientific name that is identical in spelling to a name with a different type
  • Biology:Integrated Taxonomic Information System – Authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes
  • Biology:International Code of Zoological Nomenclature – Code of scientific nomenclature for animals
  • Linnaean taxonomy – A rank based classification system for organisms
  • Biology:Phenetics – Attempt to classify organisms based on overall similarity
  • Organization:Species 2000 – Federated taxonomic database system for species checklists
  • Biology:Taxon – Grouping of biological populations
  • Biology:Taxonomic rank – Level in a taxonomic hierarchy
  • Biology:Type – Specimen(s) to which a scientific name is formally attached
  • Biology:Species description – Formal description of a discovered species
• Biology:Systematics
  • Biology:Cladogram – Diagram used to show relations among groups of organisms with common origins
  • Biology:Phylogenetic tree – Branching diagram of evolutionary relationships between organisms
• Biology:Phylogenetics – Study of evolutionary relationships between organisms
  • Biology:Cladistics – Method of biological systematics in evolutionary biology
  • Computational phylogenetics – Application of computational algorithms, methods and programs to phylogenetic analyses
  • Biology:Common descent – Characteristic of a group of organisms with a common ancestor
  • Biology:Evidence of common descent – Common ancestor evolutionary evidence
  • Biology:Evolutionary grade – Non-monophyletic grouping of organisms united by morphological or physiological characteristics
  • Biology:Lineage (evolution) – Sequence of populations, organisms, cells, or genes that form a line of descent
  • Biology:Molecular phylogenetics – Branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences
  • Biology:Most recent common ancestor – Most recent individual from which all organisms in a group are directly descended

• Biology:Phylogenetic tree – Branching diagram of evolutionary relationships between organisms
• Biology:Phylogenetic network – Graph used to visualize evolutionary relationships, including reticulation events
• Biology:Long branch attraction – Systematic error in phylogenetics
• Biology:Clade
• Grade – Non-monophyletic grouping of organisms united by morphological or physiological characteristics
• Biology:Ghost lineage – Phylogenetic lineage that is inferred to exist but has no fossil record

• Biology:Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics) – Optimality criterion in which the shortest possible tree that explains the data is considered best
• Biology:Minimum evolution
• Probabilistic methods
  • Maximum likelihood estimation – Method of estimating the parameters of a statistical model, given observations
  • Bayesian inference – Statistical method for molecular phylogenetics
• Distance matrices in phylogeny – Matrices used in construction of phylogenetic trees
  • Biology:Neighbor joining – Bottom-up clustering method for creating phylogenetic trees
  • Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPGMA)
  • Least squares inference in phylogeny – Generation of phylogenetic trees based on an observed matrix of pairwise genetic distances
• Biology:Three-taxon analysis – Cladistic based method of phylogenetic reconstruction

• Biology:PhyloCode, also known as International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature – Draft for a new code of nomenclature for clades
• Biology:DNA barcoding – Method of species identification using a short section of DNA
• Biology:Molecular phylogenetics – Branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences
• Biology:Phylogenetic comparative methods – Use of information on the historical relationships of lineages to test evolutionary hypotheses
• Biology:Phylogenetic network – Graph used to visualize evolutionary relationships, including reticulation events
• Biology:Phylogenetic niche conservatism – Tendency of lineage to retain ancestral traits
• Biology:List of phylogenetics software – Compilation of software used to produce phylogenetic trees
• Biology:Phylogenomics
• Biology:Phylogeography

• Biology:Autapomorphy – Distinctive feature, known as a derived trait, that is unique to a given taxon

• Biology:Monophyly – Property of a group of including all taxa descendant from a common ancestral species
• Biology:Paraphyly – Type of taxonomic group
• Biology:Polyphyly – Property of a group not united by common ancestry

• Biology:Biodiversity – Variety and variability of life forms

• Biology:Abiogenesis – Natural process by which life arises from non-living matter
• Biology:History of life – Processes by which organisms evolved on Earth
• Biology:Timeline of the evolutionary history of life – Major events during the development of life

• Biology:Evolution of tetrapods – Evolution of four legged vertebrates and their derivatives
  • Biology:Evolution of dinosaurs – An outline and examples of dinosaur evolution
    • Biology:Evolution of birds – Derivation of birds from a dinosaur precursor
  • Biology:Evolution of mammals – Derivation of mammals from a synapsid precursor, and the adaptive radiation of mammal species
    • Biology:Evolution of cetaceans
    • Evolution of horses – Derivation of horses from an ungulate precursor
      • • Philosophy:Evolution of human intelligence – Evolution of the brain and the origin of language
        • Biology:Human evolutionary genetics – Study of differences between human genomes
        • Biology:Timeline of human evolution – Chronological outline of major events in the development of the human species
    • Biology:Evolution of sirenians – Development from a Tethytherian ancestor and radiation of species
  • Biology:Evolution of reptiles – Origin and diversification of reptiles through geologic time

• • Biology:Peppered moth evolution – Significance of the peppered moth in evolutionary biology
• Biology:Evolution of molluscs – The origin and diversification of molluscs through geologic time

• • Biology:Evolutionary anachronism – Attributes of living species that arose due to coevolution with other now-extinct species
  • Biology:Plant evolution – Subset of evolutionary phenomena that concern plants
  • Biology:Plant evolutionary developmental biology – Study of developmental programs and patterns in plants from an evolutionary perspective
  • Biology:Timeline of plant evolution – Chronological outline of major events in the development of plants

• Biology:Evolution of fungi – Origin and diversification of fungi through geologic time
  • Biology:Evolution of influenza
• Biology:E. coli long-term evolution experiment – Scientific study

• Biology:Evolution of cells – Evolutionary origin and subsequent development of cells
• Biology:Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles – Middle ear bones evolved from jaw bones
• Biology:Evolution of snake venom – Origin and diversification of snake venom through geologic time
• Biology:Evolution of the eye – Origins and diversification of the organs of sight through geologic time

• Biology:Directed evolution – Protein engineering method
• Biology:Error threshold (evolution) – Theoretical limit on rate of mutation
• Biology:Gene-centered view of evolution – Theory of the "selfish gene"
• Biology:Genome evolution – Process by which a genome changes in structure or size over time
• Biology:Hologenome theory of evolution – Organism as host plus microbe community
• Biology:Models of DNA evolution – Mathematical models of changing DNA
• Biology:Molecular evolution – Process of change in the sequence composition of cellular molecules across generations
  • Biology:History of molecular evolution – History of the field of study of molecular evolution
  • Biology:Neutral theory of molecular evolution – Theory of evolution by changes at the molecular level
  • Biology:Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution – Variant of one theory of evolution
• Biology:Neutral network (evolution) – Set of genes all related by point mutations that have equivalent function or fitness
• Biology:RNA-based evolution – Theory that RNA plays an independent role in determining phenotype

• Biology:Co-operation (evolution) – Evolutionary process where groups of organisms work or act together for common or mutual benefits
• Biology:Evolution of biparental care in tropical frogs – The evolution of the behaviour in frogs in which both the mother and father raise their offspring
• Philosophy:Evolution of emotion – Study of the evolution of emotions
• Biology:Evolution of eusociality – Origins of cooperative brood care
• Biology:Monogamy in animals – Natural history of mating systems in which species pair bond to raise offspring
• Philosophy:Reciprocal altruism – Form of behaviour between organisms
• Biology:Reciprocity (evolution) – Mechanism favouring cooperative traits

• Biology:Evolution of ageing – Study of the evolutionary development of ageing processes
• Biology:Origin of avian flight – Evolution of birds from non-flying ancestors
• Biology:Evolution of biological complexity – Tendency for maximum complexity to increase over time, though without any overall direction
• Biology:Mosaic evolution – Evolution of characters at various rates both within and between species
• Biology:Evolution of sexual reproduction
  • Biology:Mating type – Term in biologys
  • Life cycles/nuclear phases – Series of stages of an organism

• Biology:Applications of evolution – Practical application of biological evolution
• Biology:Biological anthropology – Branch of anthropology that studies the physical development of the human species
• Philosophy:Evolutionary aesthetics – Evolutionary psychology theories
• Biology:Evolutionary anthropology – Interdisciplinary study
• Evolutionary computation – Trial and error problem solvers with a metaheuristic or stochastic optimization character
  • Evolutionary algorithm – Subset of evolutionary computation
• Finance:Evolutionary economics – Part of mainstream economics
  • Finance:Kenneth Boulding's evolutionary perspective – Approach to economic theory based on an evolutionary model
• Philosophy:Evolutionary epistemology – Ambiguous term applied to several concepts
• Philosophy:Evolutionary ethics – Study of evolution on morality or ethics
• Biology:Evolutionary linguistics – Sociobiological approaches to linguistics
• Medicine:Evolutionary medicine – Application of modern evolutionary theory to understanding health and disease
• Philosophy:Evolutionary psychology – Branch of psychology
  • Philosophy:Biosocial criminology – Psychosocial examination of crime
  • Philosophy:Criticism of evolutionary psychology – Controversy in psychology
  • Philosophy:Evolution of morality – Emergence of human moral behavior over the course of human evolution
  • Philosophy:Evolution of schizophrenia – Theory of natural selection
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary aesthetics – Evolutionary psychology theories
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary approaches to depression
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary developmental psychology – Psychology field concerned with Darwinian evolution
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary educational psychology
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary ethics – Study of evolution on morality or ethics
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary leadership theory – Analysis of leadership from an evolutionary perspective
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary musicology – Subfield of biomusicology
  • Biology:Evolutionary origin of religions – Emergence of religious behavior discussed in terms of natural evolution
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary psychology of language – Study of the evolutionary history of language assuming it is a result of Darwinian adaptation
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary psychology of parenting – Psychological adaptations in men and women
  • Religion:Evolutionary psychology of religion – Study of religious belief using evolutionary psychology principles
  • Philosophy:Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology – None
• Evolutionary robotics – Embodied approach to artificial intelligence
• Evolutionary systems
• Philosophy:Sociobiology – Subdiscipline of biology regarding social behavior
  • Social:Sociocultural evolution – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
• Biology:Universal Darwinism – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

• Unsolved:Creation–evolution controversy – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  • Outline of the creation–evolution controversy – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
• Philosophy:Criticism of evolutionary psychology – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
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• Philosophy:Social effects of evolutionary theory – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
• See also Applications in other disciplines

• Evolution: The Modern Synthesis – book by Julian Huxley (grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley); one of the most important books of modern evolutionary synthesis, published in 1942
• The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection – book by R.A. Fisher important in modern evolutionary synthesis, first published in 1930
• Genetics and the Origin of Species – 1937 book by Ukrainian-American evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky
• On the Origin of Species – seminal book by Charles Darwin concerning evolution by natural selection, first published in 1859
• Systematics and the Origin of Species from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist – book by zoologist and evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr, canonical publication of modern evolutionary synthesis, first published in 1942 by Columbia University Press
• The Structure of Evolutionary Theory – technical book on macroevolutionary theory by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould

• Evolutionary Bioinformatics – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

• Organization:European Society for Evolutionary Biology – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
• Organization:Society for the Study of Evolution – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
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• Organization:Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". – Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
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General information

• "Evolution". New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/topic/evolution. 
• "Evolution Resources from the National Academies". U.S. National Academy of Sciences. http://nationalacademies.org/evolution/. 
• "Understanding Evolution: your one-stop resource for information on Evolution". University of California, Berkeley. http://evolution.berkeley.edu/. 
• "Evolution of Evolution – 150 Years of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species"". National Science Foundation. https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/darwin/textonly/index.jsp. 
• Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).

Experiments concerning the process of biological evolution

• Lenski RE. "Experimental Evolution – Michigan State University". http://myxo.css.msu.edu/index.html. 
• Algorithms, games, and evolution, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA

Online lectures

• Carroll SB. "The Making of the Fittest". http://www.molbio.wisc.edu/carroll/Fittest.html. 
• Stearns SC. "Principles of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior". http://oyc.yale.edu/ecology-and-evolutionary-biology/principles-of-evolution-ecology-and-behavior/. 

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