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Antireligious campaigns in China

Topic: Religion

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 19 min
Short description: State-sponsored campaigns against religion in the People's Republic of China
The Cemetery of Confucius was attacked by Red Guards in November 1966.[1][2]
Falun Gong books are destroyed following announcement of the ban in 1999.

Antireligious campaigns in China refer to the Chinese Communist Party's official promotion of state atheism, coupled with its persecution of people with spiritual or religious beliefs, in the China .[3][4][5] Antireligious campaigns were launched in 1949, after the Chinese Communist Revolution, and they continue to be waged against Buddhists, Christians, Muslims, and members of other religious communities in the 21st century.[6] State campaigns against religion have escalated since Xi Jinping became General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party on November 15, 2012.[7] For Christians, government decrees have mandated the widespread removal of crosses from churches, and in some cases, they have also mandated the destruction of houses of worship, such as the Catholic Three Rivers Church in the city of Wenzhou.[8][9] In Tibet, similar decrees have mandated the destruction of Tibetan Buddhist monastic centers, the destruction of sacred Buddhist sites, the destruction of monastic residences, the denial of the Tibetan people's right to freely access their cultural heritage, the ongoing persecution of high Buddhist lamas and the ongoing persecution of Buddhist nuns and monks. Reports which document the existence of forced re-education camps, arrests, beatings, rape, and the destruction of religious sites in Tibet are also being published with regard to the Uyghur people, who are being subjected to an ongoing genocide.

Cultural Revolution

As a result of anti-religious campaigns which were waged between 1950 and 1979, all churches, mosques, and temples were closed and re-education was imposed upon clergy.[10] In Tibet, monasteries were demolished and monks and nuns were arrested or killed.

During the Cultural Revolution, the possession of religious texts was also criminalized.[11] Monks were beaten or killed, and many Tibetans escaped with sacred texts and compiled teachings in exile communities in India.[12]

1989–2002: Jiang Zemin administration

The Chinese government and the Communist Party, led by Jiang Zemin from 1989 to 2002, commenced the persecution of Falun Gong; it called for the "education of Marxist materialism and atheism" to counter Falun Gong.[13]

Tibetan Buddhists

In 1989, violent repression spread in Tibet after prolonged rebellions against Chinese rule. Under the local authority of Hu Jintao, then CCP Secretary of Tibet, possibly hundreds of Tibetans were killed. Martial Law was declared for a year until 30 April 1990, during which hundreds more were killed and thousands imprisoned,[14] under Jiang's Beijing authority and Hu's local authority. Hu was later promoted to top leadership posts for his work.[15]

In 1991, while crafting policy towards Tibetan Buddhists, Jiang's preliminary decree stated reincarnated lamas must be approved by China's central government.[16] The decree was later revised and termed State Religious Affairs Bureau Order No. 5 in 2007 during the administration of Hu Jintao.

In 1992, Jiang's government formally accepted the 14th Dalai Lama's official recognition and the enthronement of Orgyen Trinley Dorje as the reincarnated 17th Gyalwang Karmapa, spiritual leader of the Karma Kagyu school. The recognition process was led by the 3rd Jamgon Kongtrul who died in a mysterious car crash earlier in 1992. The Karmapa, along with the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, are highly respected by Tibetans and considered to be living Buddhas. By 1999, the Karmapa escaped to India, afterwards pointing to interference by the Chinese government in his spiritual leadership and studies as his motive.[17][18]

Also in 1992, 13 monks from Drepung Monastery were arrested on 12 May for protesting peacefully. Samdup was jailed for seven years, and in 2020 became the fourth former political prisoner to die from medical complications within the previous six months.[19]

In 1994, a Chinese policy called "grasping with both hands" was implemented in Tibet, targeting Tibetan Buddhism and culture. It was credited with leading to the 2008 Tibetan unrest.[20]

On 17 May 1995, Jiang's government officially reversed its acceptance policy of recognized re-incarnated lamas and of Tibetan Buddhist spiritual leaders, and abducted Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, the 11th Panchen Lama, three days after his official recognition by the Dalai Lama. Chadrel Rinpoche and two others involved in the recognition process were also disappeared, then imprisoned. Months later in November, Jiang's government installed its proxy Panchen Lama, Gyaltsen Norbu. The recognized 11th Panchen Lama Gedhun Choekyi Nyima continues to be forcibly detained in an unknown location.[21][22]

In 1996, Jiang's administration officially banned all photographs of Tibet's spiritual leader the 14th Dalai Lama.[23]

By March 1998, the Central Tibetan Administration reported the Dalai Lama statement that Chinese campaigns of repression have travelled beyond monasteries and nunneries, and that Jiang was undertaking "a deliberate policy of cultural genocide in Tibet".[24]

In 2001, the Chinese government began persecuting and forcibly evicting nuns and monks studying at Larung Gar Buddhist Academy and at Yarchen Gar in Tibet.[25]

2002–2012: Hu Jintao administration

Under the Chinese government and the Communist Party, led by Hu Jintao from 2002 to 2012, land redevelopment was used as a form of religious persecution, while the demolition of spiritually sacred buildings and sites was undertaken.[26]

Tibetan Buddhists

In 2006, Tibetans were arrested after responding to calls from the Dalai Lama to burn animal skin clothing. Bonfires spread throughout Tibet as a form of defiance.[27]

The persecution of Tibetan Buddhists escalated under Hu Jintao, leading to the 2008 Tibetan unrest. The uprising is described as the biggest challenge to China's invasion since 1959.[28] As unrest over Chinese persecution grew, waves of protests began, including street demonstrations which were met with excessive force.[29] A mass arrest of 280 monks at the Labrang Monastery was reported during this time, as was torture during confinement.

A farming boycott began in 2009 in protest for those people detained or "disappeared" into Chinese custody. Civil disobedience became widespread, as all the monks in a Jomda, Chamdo province monastery deserted in June 2009 instead of participating in "patriotic education".[30]

On 13 July 2007, the State Religious Affairs Bureau Order No. 5 was passed, requiring reincarnated lamas and religious institutions in Tibet to apply for permission with People's Republic of China's bureaus so as be legal.

Acts of self-immolation began in 2009 at Kirti Monastery.[31] In 2010, two Tibetan laypeople were killed while trying to stop a mass arrest of approximately 300 monks at Kirti Monastery.[32][33]

In 2011, China's foreign ministry announced only Beijing could appoint the 15th Dalai Lama.[34] A monk at Nyitso monastery, Tsewang Norbu, self immolated after chanting "Long live the Dalai Lama" and "Tibetan people want freedom". The non-profit organization Free Tibet said telephone and internet services were subsequently cut to keep the news from spreading, and the monastery's utilities had been repeatedly cut. Author Tsering Woeser said Chinese security forces surrounded the monastery the same night of Tsewang Norbu's death.[33]

2012–present: Xi Jinping administration

The Chinese government and Chinese Communist Party led by Xi Jinping from 2012–present intensified antireligious campaigns in the country.[35][36] In 2016, Xi called for "improved religious work" by uniting religious and non-religious people, and emphasizing that members of the Chinese Communist Party must act as "unyielding Marxist atheists".[37]

In September 2019, the UN Human Rights Council was told by the China Tribunal that the Government of China "is harvesting and selling organs from persecuted religious and ethnic minorities on an industrial scale".[38] The tribunal concluded that religious and ethnic minorities are being “killed to order... cut open while still alive for their kidneys, livers, hearts, lungs, cornea and skin to be removed and turned into commodities for sale”.[38]

Tibetan Buddhists

According to a report by the Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, under Xi Jinping, the widespread targeting of Tibetans and of Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, together with the persecution of ordained Khenpos, nuns and monks escalated.[39] Han Chinese settling in Tibet also continues.[40]

Massive redevelopment projects including railways, mines, roadways, dams and shopping centers forcibly displace Tibetans and erode the environment.[41] From 2015 to present, farmlands and ancestral nomadic grazing lands are also being confiscated from Tibetans.[42]

Reports state that administrators of monasteries have been replaced by police or by people considered government infiltrators, while military surveillance units have been installed at Kirti Monastery, Yarchen Gar, Shak Rongpo Gaden Dargyeling Monastery, and at other monasteries, along with CCTV cameras.[43][44] Drongna Monastery was forcibly closed in 2013, and its chant master Thardhod Gyaltsen received an 18-year prison sentence in 2014 for possession of a picture and recording of the 14th Dalai Lama.[45][46]

Some also express concerns that construction and tourism are eroding Tibetan culture.[47] By 2020, after Chinese state-sponsored tourist agencies funneled people from inner China to Lhasa, reports state the tourists disrupt ceremonies, are disrespectful to Tibetan customs, and throw trash around sacred sites. Police support the tourists confronted by complaints.[48]

Reports also indicate tourism is used to disrupt monastic life within Buddhist monasteries.[32] Monastic residences of nuns and monks were demolished before mass evictions began in 2016 at Larung Gar, in 2019 at Yarchen Gar, in 2013 at Jhada Gon Palden Khachoe Nunnery, and elsewhere. Reports indicate that nuns and nunneries are targeted for demolition more often than those of monks.[citation needed] Tourist accommodations and roads replaced the residences, or are planned for the sites where residences were demolished. Other monasteries are partially renovated for tourist accommodations whose proximity disrupts daily life.[32]

After the mass evictions, nuns and monks were bused away, and reportedly detained in reeducation centers.[40] Among others, an identified reeducation center is named Ningtri.[49] Reports include beatings and the torture of monastics and of laypeople at reeducation centers, and in jails after arrests.[50]

In 2016, the CCP commenced a campaign to sinicize religion, which intensified after 2018.[51][52] The Sinicization of Tibet was condemned by the Dalai Lama as cultural cleansing.[53]

The ethnic cleansing policies in Tibet were managed by hardliner Chen Quanguo, before his 2016 transfer to govern Xinjiang.[54] A United States Department of State report in 2019 documented incidents of sexual abuse, rape, and gender-based violence at the Chinese detention centers.[55]

In April 2019, the Chinese police-enforced ban against photographs of the Dalai Lama spread to remote areas of Tibet.[56]

Christians

The persecution of members of other spiritual organizations is also continuing under Xi Jinping. Journalist Ian Johnson noted that officials have targeted Christianity, and Islam, with particular intensity because of their perceived foreign ties.[57] In the Chinese province of Zhejiang alone, over 1200 Christian crosses have been removed from their steeples since 2013.[58][59]

In August 2017 in the Shanxi province a number of Catholic priests and supporters were injured while preventing a government-owned bulldozer from demolishing a church owned property—an old factory building allocated to the Church as restitution for a church-owned property destroyed in 1992. Local authorities unanimously decided the condition of the property met the criteria for demolishment as required by the city's planned transportation network project. However the diocese complained they were denied an opportunity to negotiate, and were given no assurance of fair compensation.[60][61] In February 2018, government authorities in Kashgar, "launched an anti-religion propaganda drive through local police stations", which included policemen erecting a banner proclaiming “We Must Solemnly Reject Religion, Must Not Believe in Religion”.[62]

In December 2018, Chinese officials raided Christian house churches just prior to Christmas and coerced their owners to close them down; Christmas trees and Santa Clauses were also forcibly removed.[63][64] In 2018, the United Front Work Department initiated a crackdown on large outdoor religious statues.[65][66]

The government of China continued to persecute Christians during the 2019 COVID-19 pandemic, demolishing the Xiangbaishu Church in Yixing and removing a Christian Cross from the steeple of a church in Guiyang County.[67][68] In the Shandong Province, "officials issued guidance forbidding online preaching, a vital way for churches to reach congregants amid both persecution and the spread of the virus".[67][68]

In 2020, the Chinese government put additional regulations in place to restrict religious education and proselytizing.[69]

Muslims

By November 2018, the Chinese government had detained over one million Uyghurs in what it refers to as "training centers" as part of a thought reform campaign, "where Uyghur Muslims are remade into atheist Chinese subjects".[26][70][71] For children forcibly taken away from their parents, the Chinese government has established kindergartens with the aim of combating 'three evil forces' (separatism, extremism and terrorism), and "converting future generations of Uyghur Muslim children into loyal subjects who embrace atheism".[72][73][71][74] According to estimates from the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, that under Xi Jinping, thousands of mosques and Muslim religious sites were damaged or destroyed in China.[75] Government campaigns against Islam have extended to the Hui people and Utsul community in Hainan.[76][77][78][79]

Chinese officials did not acknowledge the existence of any sort of detention camps. The Chinese government states that Uyghurs are being sent to vocational training centers in order to prevent the spread of extremism and to increase their employability.[80] In November 2019, the detention centers were described in the leaked Xinjiang papers.[26][81]

Jews

The Kaifeng Jewish community has reported increasing suppression by the authorities since 2015, reversing the modest revival it experienced in the 1990s. The observance of public religious services and the celebration of religious festivals like Passover and Sukkot have been prohibited, and Jewish community groups have been shut down. Signs have been removed from the Kaifeng Synagogue, a historical site located on Teaching the Torah Lane that is now under strict surveillance.[82][better source needed]

Responses

In December 2020, the Tibet Policy and Support Act became law in the United States in support of Tibetan Buddhists' right to determine Dalai Lama succession.[83][84]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Asiaweek, Volume 10. 1984. https://books.google.com/books?id=dIMMAQAAMAAJ&q=cemetery+Tan+Houlan. Retrieved 2017-09-03. 
  2. ↑ Jeni Hung (April 5, 2003). "Children of confucius". The Spectator. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3724/is_200304/ai_n9228762. Retrieved 2007-03-04. 
  3. ↑ Blondeau, Anne-Marie; Buffetrille, Katia (8 April 2008) (in English). Authenticating Tibet. University of California Press. p. 165. ISBN 9780520249288. https://archive.org/details/authenticatingti00anne. "This virulent anti-religion campaign seems to be officially linked to the development plan for western Tibet, for which social stability is necessary (see Part VIII, "Economic Development," below). But the hardening of this policy in Tibet is probably another consequence of the spread of atheism which was launched in China, in response to the religious problems which are mentioned above, including problems inside the Party." 
  4. ↑ Dark, K. R. (2000), "Large-Scale Religious Change and World Politics" (in en), Religion and International Relations (London: Palgrave Macmillan UK): pp. 50–82, doi:10.1057/9781403916594_3, ISBN 978-1-349-27846-6, "Interestingly, atheist campaigns were most effective against traditional Chinese religions and Buddhism, whereas Christian, Jewish and Muslim communities not only survived these campaigns, but they were some of the most vocal centers of political opposition to the government as a consequence of them." 
  5. ↑ "China announces "civilizing" atheism drive in Tibet" (in English). BBC Online. 12 January 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/monitoring/253345.stm. "The Chinese Communist Party has launched a three-year drive to promote atheism in the Buddhist region of Tibet, saying it is the key to economic progress and a weapon against separatism as typified by the exiled Tibetan leader, the Dalai Lama. The move comes amid fresh foreign reports of religious persecution in the region, which was invaded by China in 1950." 
  6. ↑ Johnson, Ian (April 23, 2017). "In China, Unregistered Churches Are Driving a Religious Revolution". The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/04/china-unregistered-churches-driving-religious-revolution/521544/. "It’s hardly celebrated here at all,” he said. “We had this break in our history—you know, the missionaries being expelled in 1949 and then the anti-religious campaigns—so a lot has been lost. A lot of people don’t really know too much about Lent. We had a service trying to reintroduce the idea and explain it." 
  7. ↑ "China's war on religion". The Week. August 23, 2020. https://theweek.com/articles/932538/chinas-war-religion. 
  8. ↑ "China's anti-Christian crusade" (in English). The Washington Post. 5 September 2015. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/chinas-anti-christian-crusade/2015/09/05/13ab482e-527d-11e5-9812-92d5948a40f8_story.html. "The profusion of churches seems to have unnerved some Chinese authorities, who have undertaken a campaign to tear down hundreds of crosses, and in some instances entire churches, in Zhejiang, a coastal province where a prosperous Christian community and large numbers of churches have taken root." 
  9. ↑ Makinen, Julie (2014). "China demolition of church in Wenzhou leaves Christians uneasy" L.A. Times. Local government authorities claim that the building was built vastly larger than the permit allowed, and church leaders refused to follow orders not to build an additional annex, and they refused to lower the church cross—instead building it higher.
  10. ↑ Buang, Sa'eda; Chew, Phyllis Ghim-Lian (9 May 2014) (in English). Muslim Education in the 21st Century: Asian Perspectives. Routledge. p. 75. ISBN 9781317815006. OCLC 880235482. "Subsequently, a new China was found on the basis of Communist ideology, i.e. atheism. Within the framework of this ideology, religion was treated as a 'contorted' world-view and people were taught to believe that it would eventually disappear, an inevitable result of the development of human societies. A series of anti-religious campaigns was implemented by the Chinese Communist Party from the early 1950s to the late 1970s. As a result, in nearly 30 years between the beginning of the 1950s and the end of the 1970s, mosques (as well as churches and Chinese temples) were shut down and Imams were subjected to forced 're-education'." 
  11. ↑ Grim, Brian J.; Finke, Roger (2010) (in English). The Price of Freedom Denied: Religious Persecution and Conflict in the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511762345. ISBN 9781139492416. OCLC 1104455711. "Seeking a complete annihilation of religion, places of worship were shut down; temples, churches, and mosques were destroyed; artifacts were smashed; sacred texts were burnt; and it was a criminal offence even to possess a religious artifact or sacred text. Atheism had long been the official doctrine of the Chinese Communist Party, but this new form of militant atheism made every effort to eradicate religion completely." 
  12. ↑ Pittman, Don Alvin (2001) (in English). Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu's Reforms. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824822316. "Yet in the first years after Liberation there were places in China where monasteries were destroyed, monks were beaten or killed, copies of the Buddhist canon were burned, and sacred images were melted down for their metal." 
  13. ↑ Xiao, Ming (2012) (in English). The Cultural Economy of Falun Gong in China: A Rhetorical Perspective. University of South Carolina Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv6wgmf9. ISBN 9781611172072. OCLC 826659831. 
  14. ↑ Exile Tibetans Commemorate 1989 Martial Law, (09.03.2017), https://www.voatibetanenglish.com/a/3755465.html
  15. ↑ Yardley, Jim (2008-03-15). "Violence in Tibet as Monks Clash With the Police" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/15/world/asia/15tibet.html. 
  16. ↑ "中共中央、国务院关于进一步做好宗教工作若干问题的通知-宗教政策-兴国禅寺" (in zh). http://xgcs.org/content/?132.html. 
  17. ↑ Harding, Luke (2001-04-28). "Daring escape of the Karmapa" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/apr/28/lukeharding. 
  18. ↑ The Karmapa: A short biography of the early years of the 17th Karmapa, Ogyen Trinley Dorje, and the lineage of Karmapas that came before him., Kagyu Office, https://kagyuoffice.org/karmapa/
  19. ↑ Finney, Richard (July 17, 2020). "Tibetan Former Political Prisoner Dies After Years of Ill Health Following Release". Radio Free Asia. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/tibet/health-07172020160125.html. 
  20. ↑ "The Tibet issue: Tibetan view" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2012-01-27. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-16759913. 
  21. ↑ Neuman, Scott (May 17, 2015). "20 Years After China Seized Boy Monk, Tibetans Call For His Release". NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/05/17/407483765/20-years-after-china-seized-boy-monk-tibetans-call-for-his-release. 
  22. ↑ "Tibet's missing spiritual guide" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2005-05-16. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4551425.stm. "Gedhun Choekyi Nyima was nominated as the reincarnation of the Panchen Lama the second most important figure in Tibetan religion, culture and politics after the Dalai Lama himself. But China disagreed with the choice and arrested the boy a few days later. Mystery surrounds his fate and outside China he is known as one of the world's youngest political prisoners." 
  23. ↑ Sharma, Yojana (April 30, 1996). "CHINA-TIBET: Dalai Lama Photos Banned From Monasteries, Hotels". Inter Press Service. https://www.ipsnews.net/1996/04/china-tibet-dalai-lama-photos-banned-from-monasteries-hotels/. 
  24. ↑ His Holiness the Dalai Lama, 1998 Statement, 39th Anniversary of Tibetan Uprising Day, (10 March 1998), Central Tibetan Administration, https://tibet.net/statement-of-his-holiness-the-dalai-lama-on-the-thirty-ninth-anniversary-of-the-tibetan-national-uprising-day-10-march-1998/ , In Stark contrast to these positive aspects of the development in China proper, the situation in Tibet has sadly worsened in recent years. Of late, it has become apparent that Beijing is carrying out what amounts to a deliberate policy of cultural genocide in Tibet. The infamous “strike hard” campaign against Tibetan religion and nationalism has intensified with each passing year. This campaign of repression initially confined to monasteries and nunneries has now been extended to cover all parts of the Tibetan society. In some spheres of life in Tibet, we are witnessing the return of an atmosphere of intimidation, coercion and fear, reminiscent of the days of the Cultural Revolution.
  25. ↑ Eckholm, Erik (2001-06-22). "Monitors Say China Pushes Tibet Monks From Study Site" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/22/world/monitors-say-china-pushes-tibet-monks-from-study-site.html. "Chinese authorities are skittish about any organization or movement outside party control. In recent years, they have repeatedly tried, without success up to now, to scale back the Serthar settlement and limit study there to nearby residents. This time, according to the International Campaign for Tibet, officials from Beijing as well as the provincial capital, Chengdu, have gone to the site to expel most of the students. The officials have burned down abandoned cabins to limit visitors and declared that the total number of residents should be held to 1,400, according to accounts received by the international campaign." 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Ramzy, Austin; Buckley, Chris (2019-11-16). "'Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/16/world/asia/china-xinjiang-documents.html. "There must be effective educational remolding and transformation of criminals,” [Xi] told officials in southern Xinjiang on the second day of his trip. “And even after these people are released, their education and transformation must continue.”' 'Within months, indoctrination sites began opening across Xinjiang — mostly small facilities at first, which held dozens or hundreds of Uighurs at a time for sessions intended to pressure them into disavowing devotion to Islam and professing gratitude for the party.' 'Then in August 2016, a hard-liner named Chen Quanguo was transferred from Tibet to govern Xinjiang. Within weeks, he called on local officials to “remobilize” around Mr. Xi’s goals and declared that Mr. Xi’s speeches “set the direction for making a success of Xinjiang." 
  27. ↑ Yeh, Emily T. (September 2012). "Transnational environmentalism and entanglements of sovereignty: The tiger campaign across the Himalayas" (in en). Political Geography 31 (7): 408–418. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2012.06.003. 
  28. ↑ Topgyal, Tsering (March 2011). "Insecurity Dilemma and the Tibetan Uprising in 2008" (in en). Journal of Contemporary China 20 (69): 183–203. doi:10.1080/10670564.2011.541627. ISSN 1067-0564. 
  29. ↑ "China accused of excessive force over Tibet unrest" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2010-07-22. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-10723140. 
  30. ↑ "2008-2009 Protest Logs" (in en-US). https://savetibet.org/archived-research/2008-2009-protest-logs/. 
  31. ↑ Sehgal, Parul (2020-07-15). "'Eat the Buddha' Reports From the 'World Capital of Self-Immolations'" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/15/books/eat-buddha-life-death-tibetan-town-barbara-demick.html. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 "Tibet's "Intolerable" Monasteries: The role of monasteries in Tibetan resistance since 1950". April 2016. https://freetibet.org/files/Tibet's%20Intolerable%20Monasteries%20(full%20report).pdf. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Jiang, Steven (August 17, 2011). "Tibetan monk dies after setting himself on fire". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/08/16/china.monk.fire/index.html. 
  34. ↑ Brooke Schedneck, (03 July 2019 How the Dalai Lama is chosen and why China wants to appoint its own, The Conversation, https://theconversation.com/how-the-dalai-lama-is-chosen-and-why-china-wants-to-appoint-its-own-114351
  35. ↑ Campbell, Charlie (25 April 2016). "China's Leader Xi Jinping Reminds Party Members to Be 'Unyielding Marxist Atheists'" (in English). Time (magazine). http://time.com/4306179/china-religion-freedom-xi-jinping-muslim-christian-xinjiang-buddhist-tibet/. Retrieved 3 September 2017. 
  36. ↑ Chang, Kuei-Min (2018). "New Wine in Old Bottles: Sinicisation and State Regulation of Religion in China". China Perspectives (1-2 (113)): 37–44. doi:10.4000/chinaperspectives.7636. ISSN 2070-3449. 
  37. ↑ "Xi calls for improved religious work- China.org.cn". http://www.china.org.cn/china/2016-04/24/content_38312410.htm. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Withnall, Adam (24 September 2019). "China is killing religious and ethnic minorities and harvesting their organs, UN Human Rights Council told" (in English). The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-religious-ethnic-minorities-uighur-muslim-harvest-organs-un-human-rights-a9117911.html. 
  39. ↑ "China Expands Its Clampdown in Tibet: Report". Radio Free Asia. June 16, 2020. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/tibet/clampdown-06162020180236.html. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Shaw, Steve (August 3, 2017). "China Tears Down the Tibetan City in the Sky: China is demolishing homes and evicting thousands from Larung Gar, the world's largest Tibetan Buddhist institution.". The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2017/08/china-tears-down-the-tibetan-city-in-the-sky/. 
  41. ↑ Khadka, Navin Singh (2013-12-13). "Tibetans displaced within region 'amid rampant mining'" (in en-GB). BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-25359391. 
  42. ↑ Kyi, Tsering (January 29, 2015). "Tibetans Arrested After Land Grab Protest in China". Voice of America. https://www.voanews.com/east-asia/tibetans-arrested-after-land-grab-protest-china. 
  43. ↑ "China's Undercover War on Religious Life". Christian Science Monitor. 1993-11-04. ISSN 0882-7729. https://www.csmonitor.com/1993/1104/04091.html. 
  44. ↑ "China: New Controls on Tibetan Monastery" (in en). 2018-01-24. https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/01/24/china-new-controls-tibetan-monastery. 
  45. ↑ "Hidden but not forgotten: Int'l Day of the Disappeared shines light on Tibet's dark prison secrets". Hong Kong Free Press. August 30, 2018. https://hongkongfp.com/2018/08/30/hidden-not-forgotten-intl-day-disappeared-shines-light-tibets-dark-prison-secrets/. 
  46. ↑ Shaw, Steve (January 13, 2020). "China's Ambition to Control Tibet is Leaving Hundreds Incarcerated, Abused and Forgotten". Byline Times. https://bylinetimes.com/2020/01/13/chinas-ambition-to-control-tibet-is-leaving-hundreds-incarcerated-abused-and-forgotten/. 
  47. ↑ Malterre, Ségolène (May 21, 2013). "Lhasa's Tibetans will soon be nothing but decorations for tourists". France 24. https://observers.france24.com/en/20130521-lhasa-tibetans-nothing-decorations-tourists. 
  48. ↑ Finney, Richard (July 24, 2020). "Chinese Tourists Crowd Lhasa Holy Sites, Tibetans Barred From Entry". Radio Free Asia. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/tibet/crowd-07242020160653.html. 
  49. ↑ "China: Major Tibetan Buddhist Institution Faces Further Demolitions" (in en). 2017-03-29. https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/03/29/china-major-tibetan-buddhist-institution-faces-further-demolitions. 
  50. ↑ Finney, Richard (August 18, 2020). "Tibetan Woman Jailed in Protest Over Panchen Lama is Released in Failing Health". Radio Free Asia. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/tibet/released-08182020164629.html. 
  51. ↑ Dotson, John (April 9, 2019). "Propaganda Themes at the CPPCC Stress the "Sinicization" of Religion" (in en-US). https://jamestown.org/program/propaganda-themes-at-the-cppcc-stress-the-sinicization-of-religion/. 
  52. ↑ Gan, Nectar (March 6, 2019). "Beijing plans to continue tightening grip on Christianity and Islam as China pushes ahead with the 'Sinicisation of religion'". South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/2188752/no-let-chinas-push-sinicise-religion-despite-global-outcry-over. 
  53. ↑ "Dalai Lama: 'Cultural genocide' behind self-immolations" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2011-11-07. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15617026. 
  54. ↑ Zenz, Adrian; Leibold, James (September 21, 2017). "Chen Quanguo: The Strongman Behind Beijing's Securitization Strategy in Tibet and Xinjiang" (in en-US). https://jamestown.org/program/chen-quanguo-the-strongman-behind-beijings-securitization-strategy-in-tibet-and-xinjiang/. 
  55. ↑ "2019 Report on International Religious Freedom" (in en-US). 2019. https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/tibet/. 
  56. ↑ Finney, Richard (May 29, 2019). "China Launches New Drive Against Dalai Lama Photos in Kardze". Radio Free Asia. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/tibet/drive-05292019162435.html. 
  57. ↑ Johnson, Ian (2019-12-21). "China's New Civil Religion" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/21/opinion/sunday/chinas-religion-xi.html. 
  58. ↑ Wong, Edward (2016-02-26). "Pastor in China Who Resisted Cross Removal Gets 14 Years in Prison" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/27/world/asia/china-zhejiang-christians-pastor-crosses.html. 
  59. ↑ Luxmoore, Jonathan (4 December 2015). "China's Catholics fear new anti-Christian campaign" (in English). National Catholic Reporter. https://www.ncronline.org/news/world/chinas-catholics-fear-new-anti-christian-campaign. "Police began tearing down crosses in the coastal city of Wenzhou in late 2013, citing building regulations, and have since removed more than 1,200 crosses throughout Zhejiang. The campaign was protested by China's state-approved Catholic and Protestant associations, as well as by Cardinal John Tong Hon of Hong Kong, who appealed to Communist Party chiefs in August to "return to the right path." However, Catholic sources say up to 4,000 crosses may have been targeted for removal from spires and towers, while churches have also been bulldozed and numerous Christians arrested for protesting." 
  60. ↑ Zaimov, Stoyan (31 August 2017). "'Jesus Save Me!' Chinese Christians Shout as They Try to Save Church From Bulldozers" (in English). The Christian Post. http://www.christianpost.com/news/jesus-save-me-chinese-christians-shout-try-save-church-bulldozers-197478/. 
  61. ↑ "Chinese Catholics try to stop the demolition of their church in Changzhi, Shanxi (VIDEO)" (in English). AsiaNews. 29 August 2017. http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Chinese-Catholics-try-to-stop-the-demolition-of-their-church-in-Changzhi,-Shanxi-(VIDEO)-41637.html. 
  62. ↑ Shohret Hoshur (12 February 2018). "Xinjiang Authorities Launch Anti-Religion Campaign Through Local Police Stations" (in English). Radio Free Asia. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/campaign-02122018154124.html. 
  63. ↑ "Alarm over China's Church crackdown". BBC. 18 December 2018. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-46588650. "Among those arrested are a prominent pastor and his wife, of the Early Rain Covenant Church in Sichuan. Both have been charged with state subversion. And on Saturday morning, dozens of police raided a children's Bible class at Rongguili Church in Guangzhou. One Christian in Chengdu told the BBC: "I'm lucky they haven't found me yet." China is officially atheist, though says it allows religious freedom." 
  64. ↑ "Santa Claus won't be coming to this town, as Chinese officials ban Christmas" (in en). South China Morning Post. 18 December 2018. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2178532/santa-claus-wont-be-coming-town-chinese-officials-ban-christmas. "Christmas is not a recognised holiday in mainland China – where the ruling party is officially atheist – and for many years authorities have taken a tough stance on anyone who celebrates it in public. ... The statement by Langfang officials said that anyone who was caught selling Christmas trees, wreaths, stockings or Santa Claus figures in the city would be punished. ... While the ban on the sale of Christmas goods might appear to be directed at retailers, it also comes amid a crackdown on Christians who are practising their religion across the country. On Saturday morning, more than 60 police officers and officials stormed a children’s Bible class in Guangzhou, the capital of southern China’s Guangdong province. The incident came after authorities shut down the 1,500-member Zion Church in Beijing in September and Chengdu’s 500-member Early Rain Covenant Church last week. In the case of the latter, about 100 worshippers were snatched from their homes or from the streets in coordinated raids." 
  65. ↑ "China orders crackdown on large outdoor religious statues". Associated Press. 2018-05-26. https://apnews.com/5a9c70110c524804856897a091e79036. 
  66. ↑ "China orders crackdown on outdoor religious statues" (in en). The Week. May 26, 2018. https://www.theweek.in/news/world/2018/05/26/china-orders-crackdown-on-outdoor-religious-statues.html. 
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Parke, Caleb (23 March 2020). "In coronavirus fight, China hasn't stopped persecuting Christians: watchdog" (in English). Fox News. https://www.foxnews.com/world/coronavirus-china-update-christian-persecution-vom. 
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Klett, Leah MarieAnn (21 March 2020). "China demolishes church, removes crosses as Christians worship at home" (in English). The Christian Post. https://www.christianpost.com/news/china-demolishes-church-removes-crosses-as-christians-worship-at-home.html. 
  69. ↑ Lau, Mimi (September 6, 2020). "China doubles down against foreign teachers spreading Christianity". South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3100406/china-doubles-down-against-foreign-teachers-spreading. 
  70. ↑ Rob, Schmitz (May 3, 2019). "China Detains Hundreds Of Thousands Of Muslims In 'Training Centers'". https://www.npr.org/2019/05/03/719897164/china-detains-thousands-of-muslims-in-vocational-training-centers. 
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Beydoun, Khaled A.. "For China, Islam is a 'mental illness' that needs to be 'cured'" (in English). Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html. 
  72. ↑ "Xinjiang to crack down on 'three evil forces'". March 6, 2012. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-03/06/content_14766900.htm. 
  73. ↑ Sudworth, John (2019-07-04). "China separating Muslim children from families" (in en-GB). BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-48825090. 
  74. ↑ Feng, Emily (September 26, 2019). "'Afraid We Will Become The Next Xinjiang': China's Hui Muslims Face Crackdown". NPR. https://www.npr.org/2019/09/26/763356996/afraid-we-will-become-the-next-xinjiang-chinas-hui-muslims-face-crackdown. 
  75. ↑ Buckley, Chris; Ramzy, Austin (2020-09-25). "China Is Erasing Mosques and Precious Shrines in Xinjiang" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/09/25/world/asia/xinjiang-china-religious-site.html. 
  76. ↑ Myers, Steven Lee (2019-09-22). "A Crackdown on Islam Is Spreading Across China" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/21/world/asia/china-islam-crackdown.html. 
  77. ↑ Emily, Feng (September 26, 2019). "'Afraid We Will Become The Next Xinjiang': China's Hui Muslims Face Crackdown". NPR. https://www.npr.org/2019/09/26/763356996/afraid-we-will-become-the-next-xinjiang-chinas-hui-muslims-face-crackdown. 
  78. ↑ Feng, Emily (November 21, 2020). "China Targets Muslim Scholars And Writers With Increasingly Harsh Restrictions". NPR. https://www.npr.org/2020/11/21/932169863/china-targets-muslim-scholars-and-writers-with-increasingly-harsh-restrictions. 
  79. ↑ "Tiny Muslim community becomes latest target for China's religious crackdown" (in en). 2020-09-28. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3103253/tiny-muslim-community-chinas-far-south-becomes-latest-target. 
  80. ↑ Soliev, Nodirbek (2019). "Uyghur Violence and Jihadism in China and Beyond". Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 11 (1): 71–75. ISSN 2382-6444. 
  81. ↑ Kuo, Lily (17 November 2019). "'Show no mercy': leaked documents reveal details of China's Xinjiang detentions". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/17/show-no-mercy-leaked-documents-reveal-details-of-chinas-mass-xinjiang-detentions. 
  82. ↑ Miller, Dr Yvette Alt (2016-10-04). "China's Crackdown on the Jewish Community of Kaifeng" (in en). https://www.aish.com/jw/s/Chinas-Crackdown-on-the-Jewish-Community-of-Kaifeng.html. 
  83. ↑ "U.S. bolsters support for Taiwan and Tibet, angering China" (in en). Reuters. 2020-12-28. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-china-idUSKBN2920JZ. 
  84. ↑ "Trump signs Tibet policy to preempt Chinese move on Dalai Lama's succession". The Tribune. December 28, 2020. https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/world/trump-signs-tibet-policy-to-preempt-chinese-move-on-dalai-lamas-succession-190543. 

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