Isotopes of carbon

Main isotopes of Chemistry:carbon (₆C)
Standard atomic weight Ar, standard(C)	[12.0096, 12.0116]; Conventional: 12.011;
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Short description: Carbon with different numbers of neutrons

Carbon (₆C) has 15 known isotopes, from ⁸C to ²²C, of which ¹²C and ¹³C are stable. The longest-lived radioisotope is ¹⁴C, with a half-life of 5.70(3)×10³ years. This is also the only carbon radioisotope found in nature, as trace quantities are formed cosmogenically by the reaction ¹⁴N + n → ¹⁴C + ¹H. The most stable artificial radioisotope is ¹¹C, which has a half-life of 20.3402(53) min. All other radioisotopes have half-lives under 20 seconds, most less than 200 milliseconds. The least stable isotope is ⁸C, with a half-life of 3.5(1.4)×10⁻²¹ s. Light isotopes tend to decay into isotopes of boron and heavy ones tend to decay into isotopes of nitrogen.

List of isotopes

Nuclide	Z	N	Isotopic mass (u) ^{[n 1]}	Half-life [resonance width]	Decay mode ^{[n 2]}	Daughter isotope ^{[n 3]}	Spin and parity ^{[n 4]}^{[n 5]}	Physics:Natural abundance (mole fraction)
Nuclide	Z	N	Isotopic mass (u) ^{[n 1]}	Half-life [resonance width]	Decay mode ^{[n 2]}	Daughter isotope ^{[n 3]}	Spin and parity ^{[n 4]}^{[n 5]}	Normal proportion	Range of variation
⁸C	6	2	8.037643(20)	3.5(1.4) zs [230(50) keV]	2p	⁶Be^{[n 6]}	0+
⁹C	6	3	9.0310372(23)	126.5(9) ms	β⁺ (54.1(1.7)%)	⁹B	3/2−
					β⁺α (38.4(1.6)%)	⁵Li^{[n 7]}
					β⁺p (7.5(6)%)	⁸Be^{[n 8]}
¹⁰C	6	4	10.01685322(8)	19.3011(15) s	β⁺	¹⁰B	0+
¹¹C^{[n 9]}	6	5	11.01143260(6)	20.3402(53) min	β⁺	¹¹B	3/2−
^11mC	12160(40) keV				p ?^{[n 10]}	¹⁰B ?	1/2+
¹²C	6	6	12 exactly^{[n 11]}	Stable			0+	[0.9884, 0.9904]^[2]
¹³C^{[n 12]}	6	7	13.003354835336(252)	Stable			1/2−	[0.0096, 0.0116]^[2]
¹⁴C^{[n 13]}	6	8	14.003241989(4)	5.70(3)×10³ y	β⁻	¹⁴N	0+	Trace^{[n 14]}	< 10⁻¹²
^14mC	22100(100) keV				IT	¹⁴C	(2−)
¹⁵C	6	9	15.0105993(9)	2.449(5) s	β⁻	¹⁵N	1/2+
¹⁶C	6	10	16.014701(4)	750(6) ms	β⁻n (99.0(3)%)	¹⁵N	0+
¹⁶C	6	10	16.014701(4)	750(6) ms	β⁻ (1.0(3)%)	¹⁶N	0+
¹⁷C	6	11	17.022579(19)	193(6) ms	β⁻ (71.6(1.3)%)	¹⁷N	3/2+
					β⁻n (28.4(1.3)%)	¹⁶N
					β⁻2n ?^{[n 10]}	¹⁵N ?
¹⁸C	6	12	18.02675(3)	92(2) ms	β⁻ (68.5(1.5)%)	¹⁸N	0+
					β⁻n (31.5(1.5)%)	¹⁷N
					β⁻2n ?^{[n 10]}	¹⁶N ?
¹⁹C^{[n 15]}	6	13	19.03480(11)	46.2(2.3) ms	β⁻n (47(3)%)	¹⁸N	1/2+
					β⁻ (46.0(4.2)%)	¹⁹N
					β⁻2n (7(3)%)	¹⁷N
²⁰C	6	14	20.04026(25)	16(3) ms	β⁻n (70(11)%)	¹⁹N	0+
					β⁻2n (< 18.6%)	¹⁸N
					β⁻ (> 11.4%)	²⁰N
²¹C?^{[n 16]}	6	15	21.04900(64)#	< 30 ns	n ?^{[n 10]}	²⁰C ?	1/2+#
²²C^{[n 17]}	6	16	22.05755(25)	6.2(1.3) ms	β⁻n (61(14)%)	²¹N	0+
					β⁻2n (< 37%)	²⁰N
					β⁻ (> 2%)	²²N
²³C?^{[n 16]}	6	17	23.06889(107)#		n ?^{[n 10]}	²²C?	3/2+#

↑ ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.
↑ Modes of decay:

EC: Electron capture

n: Neutron emission

p: Proton emission
↑ Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable.
↑ ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.
↑ # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).
↑ Subsequently decays by double proton emission to ⁴He for a net reaction of ⁸C → ⁴He + 4¹H
↑ Immediately decays by proton emission to ⁴He for a net reaction of ⁹C → 2 ⁴He + ¹H + e⁻
↑ Immediately decays into two ⁴He atoms for a net reaction of ⁹C → 2 ⁴He + ¹H + e⁻
↑ Used for labeling molecules in PET scans
↑ ^10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 ^10.3 ^10.4 Decay mode shown is energetically allowed, but has not been experimentally observed to occur in this nuclide.
↑ The unified atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 of the mass of an unbound atom of carbon-12 in its ground state.
↑ Ratio of ¹²C to ¹³C used to measure biological productivity in ancient times and differing types of photosynthesis
↑ Has an important use in radiodating (see carbon dating)
↑ Primarily cosmogenic, produced by neutrons striking atoms of ¹⁴N (¹⁴N + n → ¹⁴C + ¹H)
↑ Has 1 halo neutron
↑ ^16.0 ^16.1 This isotope has not yet been observed; given data is inferred or estimated from periodic trends.
↑ Has 2 halo neutrons

Carbon-11

Carbon-11 or ¹¹C is a radioactive isotope of carbon that decays to boron-11. This decay mainly occurs due to positron emission, with around 0.19–0.23% of decays instead occurring by electron capture.^[3]^[4] It has a half-life of 20.3402(53) min.

¹¹C → ¹¹B + positron + Electron neutrino + 0.96 MeV

¹¹C + e⁻ → ¹¹B + ν_e + 1.98 MeV

It is produced from nitrogen in a cyclotron by the reaction

¹⁴N + proton → ¹¹C + ⁴He

Carbon-11 is commonly used as a radioisotope for the radioactive labeling of molecules in positron emission tomography. Among the many molecules used in this context are the radioligands [¹¹C]DASB and [¹¹C]Cimbi-5.

Natural isotopes

Main pages: Physics:Carbon-12, Physics:Carbon-13, and Physics:Carbon-14

There are three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon: 12, 13, and 14. ¹²C and ¹³C are stable, occurring in a natural proportion of approximately 93:1. ¹⁴C is produced by thermal neutrons from cosmic radiation in the upper atmosphere, and is transported down to earth to be absorbed by living biological material. Isotopically, ¹⁴C constitutes a negligible part; but, since it is radioactive with a half-life of 5.70(3)×10³ years, it is radiometrically detectable. Since dead tissue does not absorb ¹⁴C, the amount of ¹⁴C is one of the methods used within the field of archeology for radiometric dating of biological material.

Paleoclimate

¹²C and ¹³C are measured as the isotope ratio δ¹³C in benthic foraminifera and used as a proxy for nutrient cycling and the temperature dependent air–sea exchange of CO₂ (ventilation).^[5] Plants find it easier to use the lighter isotopes (¹²C) when they convert sunlight and carbon dioxide into food. So, for example, large blooms of plankton (free-floating organisms) absorb large amounts of ¹²C from the oceans. Originally, the ¹²C was mostly incorporated into the seawater from the atmosphere. If the oceans that the plankton live in are stratified (meaning that there are layers of warm water near the top, and colder water deeper down), then the surface water does not mix very much with the deeper waters, so that when the plankton dies, it sinks and takes away ¹²C from the surface, leaving the surface layers relatively rich in ¹³C. Where cold waters well up from the depths (such as in the North Atlantic), the water carries ¹²C back up with it. So, when the ocean was less stratified than today, there was much more ¹²C in the skeletons of surface-dwelling species. Other indicators of past climate include the presence of tropical species, coral growths rings, etc.^[6]

Tracing food sources and diets

The quantities of the different isotopes can be measured by mass spectrometry and compared to a standard; the result (e.g. the delta of the ¹³C = δ¹³C) is expressed as parts per thousand (‰):^[7]

[math]\displaystyle{ \delta \ce{^{13}C} = \left( \frac{\left( \frac\ce{^{13}C}\ce{^{12}C} \right)_\text{sample}}{\left( \frac\ce{^{13}C}\ce{^{12}C} \right)_\text{standard}} - 1 \right) \times 1000 }[/math] ‰

Stable carbon isotopes in carbon dioxide are utilized differentially by plants during photosynthesis.^{[citation needed]} Grasses in temperate climates (barley, rice, wheat, rye, and oats, plus sunflower, potato, tomatoes, peanuts, cotton, sugar beet, and most trees and their nuts or fruits, roses, and Kentucky bluegrass) follow a C3 photosynthetic pathway that will yield δ¹³C values averaging about −26.5‰.^{[citation needed]} Grasses in hot arid climates (maize in particular, but also millet, sorghum, sugar cane, and crabgrass) follow a C4 photosynthetic pathway that produces δ¹³C values averaging about −12.5‰.^[8]

It follows that eating these different plants will affect the δ¹³C values in the consumer's body tissues. If an animal (or human) eats only C3 plants, their δ¹³C values will be from −18.5 to −22.0‰ in their bone collagen and −14.5‰ in the hydroxylapatite of their teeth and bones.^[9]

In contrast, C4 feeders will have bone collagen with a value of −7.5‰ and hydroxylapatite value of −0.5‰.

In actual case studies, millet and maize eaters can easily be distinguished from rice and wheat eaters. Studying how these dietary preferences are distributed geographically through time can illuminate migration paths of people and dispersal paths of different agricultural crops. However, human groups have often mixed C3 and C4 plants (northern Chinese historically subsisted on wheat and millet), or mixed plant and animal groups together (for example, southeastern Chinese subsisting on rice and fish).^[10]

References

↑ Meija, Juris; Coplen, Tyler B.; Berglund, Michael; Brand, Willi A.; De Bièvre, Paul; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Irrgeher, Johanna et al. (2016). "Atomic weights of the elements 2013 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry 88 (3): 265–91. doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0305.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 "Atomic Weight of Carbon". https://ciaaw.org/carbon.htm.
↑ Scobie, J.; Lewis, G. M. (1 September 1957). "K-capture in carbon 11". Philosophical Magazine 2 (21): 1089–1099. doi:10.1080/14786435708242737. Bibcode: 1957PMag....2.1089S.
↑ Campbell, J. L.; Leiper, W.; Ledingham, K. W. D.; Drever, R. W. P. (1967-04-11). "The ratio of K-capture to positron emission in the decay of ¹¹C". Nuclear Physics A 96 (2): 279–287. doi:10.1016/0375-9474(67)90712-9. Bibcode: 1967NuPhA..96..279C.
↑ Lynch-Stieglitz, Jean; Stocker, Thomas F.; Broecker, Wallace S.; Fairbanks, Richard G. (1995). "The influence of air-sea exchange on the isotopic composition of oceanic carbon: Observations and modeling". Global Biogeochemical Cycles 9 (4): 653–665. doi:10.1029/95GB02574. Bibcode: 1995GBioC...9..653L. https://boris.unibe.ch/158803/.
↑ Tim Flannery The weather makers: the history & future of climate change, The Text Publishing Company, Melbourne, Australia. ISBN:1-920885-84-6
↑ Miller, Charles B.; Wheeler, Patricia (2012). Biological oceanography (2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.. p. 186. ISBN 9781444333022. OCLC 794619582.
↑ O'Leary, Marion H. (May 1988). "Carbon Isotopes in Photosynthesis" (in en). BioScience 38 (5): 328–336. doi:10.2307/1310735. https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~polissar/OrgGeochem/oleary-1988-carbon-isotopes.pdf. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
↑ Tycot, R. H. (2004). "Stable isotopes and diet: you are what you eat". Proceedings of the International School of Physics "Enrico Fermi" Course CLIV. http://luna.cas.usf.edu/~rtykot/PR39%20-%20Enrico%20Fermi%20isotopes.pdf.
↑ Richard, Hedges (2006). "Where does our protein come from?". British Journal of Nutrition 95 (6): 1031–2. doi:10.1079/bjn20061782. PMID 16768822.

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes of carbon. Read more

[2] ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.

[3] Modes of decay:

EC: Electron capture

n: Neutron emission

p: Proton emission

[4] Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable.

[5] ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.

[TNN-6] # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).

[7] Subsequently decays by double proton emission to ⁴He for a net reaction of ⁸C → ⁴He + 4¹H

[8] Immediately decays by proton emission to ⁴He for a net reaction of ⁹C → 2 ⁴He + ¹H + e⁻

[9] Immediately decays into two ⁴He atoms for a net reaction of ⁹C → 2 ⁴He + ¹H + e⁻

[10] Used for labeling molecules in PET scans

[decay_mode_1-11] 10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 ^10.3 ^10.4 Decay mode shown is energetically allowed, but has not been experimentally observed to occur in this nuclide.

[12] The unified atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 of the mass of an unbound atom of carbon-12 in its ground state.

[14] Ratio of ¹²C to ¹³C used to measure biological productivity in ancient times and differing types of photosynthesis

[15] Has an important use in radiodating (see carbon dating)

[16] Primarily cosmogenic, produced by neutrons striking atoms of ¹⁴N (¹⁴N + n → ¹⁴C + ¹H)

[17] Has 1 halo neutron

[unconfirmed-18] 16.0 ^16.1 This isotope has not yet been observed; given data is inferred or estimated from periodic trends.

[19] Has 2 halo neutrons

[CIAAW2013-1] Meija, Juris; Coplen, Tyler B.; Berglund, Michael; Brand, Willi A.; De Bièvre, Paul; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Irrgeher, Johanna et al. (2016). "Atomic weights of the elements 2013 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry 88 (3): 265–91. doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0305.

[Atomic_Weight_of_Carbon-13] 2.0 ^2.1 "Atomic Weight of Carbon". https://ciaaw.org/carbon.htm.

[11C-Scobie-20] Scobie, J.; Lewis, G. M. (1 September 1957). "K-capture in carbon 11". Philosophical Magazine 2 (21): 1089–1099. doi:10.1080/14786435708242737. Bibcode: 1957PMag....2.1089S.

[11C-Campbell-21] Campbell, J. L.; Leiper, W.; Ledingham, K. W. D.; Drever, R. W. P. (1967-04-11). "The ratio of K-capture to positron emission in the decay of ¹¹C". Nuclear Physics A 96 (2): 279–287. doi:10.1016/0375-9474(67)90712-9. Bibcode: 1967NuPhA..96..279C.

[22] Lynch-Stieglitz, Jean; Stocker, Thomas F.; Broecker, Wallace S.; Fairbanks, Richard G. (1995). "The influence of air-sea exchange on the isotopic composition of oceanic carbon: Observations and modeling". Global Biogeochemical Cycles 9 (4): 653–665. doi:10.1029/95GB02574. Bibcode: 1995GBioC...9..653L. https://boris.unibe.ch/158803/.

[C-Flannery-23] Tim Flannery The weather makers: the history & future of climate change, The Text Publishing Company, Melbourne, Australia. ISBN:1-920885-84-6

[C-Miller-24] Miller, Charles B.; Wheeler, Patricia (2012). Biological oceanography (2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.. p. 186. ISBN 9781444333022. OCLC 794619582.

[Oleary98-25] O'Leary, Marion H. (May 1988). "Carbon Isotopes in Photosynthesis" (in en). BioScience 38 (5): 328–336. doi:10.2307/1310735. https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~polissar/OrgGeochem/oleary-1988-carbon-isotopes.pdf. Retrieved 17 November 2022.

[C-Tycot-26] Tycot, R. H. (2004). "Stable isotopes and diet: you are what you eat". Proceedings of the International School of Physics "Enrico Fermi" Course CLIV. http://luna.cas.usf.edu/~rtykot/PR39%20-%20Enrico%20Fermi%20isotopes.pdf.

[C-Richard-27] Richard, Hedges (2006). "Where does our protein come from?". British Journal of Nutrition 95 (6): 1031–2. doi:10.1079/bjn20061782. PMID 16768822.

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