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Creativity and mental illness

Topic: Philosophy

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 14 min
Ludwig van Beethoven, widely considered one of the greatest composers in human history, may have been bipolar.[1][2]

The concept of a link between creativity and mental illness has been extensively discussed and studied by psychologists and other researchers for centuries. Parallels can be drawn to connect creativity to major mental disorders including: bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, and ADHD. For example, studies[which?] have demonstrated correlations between creative occupations and people living with mental illness. There are cases that support the idea that mental illness can aid in creativity, but it is also generally agreed that mental illness does not have to be present for creativity to exist.

History

It has been proposed that there is a particular link between creativity and mental illness (e.g. bipolar disorder, whereas major depressive disorder appears to be significantly more common among playwrights, novelists, biographers, and artists).[3] Association between mental illness and creativity first appeared in literature in the 1970s, but the idea of a link between "madness" and "genius" is much older, dating back at least to the time of Aristotle. In order to comprehend how the connection between “madness” and “genius” correlate, first understand that there are different types of geniuses: literary geniuses, creative geniuses, scholarly geniuses, and “all around” geniuses. Since there are many different categories, this means that individuals can completely excel in one subject and know an average, or below average, amount of information about others.[4] The Ancient Greeks believed that creativity came from the gods, in particular the Muses (the mythical personifications of the arts and sciences, the nine daughters of Zeus). In the Aristotelian tradition, conversely, genius was viewed from a physiological standpoint, and it was believed that the same human quality was perhaps responsible for both extraordinary achievement and melancholy.[5] Romantic writers had similar ideals, with Lord Byron having pleasantly expressed, "We of the craft are all crazy. Some are affected by gaiety, others by melancholy, but all are more or less touched".

Individuals with mental illness are said to display a capacity to see the world in a novel and original way; literally, to see things that others cannot.[6]

Studies

For many years, the creative arts have been used in therapy for those recovering from mental illness or addiction.[7][8]

Another study found creativity to be greater in schizotypal than in either normal or schizophrenic individuals. While divergent thinking was associated with bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex, schizotypal individuals were found to have much greater activation of their right prefrontal cortex.[9] This study hypothesizes that such individuals are better at accessing both hemispheres, allowing them to make novel associations at a faster rate. In agreement with this hypothesis, ambidexterity is also associated with schizotypal and schizophrenic individuals.

Three recent studies by Mark Batey and Adrian Furnham have demonstrated the relationships between schizotypal[10][11] and hypomanic personality[12] and several[which?] different measures of creativity.

Particularly strong links have been identified between creativity and mood disorders, particularly manic-depressive disorder (a.k.a. bipolar disorder) and depressive disorder (a.k.a. unipolar disorder). In Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament, Kay Redfield Jamison summarizes studies of mood-disorder rates in writers, poets and artists. She also explores research that identifies mood disorders in such famous writers and artists as Ernest Hemingway (who shot himself after electroconvulsive treatment), Virginia Woolf (who drowned herself when she felt a depressive episode coming on), composer Robert Schumann (who died in a mental institution), and even the famed visual artist Michelangelo.

A study looking at 300,000 persons with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or unipolar depression, and their relatives, found overrepresentation in creative professions for those with bipolar disorder as well as for undiagnosed siblings of those with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. There was no overall overrepresentation, but overrepresentation for artistic occupations, among those diagnosed with schizophrenia. There was no association for those with unipolar depression or their relatives.[13]

A study involving more than one million people, conducted by Swedish researchers at the Karolinska Institute, reported a number of correlations between creative occupations and mental illnesses. Writers had a higher risk of anxiety and bipolar disorders, schizophrenia, unipolar depression, and substance abuse, and were almost twice as likely as the general population to kill themselves. Dancers and photographers were also more likely to have bipolar disorder.[14]

However, as a group, those in the creative professions were no more likely to experience psychiatric disorders than other people, although they were more likely to have a close relative with a disorder, including anorexia and, to some extent, autism, the Journal of Psychiatric Research reports.[14]

Research in this area is usually constrained to cross-section data-sets. One of the few exceptions is an economic study of the well-being and creative output of three famous music composers over their entire lifetime.[15] The emotional indicators are obtained from letters written by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Liszt, and the results indicate that negative emotions had a causal impact on the creative production of the artists studied.

Psychological stress has also been found to impede spontaneous creativity.[16][17]

A 2005 study at the Stanford University School of Medicine measured creativity by showing children figures of varying complexity and symmetry and asking whether they like or dislike them. The study showed for the first time that a sample of children who either have or are at high risk for bipolar disorder tend to dislike simple or symmetric symbols more. Children with bipolar parents who were not bipolar themselves also scored higher dislike scores.[18]

Positive mood does not inhibit creativity

Mood-creativity research reveals that people are most creative when they are in a positive mood[19][20] and that mental illnesses such as depression or schizophrenia actually decrease creativity.[21][22] People who have worked in the field of arts throughout the history have had problems with poverty, persecution, social alienation, psychological trauma, substance abuse, high stress[23] and other such environmental factors which are associated with developing and perhaps causing mental illness. It is thus likely that when creativity itself is associated with positive moods, happiness, and mental health, pursuing a career in the arts may bring problems with stressful environment and income. Other factors such as the centuries-old stereotype of the suffering of a "mad artist" help to fuel the link by putting expectations on how an artist should act, or possibly making the field more attractive to those with mental illness. Additionally, where specific areas of the brain are less developed than others by nature or external influence, the spacial capacity to expand another increases beyond "the norm" allowing enhanced growth and development.

Lessons from computational psychology

Simulations by Stephen Thaler of limbo-thalamo-cortical loops engaged in invention, discovery, and artistic endeavors reveal a critical link between various psychopathologies and creativity. These contemplative artificial neural systems exploit the computational equivalent of volume-released neurotransmitters, namely random, hopping disturbances applied to connection weights in a process tantamount to neuromodulation, the diffusive molecular infiltration of the brain's synapses.[24][25][26] These disturbances seed the formation of the novel neural activation patterns necessary for creativity.[27][28][26][25] Close observation of such artificial neural systems as they engage in creative problem solving tasks reveals a cyclic or ‘tidal’ variation in synaptic chaos. At higher disturbance levels, ideas form as the memories and confabulations absorbed within multiple neural modules weakly couple into transient, subliminal notions that go unnoticed by critic neural modules incapacitated by the synaptic chaos. As disturbance levels subside, certain neural modules may lucidly perceive novelty, utility, or value to these oftentimes half-baked notions that then perfect themselves, consolidating into full-blown ideas coupled with accompanying affective responses. Extending these computational findings to human cognition, creativity cannot be attributed to any given brain state or mood. Instead, it is a hysteretic effect brought about by multiple transits through chaotic and quiescent phases. The more intense these swings, the more novel the creative product, but at the expense of increasingly severe cognitive pathologies, including hallucinations, confusion, inattention to the external environment, and inability to differentiate imagination from reality.[27] In addition to providing a transparent artificial neural system by which to study creative cognition, such brain simulations provide evaluation metrics for originality and utility that are quantitative rather than subjective.[28][29]

Bipolar disorder

Main page: Medicine:Bipolar disorder

There is a range of types of bipolar disorder. Individuals with Bipolar I Disorder experience severe episodes of mania and depression with periods of wellness between episodes. The severity of the manic episodes can mean that the person is seriously disabled and unable to express the heightened perceptions and flight of thoughts and ideas in a practical way. Individuals with Bipolar II Disorder experience milder periods of hypomania during which the flight of ideas, faster thought processes and ability to take in more information can be converted to art, poetry or design.[30]

Schizophrenia

Main page: Medicine:Schizophrenia

People with schizophrenia live with positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms. Positive symptoms (psychotic behaviors that are not present in healthy people): hallucinations, delusions, thought & movement disorders. Negative symptoms (abnormal functioning of emotions and behavior): "flat affect", Anhedonia, reserved. Cognitive symptoms: problems with "executive functioning", attention, and memory.[31] One artist known for his schizophrenia was the Frenchman Antonin Artaud, founder of the Theatre of Cruelty movement. In Madness and Modernism (1992), clinical psychologist Louis A. Sass noted that many common traits of schizophrenia – especially fragmentation, defiance of authority, and multiple viewpoints – happen to also be defining features of modern art.[32]

Arguments that support link

In a 2002 conversation with Christopher Langan, educational psychologist Arthur Jensen stated that the relationship between creativity and mental disorder "has been well researched and is proven to be a fact", writing that schizothymic characteristics are somewhat more frequent in philosophers, mathematicians, and scientists than in the general population.[33][unreliable fringe source?] In a 2015 study, Iceland scientists found that people in creative professions are 25% more likely to have gene variants that increase the risk of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, with deCODE Genetics co-founder Kári Stefánsson saying, "Often, when people are creating something new, they end up straddling between sanity and insanity. I think these results support the concept of the mad genius."[34]

Psychosis

Many famous historical figures gifted with creative talents may have been affected by bipolar disorder. Ludwig van Beethoven, Virginia Woolf, Ernest Hemingway, Isaac Newton, Judy Garland and Robert Schumann are some people whose lives have been researched to discover signs of mood disorder.[35] In many instances, creativity and psychosis share some common traits, such as a tendency for "thinking outside the box," flights of ideas, speeding up of thoughts and heightened perception of visual, auditory and somatic stimuli.

It has been found that the brains of creative people are more open to environmental stimuli due to smaller amounts of latent inhibition, an individual's unconscious capacity to ignore unimportant stimuli. While the absence of this ability is associated with psychosis, it has also been found to contribute to original thinking.[36][unreliable medical source?]

Emotions

Many people with bipolar disorder may feel powerful emotions during both depressive and manic phases, potentially aiding in creativity.[37][unreliable medical source?] Because (hypo)mania decreases social inhibition, performers are often daring and bold. As a consequence, creators commonly exhibit characteristics often associated with mental illness. The frequency and intensity of these symptoms appear to vary according to the magnitude and domain of creative achievement. At the same time, these symptoms are not equivalent to the full-blown psychopathology of a clinical manic episode which, by definition, entails significant impairment.[38][unreliable medical source?]

Posthumous diagnosis

Some creative people have been posthumously diagnosed as experiencing bipolar or unipolar disorder based on biographies, letters, correspondence, contemporaneous accounts, or other anecdotal material, most notably in Kay Redfield Jamison's book Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament.[39][unreliable medical source?] Touched With Fire presents the argument that bipolar disorder, and affective disorders more generally,[40][unreliable medical source?] may be found in a disproportionate number of people in creative professions such as actors, artists, comedians, musicians, authors, performers and poets.

Positive correlation

Several recent clinical studies have also suggested that there is a positive correlation between creativity and bipolar disorder, although the relationship between the two is unclear.[41][42][43] Temperament may be an intervening variable.[42] Ambition has also been identified as being linked to creative output in people across the bipolar spectrum.[44]

Bottom-up psychology

Brain simulations built from artificial neural nets manifest the classic psychopathologies as they push themselves toward higher levels of creativity.[27]

Mental illness and divergent thinking

In 2017, associate professor of psychiatry Gail Saltz stated that the increased production of divergent thoughts in people with mild-to-moderate mental illnesses leads to greater creative capacities. Saltz argued that the "wavering attention and day-dreamy state" of ADHD, for example, "is also a source of highly original thinking. [...] CEOs of companies such as Ikea and Jetblue have ADHD. Their creativity, out-of-the-box thinking, high energy levels, and disinhibited manner could all be a positive result of their negative affliction."[45] Mania has also been credited with aiding in creativity because "when speed of thinking increases, word associations form more freely, as do flight of ideas, because the manic mind is less inclined to filtering details that, in a normal state, would be dismissed as irrelevant."[32]

Arguments against a link

Albert Rothenberg of Psychology Today noted that the "list of mentally ill creators who were successful [...] is dwarfed by the very large number of highly creative people both in modern times and throughout history without evidence of disorder", which includes figures such as William Shakespeare, Johann Sebastian Bach, and Jane Austen.[46] Rothenberg reported that when interviewing 45 science Nobel laureates for the book Flight from Wonder he had found no evidence of mental illness in any of them, and also stated, "The problem is that the criteria for being creative is never anything very creative. Belonging to an artistic society, or working in art or literature, does not prove a person is creative. But the fact is that many people who have mental illness do try to work in jobs that have to do with art and literature, not because they are good at it, but because they're attracted to it. And that can skew the data."[47]

Modern cultural viewpoints

The 2012 book Tortured Artists, by the American arts journalist Christopher Zara, shows the universal nature of the tortured artist stereotype and how it applies to all of the creative disciplines, including film, theater, literature, music, and visual art. The artists profiled in the book have made major contributions to their respective mediums (Charles Schulz, Charlie Parker, Lenny Bruce, Michelangelo, Madonna, Andy Warhol, Amy Winehouse, and dozens of others). In each case, the author attempts to make a connection between the art and the artist's personal suffering.[48]

Notable individuals

  • Joanne Greenberg's novel I Never Promised You a Rose Garden (1964) is an autobiographical account of her teenage years in Chestnut Lodge working with Dr. Frieda Fromm-Reichmann. At the time she was diagnosed with schizophrenia, although two psychiatrists who examined Greenberg's self-description in the book in 1981 concluded that she did not have schizophrenia, but had extreme depression and somatization disorder.[50] The narrative constantly puts difference between the protagonist's mental illness and her artistic ability. Greenberg is adamant that her creative skills flourished in spite of, not because of, her condition.[51]
  • Brian Wilson (born 1942), founder of the American rock band the Beach Boys, suffers from schizoaffective disorder. In 2002, after undergoing treatment, he spoke of how medication affects his creativity, explaining: "I haven't been able to write anything for three years. I think I need the demons in order to write, but the demons have gone. It bothers me a lot. I've tried and tried, but I just can't seem to find a melody."[52]
  • David Foster Wallace (1962–2008) was an American writer and professor of English and creative writing. He had psychiatric treatment for much of his life and several diagnoses. He believed that "atypical depression" most closely described his condition. He killed himself in 2008.[53]Template:Importance example

See also

References

  1. ↑ Martin Mai, François (2007). Diagnosing Genius: The Life and Death of Beethoven. McGill-Queen's Press. ISBN 077357879X. https://books.google.com/books?id=VqajnKzxTJMC. "There is a strong possibility that he had recurrent depressive episodes, and it is also likely that he had what would now be called a bipolar disorder." 
  2. ↑ Goodnick, Paul J. (1998). Mania: Clinical and Research Perspectives. American Psychiatric Pub. p. 15. ISBN 0880487283. https://books.google.com/books?id=AYr0U7iJuWkC&pg=PA15. 
  3. ↑ Goodwin, F. and Jamison, K. R., Manic Depressive Illness, Oxford University Press (Oxford, 1990), p. 353.
  4. ↑ Kaufman, James C. "Two." Creativity and Mental Illness. United Kingdom: Cambridge U House, 2014. 31–38. Print.
  5. ↑ Romeo, Nick (November 9, 2013). "What is a Genius?". http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/11/09/what-is-a-genius. Retrieved May 16, 2017. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Andreasen, N.C. (2011), "A journey into chaos: Creativity and the unconscious", Mens Sana Monographs, 9:1, p 42–53. Retrieved 2011-03-27
  7. ↑ Malchiodi, Cathy (June 30, 2014). "Creative Arts Therapy and Expressive Arts Therapy". Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/arts-and-health/201406/creative-arts-therapy-and-expressive-arts-therapy. Retrieved September 12, 2017. 
  8. ↑ Heenan, Deirdre (March 2006). "Art as therapy: an effective way of promoting positive mental health?". Disability & Society 21 (2): 179–191. doi:10.1080/09687590500498143. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09687590500498143. Retrieved 5 December 2017. 
  9. ↑ http://exploration.vanderbilt.edu/news/news_schizotypes.htm (Actual paper)
  10. ↑ Batey M. Furnham (2009). "The relationship between creativity, schizotypy and intelligence". Individual Differences Research 7: 272–284. 
  11. ↑ Batey M., Furnham A. (2008). "The relationship between measures of creativity and schizotypy". Personality and Individual Differences 45 (8): 816–821. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.08.014. 
  12. ↑ Furnham A., Batey M., Anand K., Manfield J. (2008). "Personality, hypomania, intelligence and creativity". Personality and Individual Differences 44 (5): 1060–1069. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.10.035. 
  13. ↑ Kyaga, S.; Lichtenstein, P.; Boman, M.; Hultman, C.; Långström, N.; Landén, M. (2011). "Creativity and mental disorder: Family study of 300 000 people with severe mental disorder". The British Journal of Psychiatry 199 (5): 373–379. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.085316. PMID 21653945. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Roberts, Michelle. Creativity 'closely entwined with mental illness'. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-19959565. 16 October 2012.
  15. ↑ Karol J. Borowiecki, "How Are You, My Dearest Mozart? Well-being and Creativity of Three Famous Composers Based on their Letters" Review of Economics and Statistics, 2017, 99(4): 591-605.
  16. ↑ The science of creativity
  17. ↑ Byron, K., Khazanchi, S., & Nazarian, D. (2010). The relationship between stressors and creativity: A meta-analysis examining competing theoretical models. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(1), 201–212. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0017868
  18. ↑ Children Of Bipolar Parents Score Higher On Creativity Test, Stanford Study Finds
  19. ↑ Mark A. Davis (January 2009). "Understanding the relationship between mood and creativity: A meta-analysis". Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 100 (1): 25–38. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.04.001. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S074959780800054X. 
  20. ↑ Baas, Matthijs; De Dreu Carsten K. W.; Nijstad, Bernard A. (November 2008). "A meta-analysis of 25 years of mood-creativity research: Hedonic tone, activation, or regulatory focus?". Psychological Bulletin 134 (6): 779–806. doi:10.1037/a0012815. PMID 18954157. http://home.medewerker.uva.nl/m.baas/bestanden/MBaas_mood-creativity.pdf. 
  21. ↑ Takahiro Nemotoa; Ryoko Yamazawaa; Hiroyuki Kobayashia; Nobuharu Fujitaa; Bun Chinoa; Chiyo Fujiid; Haruo Kashimaa; Yuri Rassovskye et al. (November 2009). "Cognitive training for divergent thinking in schizophrenia: A pilot study". Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 33 (8): 1533–1536. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2009.08.015. PMID 19733608. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278584609002851. 
  22. ↑ Flaherty AW (2005). "Frontotemporal and dopaminergic control of idea generation and creative drive". J Comp Neurol 493 (1): 147–53. doi:10.1002/cne.20768. PMID 16254989. 
  23. ↑ Arnold M. Ludwig (1995) The Price of Greatness: Resolving the Creativity and Madness Controversy ISBN:978-0-89862-839-5
  24. ↑ Ricciardiello L, Fornaro P. Beyond the Cliff of Creativity: a novel key to bipolar disorder and creativity. Med. Hypotheses 2013;2012(80). 534–453.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 S.L. Thaler, A quantitative model of seminal cognition: the creativity machine paradigm (US Patent 5,659,666), Dublin Ireland: Mind II Conference, 1997.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Thaler, SL. Creativity machine paradigm. in: E.G. Carayannis (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Creativity, Invention, Innovation, and Entrepreneurship. Springer Reference, ; 2013 (ISBN:978-1-4614-3857-1).
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Thaler, SL, Cycles of insanity and creativity within contemplative neural systems, Medical Hypotheses. 2016. 94:138–147, doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2016.07.010 | url=http://www.medical-hypotheses.com/article/S0306-9877(16)30363-2/pdf
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Thaler, SL. Synaptic perturbation and consciousness. Int. J. Machine Consciousness. 2014;6:75–107.
  29. ↑ Thaler, SL, A neurodynamic model linking creativity and insanity, Atlas of Science, 2017.| url=https://atlasofscience.org/a-neurodynamic-theory-linking-creativity-and-insanity/
  30. ↑ Parker, G., (ed.) "Bipolar II Disorder: modeling, measuring and managing", Cambridge University Press (Cambridge,2005).
  31. ↑ "Schizophrenia". http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia/index.shtml#part_145430. Retrieved 2015-11-27. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Frey, Angelica (May 3, 2017). "A New Account of Robert Lowell’s Mania Risks Glorifying It". Hyperallergic. https://hyperallergic.com/376339/a-new-account-of-robert-lowells-mania-risks-glorifying-it/. Retrieved May 16, 2017. 
  33. ↑ Discussions on Genius and Intelligence. Mega Foundation Press. 2002. http://www.megafoundation.org/MegaPress/Titles/Jensen.html. 
  34. ↑ Turner, Camilla (June 9, 2015). "Creative people are more likely to suffer from mental illness, study claims". The Daily Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/11661332/Creative-people-are-more-likely-to-suffer-from-mental-illness.html. Retrieved May 18, 2017. 
  35. ↑ Goodnick, P.J. (ed.) Mania: clinical and research perspectives. American Psychiatric Press, Washington, 1998.
  36. ↑ "Biological Basis For Creativity Linked To Mental Illness". October 1, 2003. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/10/031001061055.htm. Retrieved May 19, 2017. 
  37. ↑ Are Genius and Madness Related? Contemporary Answers to an Ancient Question | Psychiatric Times
  38. ↑ Dean Keith Simonton (June 2005). "Are Genius and Madness Related? Contemporary Answers to an Ancient Question". Psychiatric Times. http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/are-genius-and-madness-related-contemporary-answers-ancient-question. Retrieved 2007-02-20. 
  39. ↑ Kay Redfield Jamison (1996). Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament. Free Press. ISBN 978-0-684-83183-1. 
  40. ↑ Jamison, K. R., Touched with Fire, Free Press (New York, 1993), pp 82 ff.
  41. ↑ "Enhanced creativity in bipolar disorder patients: a controlled study". J Affect Disord 100 (1–3): 31–9. June 2007. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.10.013. PMID 17126406. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 "[Creativity and mental illness]" (in Hungarian). Psychiatr Hung 21 (4): 288–94. 2006. PMID 17170470. 
  43. ↑ "Temperamental commonalities and differences in euthymic mood disorder patients, creative controls, and healthy controls". J Affect Disord 85 (1–2): 207–15. March 2005. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2003.11.012. PMID 15780691. 
  44. ↑ Johnson SL, Murray G, Hou S, Staudenmaier PJ, Freeman MA, Michalak EE; CREST.BD. (2015). "Creativity is linked to ambition across the bipolar spectrum.". J Affect Disord 178 (Jun 1): 160–4. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.02.021. PMID 25837549. 
  45. ↑ Saltz, Dr. Gail (April 16, 2017). "To remove the stigma of mental illness, we need to accept how complex—and sometimes beautiful—it is". https://qz.com/959936/there-are-some-positives-to-mental-illness-to-remove-the-stigma-we-need-to-accept-how-complex-and-sometimes-beautiful-it-is/. Retrieved May 17, 2017. 
  46. ↑ Rothenberg, Albert (March 8, 2015). "Creativity and Mental Illness". Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/creativity-explorations-in-art-literature-science-and-the-everyday/201503/creativity-and-mental. Retrieved May 3, 2017. 
  47. ↑ Sample, Ian (June 8, 2015). "New study claims to find genetic link between creativity and mental illness". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/jun/08/new-study-claims-to-find-genetic-link-between-creativity-and-mental-illness. Retrieved May 18, 2017. 
  48. ↑ Zara, Christopher (2012). Tortured Artists. Avon, Mass: Adams Media. p. 272. ISBN 1-4405-3003-3. 
  49. ↑ "NAMI | Virginia Woolf – You Are Not Alone". http://www2.nami.org/template_eoy.cfm?Section=not_alone&template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=147561. Retrieved 2015-11-27. 
  50. ↑ Sobel, Dava (February 17, 1981). "Schizophrenia In Popular Books: A Study Finds Too Much Hope". The New York Times. https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=980CE7D71639F934A25751C0A967948260. 
  51. ↑ "I wrote [I Never Promised You a Rose Garden] as a way of describing mental illness without the romanticisation [sic] that it underwent in the sixties and seventies when people were taking LSD to simulate what they thought was a liberating experience. During those days, people often confused creativity with insanity. There is no creativity in madness; madness is the opposite of creativity, although people may be creative in spite of being mentally ill." This statement from Greenberg originally appeared on the page for Rose Garden at amazon.com and has been quoted in many places including Asylum: A Mid-Century Madhouse and Its Lessons About Our Mentally Ill Today, by Enoch Callaway, M.D. (Praeger, 2007), p. 82.
  52. ↑ O'Hagan, Sean. "Feature: A Boy's Own Story". Review, The Observer (Guardian Media Group) (January 6, 2002): 1–3. https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2002/jan/06/features.review87. 
  53. ↑ Dave McGinn, "David Foster Wallace’s biographer tackles author’s battle with depression". The Globe and Mail, Feb. 15, 2013. Interview with Wallace's biographer D.T. Max, author of Every Love Story is a Ghost Story: A Life of David Foster Wallace.

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