Herat (1793-1863)

Principality of Herat شاهزاده‌نشین هرات
1793–1863
Flag
Map of Herat at its height in 1848.
Capital	Herat
Common languages	Persian (including the Hazaragi and Aimaq dialects), Pashto
Ethnic groups	Durrani Pashtuns, Ghilzai Pashtuns, Farsiwan, Qizilbash, Aimaq, Tajiks, Hazara, Jews, Hindus with Baloch, Sistanis, Turkmen, and Uzbeks in tributary or rebellious areas
Religion	Shia Islam, Sunni Islam (including Sufi Islam), Judaism, Hinduism
Government	Monarchy
Establishment	1793
History
• Established	1793
• Disestablished	1863
Today part of	Iran Afghanistan Turkmenistan

The Principality of Herat^[1][2][3] (Persian: شاهزاده‌نشین هرات), the Emirate of Herat (Persian: امارت هرات; Pashto: د هرات امارت), the Herat Khanate^[4] (Persian: خانات هرات; Pashto: د خانانو هرات) or simply Herat (Persian/Pashto: هرات) was a state in Afghanistan from 1793 to 1863. In 1793 Timur Shah Durrani died and Mahmud Mirza took control of Herat, becoming independent.^[5] In 1801 the principality was revived by Firuz al-Din Mirza. Herat was prosperous under his reign in spite of multiple Iranian invasions.^[4] In 1818 Mahmud and later Kamran Mirza took over, attempting to keep the region stable as a buffer between the Barakzais and Qajars. However, the region was devastated by constant infighting and Iranian invasions. The Iranian invasion of 1837 devastated the area, eventually allowing Yar Mohammad Khan Alakozai to overthrow the last ruler, Kamran Shah Durrani, in 1842, and expand the principality's borders towards the Chahar Wilayat, Aimaq territory, and Lash-Joveyn. With his death in 1851 the principality began to decline due to a series of incompetent rulers as well as a civil war and an Iranian invasion in 1856. The weakening of the principality allowed the Barakzais to intervene in Farah and eventually launching a siege of Herat. Ultimately the Barakzais were able to capture the city on May 27, 1863, permanently ending Herat's existence as an independent state.^[6][5]

History

First Reign of Mahmud Shah Durrani (1793-1801)

Death of Timur Shah

When Timur Shah died on May 18^[7][5][8] or May 21,^[9] 1793, Afghanistan fell into civil war. Timur Shah had 25 sons.^[7] 5 of those would become contenders for power in the following years. Zaman Shah was to be the successor of Timur Shah and was crowned on May 23.^[8] However, two of Zaman Shah's relatives would oppose his ascension to the throne. Humayun Mirza (the governor of Qandahar) opposed Zaman Shah's claim to the throne and rebelled upon receiving news of Timur Shah's death.^[5][6][8][7] In addition to this, Mahmud Mirza rebelled in Herat and minted coins in the name of the dead Timur Shah.^[5] On June 19, Zaman Shah marched out of Kabul headed for Qandahar. He soon captured Qandahar and forced Humayun Mirza to flee to Baluchistan.^[8][7][6]

First Attempt at Gaining Qandahar (1795)

Zaman Shah, seeing Mahmud Shah as a future threat if the Persians had ever invaded again, had decided to try and retake Herat and strip Mahmud of his administrative titles. Zaman Shah had met Mahmud Shah at a battle near Girishk. Zaman Shah defeated Mahmud Shah and this allowed Zaman Shah to besiege Herat. The city however, held out. Eventually, Mahmud Shah's mother had broke a deal between the two brothers. The terms of which would be Zaman Shah being recognized as King of the Durrani Empire in exchange for keeping his governorship of Herat. However, nobody had seemed to give notice to Kamran Mirza, Son of Mahmud Shah. Kamran Shah, with the army of the city, noticing Zaman Shah leaving back to Helmand, Kamran Shah had led his armies in pursuit, and once Kamran had left, Qilij Khan, the governor of Herat in place for Kamran while he was on his campaign had lead a rebellion and opened the gates to Zaman Shah. Mahmud Shah and Kamran had then fled to Tehran in Persia.^[6]

Second Attempt at Gaining Qandahar and Exile (1797-98)

Reign of Hajji Firuz al-Din Mirza (1801-1818)

Ascension to the Throne

With Mahmud Mirza's restoration to the throne on 25 July 1801, Hajji Firuz al-Din Mirza was appointed the governor of Herat. However, due to the internal chaos going on in Afghanistan at the time, he would be effectively independent.^[10]

First War With Persia (1804)

In December 1804, Ishaq Khan Qarai seized Ghourian from Firuz al-Din Mirza.^[5]

Second War With Persia (1807)

In 1807 Firuz al-Din refused to pay tribute to Iran. The Governor of Khorasan sent an army to force Herat to pay tribute.

Battle of Shahdih

In a battle at Shahdih on May 19, 1807,^[9] the Herati army led by the preacher Sufi Eslam was annihalated and Sufi Eslam killed.^{[6][5][4][11]} The Iranians then besieged Herat for 40 days before Firuz al-Din capitulated and paid tribute.

Third War With Persia (1811)

Khorasan Rebellion of 1813-1818 and Fourth and Fifth Wars With Persia (1813-1817)

Deposition from Power (1818)

Fateh Khan's Rule (April 1818-Late 1818)

Second Reign of Mahmud Shah Durrani (1818-1829)

Removal from Power in Afghanistan (1818-1819)

Fateh Khan Barakzai briefly conquered Herat and re-incorporated it into Afghanistan in April 1818.^[6]resulted in his Barakzai kinsmen deposing the Sadozais in late 1818^[5] (or in 1819^[12]). As a result, since 1818 the semi-independent Sadozai-ruled Herat^[13][12] was trapped between the two major power centers of Kabul and Tehran^[12] and its Sadozai rulers had to adapt.

Restored Reign (1819-1823)

After the Barakzais expelled him from Qandahar in 1818, Mahmud Shah fled to Farah and then to Herat. Reportedly, he reached Herat with only 11 men under his command.^[14]

Disputes with Saleh Khan

Mahmud Shah, when reaching Herat, turned over it's administration to his son Kamran, who also consulted him on political matters.^[4] Ata Mohammad Khan Alakozai also became the vazir of Herat.^[5] In 1819, Saleh Khan, a noble who gained favour with Kamran, tried to convince him to reconquer Qandahar. However, Kamran said he didn't have enough money and blamed Saleh Khan for his past troubles. Mahmud and Kamran Shah both united to extort Saleh Khan, and in response Saleh Khan secretly sent a letter to Firuz al-Din Mirza (the previous ruler of Herat who was in exile in Mashhad), and invited him to claim the throne.^[4] Together they both marched on Farah, a city in the south controlled by a supporter of Kamran, and captured it. Saleh Khan was able to make a compromise where he would control Farah and Firuz al-Din Mirza would return into exile in Mashhad.^[4]

Crisis with Persia (1821-1823)

Ever since 1816, Herat had refused to pay tribute to Persia. Kamran Shah made excuse after excuse on why he wasn't able to pay.^[4] In adition to that, Herat has actively supported the revolt of Banyad Khan Hazara (the Hazara chieftain of Jam and Bakharz). On June 25, 1821 Qajar force of 3,000^[7] shattered Banyad Khan's Jamshidi, Hazara, and Firozkohi troops at the battle of Kariz.^[7][5] He was pursued into the lands of the Chahar Aimaq. In 1822, Iranian forces invaded Herat and besieged the city, aiming to restore Firuz al-Din to the throne.^[14] In the process, Qilich Khan Timuri (one of the leaders on the Iranian side and the autonomous governor of Khvaf) was killed during a battle on May 22.^[5] (Ahmad Ali Kohzad reports the same thing except he falsely identifies Qilich Khan Timuri as Khalil Khan Taymani^[14], while Karimi makes it clear it was Qilich Khan Timuri.^[5]) In the end, Herat withstood the siege by Iranian forces. However, although the Qajar troops had ravaged the province dearly it doesn't seem to have much of an effect on Kamran, as within a year or two he was to attack Qandahar.^[4]

Deposition by Kamran Shah and Death (1823-1829)

Insurrection of Mustafa Khan (1824)

In 1824, Kamran Shah attempted to conquer Qandahar, leaving the administration of Herat in the hands of Husain Khan and Mustafa Khan Zori. However, while Kamran was on route to Qandahar, allies of Firuz al-Din placed him back on the throne.^[4][14] However, Mahmud was soon able to convince them to desert Firuz and install him instead, thus ending Firuz al-Din's 18 day rule.^[4] When Kamran Shah returned from Qandahar, Mahmud refused to let him back in. As a result, Kamran, with the support of the Qandahar Sardars, besieged Herat.^[4] Mahmud then recruited the help of Saleh Khan, who sent Mustafa Khan Zori to break the siege of the city. They were successful, but Mustafa Khan then turned against his allies, imprisoned Saleh Khan, and forced Mahmud Shah out the city. However, Kamran and Mahmud Shah then united against Mustafa Khan and within a month^[14] deposed him. In the winter of 1824 Mustafa Khan was executed.^[4] After Mustafa Khan's death, Mahmud Shah and Kamran Shah immediately started fighting each other for control. Mahmud fled to Khwaja Ansari's tomb at Gazurgah, and then 6 months later fled across the Murghab to seek the aid of the Jamshidi tribes.

Intervention of Iran (1824-1826)

Kamran Shah needed help, so he requested the aid of Iran. In July 1826^[5] Hasan Ali Mirza Qajar sent 6,000^[9] or 10,000 men^[4] with 4 guns^[9] to the aid of Kamran Shah. When they reached Herat, they combined with 2,000 of Kamran's troops and marched towards the Murghab. However, spies leaked Kamran's plans to Mahmud, who set up an ambush. The Aimaqs and Uzbeks completely routed the Iranians, and Mahmud marched onward to Herat.^[9] However, Mahmud refused to storm the citadel, instead camping outside the citadel, meaning that "all the benefit of the Badghis victory quickly dissipated"^[9] and his siege of Herat failed. Mahmud fled to the Hazaras of Qala-e Naw but Kamran sent an army after him. The Herati army starved the Hazaras of supplied and forced into handing over Mahmud. However Mahmud fled to Lash rather than being taken by Kamran.^[4] In 1827 Kamran took pity on Mahmud and invited him back to Herat. In 1828-29 Ata Mohammad Khan Alakozai died. His son Sardar Din Mohammad Khan Alakozai then succeeded him as vazir. However, due to the courtiers being against this appointment, he was forced to give up the viziership to his cousin, Yar Mohammad Khan Alakozai.^[14] The first act Yar Mohammad Khan did in 1829 was to depose Mahmud Shah, who died shortly after.^[5] Kamran then became the ruler.

Reign of Kamran Shah Durrani (1829-1842)

Involvement in the Second Khorasan Rebellion and Persian Invasion (1829-1833)

Herat supported a rebellion in Qajar Khorasan at the time. The local chieftains (mainly of the Qara'i and Za'faranlu) rebelled, and were in control of Bojnord, Quchan, Nishapur, Mashhad, Serakhs, Torbat, Jam, and Bakharz.^[5] When in December 1831 'Abbas Mirza arrived, he quickly worked to crush the revolt. In the summer and fall of 1832 the Qara'i and Zafaranlu chieftains were forced to submit and then he moved against Herat. Kamran Shah's vizier, Yar Mohammad Khan Alakozai (the eventual ruler of Herat from 1842 to 1851) played a key role in starting the revolt that occured after the Khorasan governor Shuja as-Sultana was recalled to Tehran in January 1827.^[5] Yar Mohammad Khan tried to discourage 'Abbas Mirza from attacking the Za'faranlu but instead he responded by placing Yar Mohammad under arrest.^[5]

^[14]In early 1833 he sent an ultimatum to Kamran Shah "that he should give up Herat and present himself at the Qājār court or perform sikka and khuṭba in the name of the Iranian king, submit taxes (manāl-i dīvān) and give hostages."^[5] Instead Kamran Shah gave him a present of 15,000 tuman and asked 'Abbas Mirza to prepare for war if he wanted to demand any more.^[5] In response, 'Abbas Mirza sent his son, Mohammad Mirza, with 30,000 troops^[14] to attack Herat in the summer of 1833. However, due to the death of 'Abbas Mirza on 25 October, Mohammad Mirza was abliged to lift the siege.^[10] But as Lee states in his book, "Muhammad Mirza vowed that, once he had secured the throne of Persia, he would return and avenge himself on the city that had the timerity to resist his army."^[9]

Intervention in Sistan and Persian Siege of Herat (1834-1838)

Persian Invasion (1836-38)

Initial Persian Invasion

In July 1837 Mohammad Shah Qajar marched out of Tehran to conquer Herat. The Persian Army coalesced at the city of Torbat-e Jam on October 28, 1837.^[15] They planned a four-pronged attack, with some marching on Herat in 3 different columns, while some troops would march into Maimana and neutralize the tribes in the area. After a brief siege, Ghurian fell on November 15, 1837. The siege began on November 23, 1837 when the new Shah, Mohammed Mirza, arrived before Herat. His intention was to take Herat then move on to Kandahar. With him was the Russian Envoy Count Simonich, seconded Russian officers and a regiment of Russian deserters under the Polish general Berowski. Pottinger stiffened the defences of Herat and despite the presence of the Russian advisers the siege lasted eight months.^[16]

Campaign Against the Aimaq (November 1837-March 1838)

Stalemate (December 1837-June 1838)

Fighting was barbaric. Yar Mohammed paid for Persian heads, which were displayed on the ramparts. Pottinger thought this counter-productive since soldiers would stop to cut off heads rather than pursue the enemy. Around the New Year the Persians brought up a huge 8-inch cannon which fired half a dozen times and then collapsed. By January the Persian force reached 40,000 men, but the ring around the city was not complete. Fighting dragged on into the spring and early summer with neither side gaining an advantage.

In April 1838 both John McNeill (a British diplomat) and Count Simonich (a Russian adviser) arrived at the Shah's camp and worked at cross purposes. At one point McNeill threatened the Shah with war if Herat were taken. He persuaded the Shah to cancel a planned assault, doing this deliberately to reduce the morale of the Persian troops. By March or April 1838 Saint Petersburg had become concerned of a possible British reaction and decided to recall Simonich, but communications were so slow that the message did not reach Herat until June. McNeill reported that the Persian troops were suffering and that the siege would have to be abandoned if the supply situation did not improve. The besieged were also in difficulties. At one point 600 elderly men, women and children were driven out of the city to save food. They were fired on by both sides until the Persians let them pass.

All out Assault and Failure (June 1838-September 1838)

By June 7, 1838, Count Simonich had gained such influence with the Shah that McNeill felt forced to return to Teheran. Simonich cast aside his diplomatic role and took over management of the siege. When Simonich received word of his recall on June 22, his response was to order an immediate assault on the city. On June 24, 1838 the Persians attacked at five points but they only managed to breach the wall at the southeast corner. Fighting ebbed back and forth for an hour. According to Kaye both Pottinger and Yar Mohammed were at the breach encouraging the troops. When Yar Mohammed began to lose courage Pottinger physically drove him forward. Yar Mohammed then rushed like a madman to the hindmost troops and the whole body poured out of the breach and drove the Persians away from the wall.

Meanwhile, the British government took action. Realising the impracticality of sending a force across Afghanistan they sent a naval expedition to the Persian Gulf and on June 19, 1838 occupied Kharg Island. McNeill, who had returned to Teheran, sent Charles Stoddart to the Persian camp with a threatening message (August 11, 1838). The Shah backed down and on September 9 the siege was lifted. Under British pressure the Russians recalled both Count Simonich and Yan Vitkevich claiming that both had exceeded their instructions.

Aftermath of the Siege of Herat and Deposition by Yar Mohammad Khan Alakozai (September 1838-March 1842)

On 31 March 1841 Iranian forces withdrew from Ghourian.^[5] Tensions between Kamran Shah in Yar Mohammad Khan became tense. Kamran was jealous of Yar Mohammad Khan's power and both tried to find an excuse to eliminate the other and gain control.^[14] In 1841, Kamran entered the citadel of Herat and attacked Yar Mohammad Khan. However, Kamran Shah was eventually defeated and was placed under surveillance in Kohsan.^[14] In early 1842, Kamran Shah was brutally murdered under the orders of Yar Mohammad Khan Alakozai, thus ending the Sadozai dynasty.^[11][5]

Reign of Yar Mohammad Khan Alakozai (March 1842-June 1851)

A depiction of Yar Mohammad Khan

Yar Mohammad Khan, when taking the throne, notably didn't proclaim himself a king but instead became a "Minister of the Realm".^[14]

To prevent any retaliation, Yar Mohammad established good relations with Iran. During the Revolt of Hasan Khan Salar, he intervened on the side of the Qajars, providing protection to Hamza Mirza and in return received the title of Zahir al-Daula from the Shah.^[7][14] In January 1850, he requested that Iran cede to him Khvaf and Jam or give him 60,000 tuman in recognition for his services in the revolt.^[5] The Qajars did neither.

Yar Mohammad also got British support for a conquest of the Chahar Wilayat and Sistan.^[9] Owing to lack of British knowledge on the Khanates of Afghan Turkestan, Yar Mohammad was able to manipulate them into supporting the extension of Herat's frontiers as far as Balkh, although he failed in making that objective, a reality.^[9]

Policies Against the Chahar Aimaq (1842-1844)

To that end, he pursued expansionist policies towards the traditionally independent tribes of the Chahar Aimaq.^[5] When Yar Mohammad Khan deposed and executed Kamran in early 1842, he also sent a campaign into the territory of the Jamshidi. The Jamshidi were settled along the Murghab River and controlled Panjdeh, Kushk (the capital),^[9] Bala Morghab, Marouchaq, and Karokh.

When the pro-Yar Mohammad leader of the Jamshidis was assassinated, he sent a Herati army that captured Kushk. 5,000 Jamshidi families were relocated to the Herat valley but the majority of the Jamshidis managed to escape to Panjdeh and went under the protection of Khiva.^[9][17][5] He also campaigned against the Taymanis of Ghor.^[7][14] Yar Mohammad Khan made the two main rulers of Ghor (Mustafa Khan and Ibrahim Khan) made the two rulers fight against each other, and as a result was able to extend his influence in Ghor up to Karz and Nazli.^[14]

In January 1843, Yar Mohammad Khan turned against Iran and made a treaty with the ruler of Bukhara, Nasrullah Khan.^[9] Herat recognized Bukharan sovereignty over Kabul, Khulm, and Balkh while Bukhara recognized Yar Mohammad's right to the Chahar Wilayat. With the backing of Bukhara, in the winter of 1843/44, Yar Mohammad forced the Hazaras of Qala-e Naw to pay tribute,^[9][6][14] although this tribute was pretty nominal.^[5]

However, in early 1847,^[9] Yar Mohammad Khan attacked the Hazaras again, and this time the capital fell and 10,000^[5] or 12,000^[9] Hazara families were resettled in the Herat valley. According to Noelle-Karimi, Qala-e Naw lost half of its population as a result of the attack, and their chieftain Karimdad Khan Hazara fled to Iran^[9][5] but later joined the Revolt of Hasan Khan Salar.^[5] With the subduing of the Aimaq complete, Yar Mohammad Khan was able to pursue his expansionist policies in the Chahar Wilayat.

Campaigns in the Chahar Wilayat (1844-1850)

See also: Yar Mohammad Khan's Invasion of the Chahar Wilayat (1847-1850)In 1844, the rulers of the Chahar Wilayat broke out into open war again. Mizrab Khan of Maimana and Rustam Khan of Sheberghan mounted a joint attack on the new ruler of Andkhui, Ghazanfar Khan.^[9] Ghazanfar was overthrown and his uncle, Sufi Khan, was installed as the new ruler. Ghazanfar fled to Bukhara and agreed to pay tribute if Nasrullah Khan would restore him to the throne of Andkhui. Nasrullah agreed and sent Ghazanfar to the Mir Wali of Khulm (who was an ally of Bukhara).^[9][6]

Mir Wali was eager to settle old scores. Aided by the Ishans of Balkh and Mazar-i Sharif, Mir Wali marched into the Chahar Wilayat. Sar-i Pul defected and attacked Shebarghan. Rustam Khan requested help from Mizrab Khan, however, in early 1845, Mizrab Khan died after he was poisoned by one of his wives. As a result, his two sons (Hukumat Khan and Sher Mohammad Khan) not only made a truce with each other but also supported Bukhara's invasion.^[9][6][18] Therefore, Shebarghan was annexed by Sar-I Pul and Ghazanfar Khan was re-instated as the ruler of Andkhui. However, Ghazanfar refused to pay tribute to Bukhara and as a result Nasrullah supported Rustam Khan in recapturing Sherbarghan and deposing Ghazanfar Khan (once more re-instating Sufi Khan as head of the Andkhui Afshars).^[9]

At the same time, the truce between Hukumat Khan and Sher Mohammad Khan broke down and the two fought for control of Maimana. Yar Mohammad Khan intervened and temporarily settled the dispute. Sher Mohammad was given control of Maimana while Hukumat Khan would control agriculture and mercantile trade,^[9][18] effectively becoming Sher Mohammad's diwanbegi.^[9] In addition to this, Yar Mohammad also attempted to create two Tajik battalions in the hopes that they would be more loyal to Herat.^[9][5]

In the Summer of 1847, Hukumat Khan requested assistance against Sher Mohammad Khan, becoming the pretext for war Yar Mohammad needed.^[6] Yar Mohammad marched against Maimana with 20,000 troops (half of those being composed of Aimaq and Turkmen tribesmen eager for loot).^[9] When the army reached Chichaktu (on the frontier between Herat and Maimana), it quickly fell and the town was sacked.^[9][18] When Hukumat Khan heard of this, he quickly rushed to tender his submission and provided the army with supplies, preventing the Heratis from doing the same to other regions of Maimana.^[9] Yar Mohammad also punished the looters by amputating their noses and ears even though it was quite obvious he had sanctioned the sacking.^[9]

They soon marched on Sher Mohammad Khan's stronghold of Khairabad and the fortress was torn apart. Sher Mohammad initially fled and eventually reconciled with his brother.^[9] Ghazanfar Khan of Andkhui also requested Yar Mohammad Khan's aid in overthrowing Sufi Khan. Sufi Khan was put to death and Andkhui was subjected to a brutal sacking.^[6][9][18] Yar Mohammad intended to continue his advance to Aqcha and Balkh even though it was in the winter. He swiftly occupied Aqcha but failed to take Sheberghan and was forced to retreat to Maimana. The population refused to open their gates, so Hukumat Khan guided the army through a route going around the capital. The march back to Bala Morghab was devastating and many Herati soldiers died due to the cold or hunger.^[9][6][18] Yar Mohammad Khan returned to Herat in late February or Early March 1848, and attempted to recover from the defeat.

In November 1849, Yar Mohammad demanded Hukumat Khan to pay tribute to Herat. When this offer was refused, Maimana was besieged with a force of 6,000 men and the city was surrounded for 11 months.^[9][18] However, Maimana continued to hold out and it was detrimental to Herat's future as an independent state.^[9] In 1849 and 1850, the Barakzais had already incorporated significant parts of Afghan Turkestan into their kingdom, and if all of the region was to fall then Herat could be simultaneously attacked from Maimana and Qandahar. The siege of Maimana also helped the Barakzais because it made sure that Maimana's powerful army wouldn't come to the aid of the petty states of the region.^[9] Eventually, in September 1850, the siege of Maimana was lifted and Yar Mohammad Khan returned in defeat to Herat.^[9][6][18]

Conquest of Lash-Joveyn and Death (1850-1851)

See also: Herati-Kandahar WarLash-Joveyn is a region in southern Afghanistan. It was ruled by members of the Durrani tribe and had traditionally paid tribute to Herat.^[19] With the collapse of the Sadozais the area became independent. In Safar 1267 (December 1850-January 1851) the Qajar government requested the Qandahar Sardars to invade Lash-Joveyn in order to provide security to the area.^[5] The Qandahar Sardars conquered Lash-Joveyn and Chakansur^[7] (ruled by the independent Sanjarani Baloch tribe, which also controlled Khash Rud and Rudbar.)^[5] They also planned to conquer Herat and sent troops to Gereshk for that purpose.^[7]

In 1851, Yar Mohammad Khan as a result invaded Lash-Joveyn with 5 infantry regiments and 4,000 Aimaq cavalry^[11] (10,000 troops in total).^[19] They defeated the Sardar of Lash-Joveyn, Sardar Ahmad Khan Lashi, and besieged the fort (Qal'ah) of Lash for around a month.^[11] The defenders eventually surrendered the fort and Ahmad Khan Lashi fled, allowing Yar Mohammad Khan to conquer the area, as well as many Baloch areas in Sistan.^[11] However, unfortunately for him, he got sick from a dish of cucumbers and sour milk.^[5] He traveled back to Herat by way of Sabzawar but when he reached Ribat-i Mir he passed away (either on 7 June 1851, 11 June 1851,^[5] or 29 June 1851.^[9][7]) After his death, Lash-Joveyn was able to secede from Herat.^[5] Twelve days after his demise, Yar Mohammad Khan's incompetent^[20] and weak^[18] son, Sa'id Mohammad Khan was put on the throne.^[11]

Reign of Sa'id Mohammad Khan (1851–1855)

Reign and War with Qandahar (1851–1852)

Some Heratis were dissatisfied with Sa'id Mohammad Khan's rule and in response the Qandahar Sardars made another attempt to conquer Herat. In March 1852 they defeated the Herati armies and within a short period of time occupied Farah, Lash Joveyn, and Sabzawar.^{[7][11][18][5]} Reportedly, Kohandil Khan managed to get within 100 kilometres (60 miles) of Herat.^[18] Soon after, the city was besieged.^[5] As a result the Persians intervened and occupied Herat, forcing the Qandahar Sardars to retreat.^[5] The Iranian army left the city of Herat in the third week of May, but they stayed another three months in the province to "put Saʿīd Muḥammad Khān’s affairs in order."^[5]

Reign (1852–1855)

Deposition (1855)

Many people were discontented with Sa'id Mohammad Khan's rule and decided to overthrow him. They wrote a letter to Mohammad Yusuf bin Malik Qasim Mirza, a descendant of the Sadozai ruler Firuz al-Din Mirza.^[6][5] On September 15, 1855, the people rose up and overthrew Sa'id Mohammad Khan.^[5] Two assassins (Mohammad Bayraqchi Pahlavan and Bafi 'Abbas Rayhan) went to Sa'id Mohammad Khan in the Arg and strangled him with a kerchief.^[11]

Reign of Mohammad Yusuf Sadozai, 'Isa Khan Bardurrani, and the Iranian invasion (1855-1857)

f4 rReign of Mohammad Yusuf Sadozai (1855-56)

On September 15, 1855, Mohammad Yusuf Sadozai overthrew Sa'id Mohammad Khan in a coup. The Iranians quickly intervened and people turned against him. On April 28, 1856 Mohammad Yusuf's vizier, 'Isa Khan Bardurrani, gave him to the Iranian camp where he was executed.^[5]

Reign of 'Isa Khan Bardurrani (April 1856-October 1856)

With the death of Mohammad Yusuf Sadozai on April 28, Herat broke into chaos.^[11] Four contenders emerged. 'Isa Khan managed to overthrow Mohammad Yusuf but his rule was challenged inside the city. Ghulam Khan Qufaza'i revolted and "beat the drum of kingship in the vicinity of the grey tower of Herat in his own name."^[11] A son of Sa'id Mohammad Khan established his control around Qutub-i Chaq. 'Abbas Khan Rayhan established a republican emirate around Khwaja 'Abdullah Misri.^[11] However, 'Isa Khan eventually managed to defeat these rivals for power.^[11]

On October 25, 1856, Herat fell to the Iranian forces.^[8][5][4]

Mohammadzai Conquest of Farah (October 1856)

The Mohammadzais took advantage of this to capture Farah on 30 October 1856.^[5]

Iranian rule over Herat (October 1856-August 1857)

Sultan Ahmad Khan and Shah Navaz Khan (1857-1863)

Installation (1857)

The Treaty of Paris forbade Iran to interfere in the affairs of Herat unless necessary and respect the region's independence.^[21] But the Iranians were able to bypass that by installing Sultan Ahmad Khan on the throne of Herat before the treaty was ratified on 2 May 1857.^[5] They evacuated Herat on 27 August 1857 and left Sultan Ahmad Khan to govern the area.

Reign (1857-1862)

Map of afghanistan and surrounding nations, 1860.

During his reign, he was completely dependent on Iran and not only minted coins in the Shahanshah's name, but also repeatedly given support upon request against the Mohammadzais.^[5]

Mohammadzai Conquest of Herat (1862-1863)

Khan captured Farah soon after on 11 March 1862,^[4][5] which became Dost Mohammad Khan's casus belli to launch an attack on Herat. On June 29^[22] or July 8^[23] Farah was captured by the Mohammadzais. On July 22,^[23] Sabzawar was captured. By July 28, Herat was besieged.^[22] At the same time Mohammadzai forces advanced through Maimana and the Aimaq lands, eventually reaching the city in August.^[9]

In January 1863 Ahmad Khan's wife and Dost Mohammad Khan's daughter, Nawab Dokhtar, died.^[14] Ahmad Khan was so sad that he died from grief on March 6, 1863,^[9][5] being succeeded by his son Shah Nawaz Khan. On May 27 Dost Mohammad made a final assault on Herat. The city was conquered by the Emirate of Afghanistan, ending the Principality of Herat.^[22]

Attempts at Reviving Herati Independence (1863-1881)

Government, military, and subdivisions

Military reforms

Subdivisions

There is a general consensus on the number of provinces Herat had. The principality was centered around the Herat oasis and had outlying provinces dependent on it.^[5] According to Christine Noelle-Karimi the Herat oasis consisting of the following districts (buluk):

North of the Hari Rud:

Alanjan, Injil, Khiyaban, Sabqar, Ghurvan-Pashtan

South of the Hari Rud:

Udvan-Tizan, Guzara, Kamburaq^[5]

There were four provinces (velayat) in the principality, but the areas that were velayats are disputed.^[5] Ghourian, Awbeh, and Karokh are agreed on as velayat. Mohan Lal said Sabzawar was a velayat also, but Conolly disagrees and lists the region of Shafilan as a velayat. Both Kamran Shah Sadozai and Yar Mohammad Khan appointed their relatives as governors to peripheral regions, and they aren't considered as velayat.^[5]

Foreign relations

Relations with Iran

Early conflicts (1793-1836)

Herat had been practically independent since 1801^[10] and was forced to pay tribute to Persia multiple times (1805, 1811, 1814). As Champagne made clear in his dissertation, "Kamran Mirza very clearly saw that in order to maintain the independence of Herat and to reconquer his father's throne in Kabul, it would be necessary to neutralize any threat from Iran by asking for the assistance of the Qajar court. Partly because of his efforts, the Qajars did not attack Herat from 1823 to 1833."^[4] In addition to that, the Iranians also aided Kamran and was a significant factor in placing him on the throne and removing his father Mahmud.

Relationship during and after the Siege of Herat (1836-1842)

Relations with Yar Mohammad Khan and Sa'id Khan Alakozai (1842-1855)

Iran also helped modernize the Herati military. The Shahs of Iran gave many presents to Yar Mohammad Khan. When the governor of Afghan Turkestan sacked Maimana in 1876, he gifted the Amir Sher Ali Khan with a Persian sword that the Iranians gave to Yar Mohammad Khan. Yar Mohammad Khan later gifted that sword to Mizrab Khan of Maimana.^[9]

Relations during the final years of Herat's independence (1855-1863)

Relations with Britain

Early relations (1793-1839)

Relations during the Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842)

Relations during the Alakozai reign (1842-1857)

Relations during Sultan Ahmad Khan and role of the British in orchestrating Herat's fall (1857-1863)

Relations with the Aimaq tribes

Relations under the Sadozais (1793-1842)

Relations under Yar Mohammad Khan (1842-1851)

Relations under later rulers (1851-1863)

Sultan Ahmad Khan continued Yar Mohammad Khan's oppressive policies against the Jamshidi, which would eventually result in a section of the Jamshidi siding with Dost Mohammad Khan when Herat was invaded.^[17]

Relations with the Emirs of the Chahar Wilayat

Relations with the Barakzais of Qandahar and Kabul

Relations with Khiva, Bukhara and the Turkmen tribes

Relations with Sistan

Society, trade, religion and culture

Herat's trade prospered under Firuz al-Din Sadozai.^[4] There were many Hindu merchants selling goods among the bazaars of Herat. The city was a hub for trade, with products such as wheat, barley, rice, saffron, tobacco, and tea.^[3] However, under Kamran Shah and Yar Mohammad Khan trade declined and they heavily taxed the populace, meaning that when the Iranians attacked Herat in 1837 the city was left virtually defenseless and only with the help of the Aimaq tribes was Herat able to survive.^[9]

List of rulers

Image of Ruler	Ruler Name	Reign	Dynasty	Notes
	Mahmud Shah Sadozai محمود شاه سدوزی	18 May 1793 - 14 October 1797[8]	Sadozai	After Timur Shah's death on 18 May 1793, he became a contender for the throne. In 1795 he made an attempt to conquer Qandahar but was defeated. In 1797 he made another attempt but was locked out of Herat and was forced to flee, with Zaman Shah entering Herat on the 14th of October.
	Firuz al-Din Sadozai فیروز الدین سدوزی	25 July 1801 - April 1818[5]	Sadozai	When Mahmud Shah Sadozai was restored on 25 July 1801 Firuz al-Din was appointed governor of Herat and Farah, and he acted quite independent in this position due to the chaos prevailing in the rest of Afghanistan during this time. Battled with Persia in December 1804, lost Ghourian and was forced to pay tribute. Rebelled again in May 1807, lost again. Rebelled unsuccesfully three other times in 1811, 1814 and 1817, at one point expanding his influence into Jam and Bakharz before being defeated. Herat was conquered by Fateh Khan Barakzai in April 1818, ending his rule.
	Mahmud Shah Sadozai محمود شاه سدوزی	Late 1818 - 1826	Sadozai	Ruler of Herat after being expelled from most of Afghanistan by the Barakzais in Late 1818. Warred with Persia in 1821 and 1822, deposed by his son Kamran Shah in 1826 and after unsuccesfully trying to regain the throne he died in 1829.
	Firuz al-Din Sadozai فیروز الدین سدوزی	1824	Sadozai	Ruled for 18 days in 1824.
	Mahmud Shah Sadozai محمود شاه سدوزی	1824	Sadozai	Restored to the throne but then deposed by Mustafa Khan.
	Mustafa Khan مصطفى خان	1824		Imprisoned Saleh Khan and forced Mahmud Shah out of the city. Was soon defeated by a coalition of Kamran and Mahmud Shah and executed in the winter of 1824.
	Mahmud Shah Sadozai محمود شاه سدوزی	1824 - Summer 1826	Sadozai
	Kamran Shah Sadozai کامران شاه سدوزی	Summer 1826 - March 1842	Sadozai	Ruler of Herat from 1826, fought with Persia 1833 and 1837. British intervention forced the Persians out, although Persia continued to occupy the strategic fort of Ghourian. Rebelled against his vizier Yar Mohammad Khan Alakozai in 1841, his rebellion failed and was sent to Kohsan where he was strangled, effectively ending the Sadozai dynasty.
	Yar Mohammad Khan Alakozai "Zahir al-Daula" یار محمد خان الکوزی "ظهیرالدوله"	March 1842 - 11 June 1851[5]	Alakozai	Vizier of Herat from 1829 onwards, de facto ruler of Herat from 1829 to 1842. Deposes Kamran Shah Durrani in 1842, rapidly attempts to expand the influence and borders of the principality. Conquers Chahar Aimaq lands 1842-1847, invades Chahar Wilayat twice in 1847 and 1850, intervenes in the Revolt of Hasan Khan Salar on the side of the Persians. Enacts multiple military reforms with help from the Persians. He dies on 11 June 1851 after conquering Lash-Joveyn.
	Sa'id Mohammad Khan Alakozai سعید محمد خان الکوزی	23 June 1851[11] - 15 September 1855[5]	Alakozai	Ruler of Herat after his father's death in 1851, suffers an invasion by Qandahar in 1852 which triggers a Persian intervention. Highly unpopular ruler, is deposed and killed on 15 September 1855 by a Sadozai descendant.
	Mohammad Yusuf bin Malik Qasim Sadozai محمد یوسف بین ملک قاسم سدوزی	15 September 1855 - 28 April 1856	Sadozai	Deposes Sa'id Mohammad Khan in 1855, requests Persian help which triggers a Persian siege of Herat. Turned over to the Persians on 28 April 1856 and killed.
	'Isa Khan Bardurrani عیسی خان باردرانی	28 April 1856 - 25 October 1856	Bardurrani	Vizier of Herat, deposes Mohammad Yusuf due to an agreement between 'Isa Khan and the Persians. The Persians don't follow through with the agreement though and continue to besiege Herat until the city falls on 25 October 1856.
	Conquest by Iran, Nasir al-Din Shah becomes the ruler	25 October 1856 - 27 August 1857	Qajar	Iran annexes Herat into the Shah's Guarded domains. Triggers a British intervention which forces Persia to withdraw from Herat. Instead the Persians place their quisling Sultan Ahmad Khan on the throne of Herat.
	Sultan Ahmad Khan سلطان احمد خان	27 August 1857 - 6 March 1863[5]	Barakzai	Placed on the throne of Herat, effectively dependent on support and aid from Iran. Mints coins in the Shahanshah's name throughout his reign and even pays tribute. Reoccupies Farah in March 1862 from Dost Mohammad Khan, triggers an intervention that results in Herat being besieged from 28 July 1862 to 27 May 1863. His wife (Dost Mohammad Khan's daughter) dies in January 1863. He dies on 6 March 1863, being succeeded by Shah Navaz Khan.
	Shah Navaz Khan شاه نواز خان	6 March 1863 - 27 May 1863	Barakzai	Succeeds his father Sultan Ahmad Khan in March 1863. A final assault is launched on the city of Herat on 27 May 1863 that results in the city falling to Dost Mohammad Khan, ending the Principality of Herat and accomplishing Dost Mohammad Khan's lifelong dream.

References

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