Baptism

Baptism (from Koinē Greek: βάπτισμα, romanized: váptisma, lit. 'immersion, dipping in water')^[1] is a Christian rite of initiation almost invariably with the use of water.^[2][3] It may be performed by sprinkling or pouring water on the head, or immersing in water (partially or completely), traditionally three times for each person of the Trinity.^[4][5][6] It is also called christening,^[7][8] although this is typically reserved for the baptism of infants.^[9] Baptism is regarded as a sacrament in most churches and an ordinance in others, with the synoptic gospels recounting that John the Baptist baptized Jesus.^{[10][11][12][13]}

Baptism according to the Trinitarian formula, which is done in most mainstream Christian denominations, is seen as being a basis for Christian ecumenism, the concept of unity amongst Christians.^[14][15][16] In certain Christian denominations, such as the Catholic Churches, Eastern Orthodox Churches, Oriental Orthodox Churches, Assyrian Church of the East, and Lutheran Churches, baptism is the door to church membership, with candidates taking baptismal vows.^[17][18] It has also given its name to the Baptist churches and denominations.

Certain schools of Christian thought (such as Catholic and Lutheran theology) regard baptism as necessary for salvation (though not without exception^[19]), but some writers, such as Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531), have denied its necessity.^[20] Though water baptism is extremely common among Christian denominations, some, such as Quakers and The Salvation Army, do not practice water baptism at all.^[21] Among denominations that practice baptism, differences occur in the manner and mode of baptizing and in the understanding of the significance of the rite. Most Christians baptize using the Trinitarian formula "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit"^[22] (following the Great Commission), but Oneness Pentecostals baptize using Jesus' name only.^[23] The majority of Christians baptize infants;^{[lower-alpha 1]} many others, such as Baptist Churches, regard only believer's baptism as true baptism.^[24] In certain denominations, such as the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches, the individual being baptized receives a cross necklace that is worn for the rest of their life, inspired by the Third Council of Constantinople.^[25][26]

Outside of Christianity, Mandaeans undergo repeated baptism for purification instead of initiation.^[27] They consider John the Baptist to be their greatest prophet and name all rivers yardena after the Jordan River.^{[27][28][29]: 45}

The term baptism has also been used metaphorically to refer to any ceremony, trial, or experience by which a person is initiated, purified, or given a name.^[30] Martyrdom was identified early in Christian church history as "baptism by blood", enabling the salvation of martyrs who had not been baptized by water. Later, the Catholic Church identified a baptism of desire, by which those preparing for baptism who die before actually receiving the sacrament are considered saved.^[31] In the Methodist tradition, Baptism with the Holy Spirit, has referred to the second work of grace, entire sanctification; in Pentecostalism, the term Baptism with the Holy Spirit is identified with speaking in tongues.^[32]

The English word baptism is derived indirectly through Latin from the neuter Greek concept noun báptisma (Greek βάπτισμα, 'washing, dipping'),^{[lower-alpha 2][33]} which is a neologism in the New Testament derived from the masculine Greek noun baptismós (βαπτισμός), a term for ritual washing in Greek language texts of Hellenistic Judaism during the Second Temple period, such as the Septuagint.^[34][35] Both of these nouns are derived from the verb baptízō (βαπτίζω, 'I wash' transitive verb), which is used in Jewish texts for ritual washing, and in the New Testament both for ritual washing and also for the apparently new rite of báptisma.

The Greek verb báptō (βάπτω), 'dip', from which the verb baptízō is derived, is in turn hypothetically traced to a reconstructed Indo-European root *gʷabh-, 'dip'.^[36][37][38]

The Greek words are used in a great variety of meanings.^[39] βάπτω and βαπτίζω in Hellenism had the general usage of "immersion", "going under" (as a material in a liquid dye) or "perishing" (as in a ship sinking or a person drowning), with the same double meanings as in English "to sink into" or "to be overwhelmed by", with bathing or washing only occasionally used and usually in sacral contexts.^[40]

The practice of baptism emerged from Jewish ritualistic practices during the Second Temple Period from which figures such as John the Baptist emerged. For example, various texts in the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) corpus at Qumran describe ritual practices involving washing, bathing, sprinkling, and immersing. One example of such a text is a DSS known as the Rule of the Community, which says "And by the compliance of his soul with all the laws of God his flesh is cleansed by being sprinkled with cleansing waters and being made holy with the waters of repentance."^[41]

The Mandaeans, who are followers of John the Baptist, practice frequent full immersion baptism (masbuta) as a ritual of purification.^[42] According to Mandaean sources, they left the Jordan Valley in the 1st century AD.^[43]

John the Baptist, who is considered a forerunner to Christianity, used baptism as the central sacrament of his messianic movement.^[44] The apostle Paul distinguished between the baptism of John, ("baptism of repentance") and baptism in the name of Jesus,^[45] and it is questionable whether Christian baptism was in some way linked with that of John.^[46] However, according to Mark 1:8, John seems to connect his water baptism as a type of the true, ultimate baptism of Jesus, which is by the Spirit. Christians consider Jesus to have instituted the sacrament of baptism.^[20]

Though some form of immersion was likely the most common method of baptism in the early church, many of the writings from the ancient church appeared to view this mode of baptism as inconsequential. The Didache 7.1–3 (AD 60–150) allowed for affusion practices in situations where immersion was not practical. Likewise, Tertullian (AD 196–212) allowed for varying approaches to baptism even if those practices did not conform to biblical or traditional mandates (cf. De corona militis 3; De baptismo 17). Finally, Cyprian (ca. AD 256) explicitly stated that the amount of water was inconsequential and defended immersion, affusion, and aspersion practices (Epistle 75.12). As a result, there was no uniform or consistent mode of baptism in the ancient church prior to the fourth century.^[47]

By the third and fourth centuries, baptism involved catechetical instruction as well as chrismation, exorcisms, laying on of hands, and recitation of a creed.^[48]

In the Early Middle Ages infant baptism became common and the rite was significantly simplified and increasingly emphasized.^[49][50] In Western Europe Affusion became the normal mode of baptism between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries, though immersion was still practiced into the sixteenth.^[51] In the medieval period, some radical Christians rejected the practice of baptism as a sacrament. Sects such as the Tondrakians, Cathars, Arnoldists, Petrobrusians, Henricans, Brethren of the Free Spirit and the Lollards were regarded as heretics by the Catholic Church. In the sixteenth century, Martin Luther retained baptism as a sacrament,^[52] but Swiss reformer Huldrych Zwingli considered baptism and the Lord's Supper to be symbolic.^[20] Anabaptists denied the validity of the practice of infant baptism, and rebaptized converts.^[53]

Baptism is practiced in several different ways. Aspersion is the sprinkling of water on the head, and affusion is the pouring of water over the head.^[4] Traditionally, a person is sprinkled, poured, or immersed three times for each person of the Holy Trinity, with this ancient Christian practice called trine baptism or triune baptism.^[4][6] The Didache specifies:

This is how you should baptize: Having recited all these things, [the first half of the Teaching, "The Way of Life and the Way of Death"] baptize in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, in running water. If you do not have running water, then baptize in still water. The water should be cold, but if you do not have cold water, then use warm. If you have neither, then just pour water on the head three times in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Both the one who is baptized and the one who baptizes should fast beforehand, along with any others who are able, the one that is baptized being told to fast for a day or two.^[54]

The word "immersion" is derived from late Latin immersio, a noun derived from the verb immergere (in – "into" + mergere "dip"). In relation to baptism, some use the term to refer to any form of dipping, whether the body is put completely under water or only partially dipped in water. They thus speak of immersion as being either total or partial. Others, particularly within the Anabaptist traditions, use "immersion" to refer exclusively to plunging someone entirely under the surface of the water.^[55][56] The term "immersion" is also used of a form of baptism in which water is poured over someone standing in water, without fully submerging the person.^[57][58] For the three different meanings of the word "immersion", see Immersion baptism.

When "immersion" is used in opposition to "submersion",^[59] it indicates the form of baptism in which the candidate stands or kneels in water and water is poured over the upper part of the body. Immersion in this sense has been employed in West and East since at least the 2nd century and is the form in which baptism is generally depicted in early Christian art. In the West, this method of baptism began to be replaced by affusion baptism from around the 8th century, but it continues in use in Eastern Christianity.^[57][58][60]

The word submersion comes from the late Latin (sub- "under, below" + mergere "plunge, dip")^[61] and is also sometimes called "complete immersion". It is the form of baptism in which the water completely covers the candidate's body. Submersion is practiced in the Orthodox and several other Eastern Churches.^[62] In the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, baptism by submersion is used in the Ambrosian Rite and is one of the methods provided in the Roman Rite of the baptism of infants.^[63] It is seen as obligatory among some groups that have arisen since the Protestant Reformation, such as Baptists.^[64]

The Greek-English Lexicon of Liddell and Scott gives the primary meaning of the verb baptízein, from which the English verb "baptize" is derived, as "dip, plunge", and gives examples of plunging a sword into a throat or an embryo and for drawing wine by dipping a cup in the bowl; for New Testament usage it gives two meanings: "baptize", with which it associates the Septuagint mention of Naaman dipping himself in the Jordan River, and "perform ablutions", as in Luke 11:38.^[65]

Although the Greek verb baptízein does not exclusively mean dip, plunge or immerse (it is used with literal and figurative meanings such as "sink", "disable", "overwhelm", "go under", "overborne", "draw from a bowl"),^[65][66] lexical sources typically cite this as a meaning of the word in both the Septuagint^[67][68][69] and the New Testament.^[70]

A. N. S. Lane wrote "While it is true that the basic root meaning of the Greek words for baptize and baptism is immerse/immersion, it is not true that the words can simply be reduced to this meaning, as can be seen from Mark 10:38–39, Luke 12:50, Matthew 3:11, Luke 3:16, and Corinthians 10:2."^[71]

Two passages in the Gospels indicate that the verb baptízein did not always indicate submersion. The first is Luke 11:38, which tells how a Pharisee, at whose house Jesus ate, "was astonished to see that he did not first wash (ἐβαπτίσθη, aorist passive of βαπτίζω—literally, "was baptized") before dinner". This is the passage that Liddell and Scott cites as an instance of the use of βαπτίζω to mean perform ablutions. Jesus' omission of this action is similar to that of his disciples: "Then came to Jesus scribes and Pharisees, which were of Jerusalem, saying, Why do thy disciples transgress the tradition of the elders? for they wash (νίπτω) not their hands when they eat bread".^[72] The other Gospel passage pointed to is: "The Pharisees ... do not eat unless they wash (νίπτω, the ordinary word for washing) their hands thoroughly, observing the tradition of the elders; and when they come from the market place, they do not eat unless they wash themselves (literally, "baptize themselves"—βαπτίσωνται, passive or middle voice of βαπτίζω)".^[73]

Scholars of various denominations^[74][75][76] claim that these two passages show that invited guests, or people returning from market, would not be expected to immerse themselves ("baptize themselves") totally in water but only to practice the partial immersion of dipping their hands in water or to pour water over them, as is the only form admitted by present Jewish custom.^[77] In the second of the two passages, it is actually the hands that are specifically identified as "washed",^[78] not the entire person, for whom the verb used is baptízomai, literally "be baptized", "be immersed",^[79] a fact obscured by English versions that use "wash" as a translation of both verbs. Zodhiates concludes that the washing of the hands was done by immersing them.^[80] The Liddell–Scott–Jones Greek-English Lexicon (1996) cites the other passage (Luke 11:38) as an instance of the use of the verb baptízein to mean "perform ablutions", not "submerge".^[81] References to the cleaning of vessels which use βαπτίζω also refer to immersion.^[82]

As already mentioned, the lexicographical work of Zodhiates says that, in the second of these two cases,^[83] the verb baptízein indicates that, after coming from the market, the Pharisees washed their hands by immersing them in collected water.^[80] Balz & Schneider understand the meaning of βαπτίζω, used in place of ῥαντίσωνται (sprinkle), to be the same as βάπτω, to dip or immerse,^[84][85][86] a verb used of the partial dipping of a morsel held in the hand into wine or of a finger into spilled blood.^[87]

A possible additional use of the verb baptízein to relate to ritual washing is suggested by Peter Leithart (2007) who suggests that Paul's phrase "Else what shall they do who are baptized for the dead?"^[88] relates to Jewish ritual washing.^[89] In Jewish Greek the verb baptízein "baptized" has a wider reference than just "baptism" and in Jewish context primarily applies to the masculine noun baptismós "ritual washing"^[90]

The verb baptízein occurs four times in the Septuagint in the context of ritual washing, baptismós; Judith cleansing herself from menstrual impurity, Naaman washing seven times to be cleansed from leprosy, etc.^[91]

Additionally, in the New Testament only, the verb baptízein can also relate to the neuter noun báptisma "baptism" which is a neologism unknown in the Septuagint and other pre-Christian Jewish texts.^[92]

This broadness in the meaning of baptízein is reflected in English Bibles rendering "wash", where Jewish ritual washing is meant: for example Mark 7:4 states that the Pharisees "except they wash (Greek "baptize"), they do not eat",^[93] and "baptize" where báptisma, the new Christian rite, is intended.^[94]

Two nouns derived from the verb baptízō (βαπτίζω) appear in the New Testament: the masculine noun baptismós (βαπτισμός) and the neuter noun báptisma (βάπτισμα):

• baptismós (βαπτισμός) refers in Mark 7:4 to a water-rite for the purpose of purification, washing, cleansing, of dishes;^[95][96] in the same verse and in Hebrews 9:10 to Levitical cleansings of vessels or of the body;^[97] and in Hebrews 6:2 perhaps also to baptism, though there it may possibly refer to washing an inanimate object.^[96] According to Spiros Zodhiates when referring merely to the cleansing of utensils baptismós (βαπτισμός) is equated with rhantismós (ῥαντισμός, "sprinkling"), found only in Hebrews 12:24 and Peter 1:2, a noun used to indicate the symbolic cleansing by the Old Testament priest.^[80]
• báptisma (βάπτισμα), which is a neologism appearing to originate in the New Testament, and probably should not be confused with the earlier Jewish concept of baptismós (βαπτισμός),^[98] Later this is found only in writings by Christians.^[95] In the New Testament, it appears at least 21 times:
  • 13 times with regard to the rite practiced by John the Baptist;^[99]
  • 3 times with reference to the specific Christian rite^[100] (4 times if account is taken of its use in some manuscripts of Colossians 2:12, where, however, it is most likely to have been changed from the original baptismós than vice versa);^[101]
  • 5 times in a metaphorical sense.^[102]
• Manuscript variation: In Colossians, some manuscripts have neuter noun báptisma (βάπτισμα), but some have masculine noun baptismós (βαπτισμός), and this is the reading given in modern critical editions of the New Testament.^[103] If this reading is correct, then this is the only New Testament instance in which baptismós (βαπτισμός) is clearly used of Christian baptism, rather than of a generic washing, unless the opinion of some is correct that Hebrews 6:2 may also refer to Christian baptism.^[96]
• The feminine noun baptisis,^[104] along with the masculine noun baptismós^[105] both occur in Josephus's Antiquities (J. AJ 18.5.2) relating to the murder of John the Baptist by Herod.^[106][107] This feminine form is not used elsewhere by Josephus, nor in the New Testament.^[108]

Until the Middle Ages, most baptisms were performed with the candidates naked—as is evidenced by most of the early portrayals of baptism (some of which are shown in this article), and the early Church Fathers and other Christian writers. Deaconesses helped female candidates for reasons of modesty.^[109]

Typical of these is Cyril of Jerusalem who wrote "On the Mysteries of Baptism" in the 4th century (c. 350 AD):

Do you not know, that so many of us as were baptized into Jesus Christ, were baptized into His death? ... for you are not under the Law, but under grace.

1. Therefore, I shall necessarily lay before you the sequel of yesterday's Lecture, that you may learn of what those things, which were done by you in the inner chamber, were symbolic.

2. As soon, then, as you entered, you put off your tunic; and this was an image of putting off the old man with his deeds.^[110] Having stripped yourselves, you were naked; in this also imitating Christ, who was stripped naked on the Cross, and by His nakedness put off from Himself the principalities and powers, and openly triumphed over them on the tree. For since the adverse powers made their lair in your members, you may no longer wear that old garment; I do not at all mean this visible one, but the old man, which waxes corrupt in the lusts of deceit.^[111] May the soul which has once put him off, never again put him on, but say with the Spouse of Christ in the Song of Songs, I have put off my garment, how shall I put it on?^[112] O wondrous thing! You were naked in the sight of all, and were not ashamed; for truly ye bore the likeness of the first-formed Adam, who was naked in the garden, and was not ashamed.

3. Then, when you were stripped, you were anointed with exorcised oil, from the very hairs of your head to your feet, and were made partakers of the good olive-tree, Jesus Christ.

4. After these things, you were led to the holy pool of Divine Baptism, as Christ was carried from the Cross to the Sepulchre which is before our eyes. And each of you was asked, whether he believed in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, and you made that saving confession, and descended three times into the water, and ascended again; here also hinting by a symbol at the three days burial of Christ ... And at the self-same moment you were both dying and being born;^[113]

The symbolism is threefold:

1. Baptism is considered to be a form of rebirth—"by water and the Spirit"^[114]—the nakedness of baptism (the second birth) paralleled the condition of one's original birth. For example, John Chrysostom calls the baptism "λοχείαν", i.e., giving birth, and "new way of creation ... from water and Spirit" ("to John" speech 25,2), and later elaborates:

For nothing perceivable was handed over to us by Jesus; but with perceivable things, all of them however conceivable. This is also the way with the baptism; the gift of the water is done with a perceivable thing, but the things being conducted, i.e., the rebirth and renovation, are conceivable. For, if you were without a body, He would hand over these bodiless gifts as naked [gifts] to you. But because the soul is closely linked to the body, He hands over the perceivable ones to you with conceivable things. (Chrysostom to Matthew, speech 82, 4, c. 390 A.D.)

2. The removal of clothing represented the "image of putting off the old man with his deeds" (as per Cyril, above), so the stripping of the body before for baptism represented taking off the trappings of sinful self, so that the "new man", which is given by Jesus, can be put on.

3. As Cyril again asserts above, as Adam and Eve in scripture were naked, innocent and unashamed in the Garden of Eden, nakedness during baptism was seen as a renewal of that innocence and state of original sinlessness. Other parallels can also be drawn, such as between the exposed condition of Christ during His crucifixion, and the crucifixion of the "old man" of the repentant sinner in preparation for baptism.

In certain Christian denominations, the individual being baptized receives a cross necklace that is worn for the rest of their life as a "sign of the triumph of Christ over death and our belonging to Christ" (though it is replaced with a new cross pendant if lost or broken).^[25][26] This practice of baptized Christians wearing a cross necklace at all times is derived from Canon 73 and Canon 82 of the Sixth Ecumenical Council (Synod) of Constantinople, which declared:

... all the Church (Sunday) School children [must] wear a cross knowing how spiritually beneficial it is for them. By wearing a cross the child is protected from evil forces, it invites the grace of the Holy Cross of Christ, it brings His Divine blessing upon the child, it gives the child a sense that he or she belongs to Christ, that he or she has a special identity, that of a Christian, it is a reminder that Christ is always with him/her, it reminds the child that Jesus died on the Cross to save him/her, that Jesus Christ is our Only Savior and the True God. By wearing a cross the child feels the love of God and gives the child hope and strength to overcome any obstacle in his or her life.^[26]

There are differences in views about the effect of baptism for a Christian. Catholics, Orthodox, and most mainline Protestant groups assert baptism is a requirement for salvation and a sacrament, and speak of "baptismal regeneration".^[115] Its importance is related to their interpretation of the meaning of the "Mystical Body of Christ" as found in the New Testament.^[116] This view is shared by the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox denominations, and by churches formed early during the Protestant Reformation such as Lutheran and Anglican.^[117] For example, Martin Luther said:

To put it most simply, the power, effect, benefit, fruit, and purpose of Baptism is to save. No one is baptized in order to become a prince, but as the words say, to "be saved". To be saved, we know, is nothing else than to be delivered from sin, death, and the devil and to enter into the kingdom of Christ and live with him forever.

The Churches of Christ,"^{[118]: 66 [119]: 112} Jehovah's Witnesses, Christadelphians, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints espouse baptism as necessary for salvation.^{[120][121][122]}

For Catholics, baptism by water is a sacrament of initiation into the life of the children of God (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1212–13). It configures the person to Christ (CCC 1272), and obliges the Christian to share in the church's apostolic and missionary activity (CCC 1270). The Catholic holds that there are three types of baptism by which one can be saved: sacramental baptism (with water), baptism of desire (explicit or implicit desire to be part of the church founded by Jesus Christ), and baptism of blood (martyrdom). In his encyclical Mystici corporis Christi of June 29, 1943, Pope Pius XII spoke of baptism and profession of the true faith as what makes members of the one true church, which is the body of Jesus Christ himself, as God the Holy Spirit has taught through the Apostle Paul:

18 ... Through the waters of Baptism those who are born into this world dead in sin are not only born again and made members of the Church, but being stamped with a spiritual seal they become able and fit to receive the other Sacraments. ...

22 Actually only those are to be included as members of the Church who have been baptized and profess the true faith, and who have not been so unfortunate as to separate themselves from the unity of the Body, or been excluded by legitimate authority for grave faults committed. 'For in one spirit' says the Apostle, 'were we all baptized into one Body, whether Jews or Gentiles, whether bond or free.' As therefore in the true Christian community there is only one Body, one Spirit, one Lord, and one Baptism, so there can be only one faith. And therefore if a man refuse to hear the Church let him be considered—so the Lord commands—as a heathen and a publican. It follows that those who are divided in faith or government cannot be living in the unity of such a Body, nor can they be living the life of its one Divine Spirit.

By contrast, Anabaptist and Evangelical Protestants recognize baptism as an outward sign of an inward reality following on an individual believer's experience of forgiving grace. Reformed and Methodist Protestants maintain a link between baptism and regeneration, but believe that it is not automatic or mechanical, and that regeneration may occur at a different time than baptism.^[124] Churches of Christ teach that in baptism a believer surrenders his life in faith and obedience to God, and that God "by the merits of Christ's blood, cleanses one from sin and truly changes the state of the person from an alien to a citizen of God's kingdom. Baptism is not a human work; it is the place where God does the work that only God can do."^{[118]: p.66} Thus, they see baptism as a passive act of faith rather than a meritorious work; it "is a confession that a person has nothing to offer God".^{[119]: p. 112}

The liturgy of baptism for Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Lutherans, Anglicans, and Methodists makes clear reference to baptism as not only a symbolic burial and resurrection, but an actual supernatural transformation, one that draws parallels to the experience of Noah and the passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea divided by Moses. Thus, baptism is literally and symbolically not only cleansing, but also dying and rising again with Christ. Catholics believe baptism is necessary to cleanse the taint of original sin, and so commonly baptize infants.^[125]

The Eastern Churches (Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy) also baptize infants on the basis of texts, such as Matthew 19:14, which are interpreted as supporting full church membership for children. In these denominations, baptism is immediately followed by Chrismation and Communion at the next Divine Liturgy, regardless of age. Orthodox likewise believe that baptism removes what they call the ancestral sin of Adam.^[126] Anglicans believe that baptism is also the entry into the church. Most Methodists and Anglicans agree that it also cleanses the taint of what in the West is called original sin, in the East ancestral sin.

Eastern Orthodox Christians usually practice complete threefold immersion as both a symbol of death and rebirth into Christ, and as a washing away of sin. Latin Church Catholics generally baptize by affusion (pouring); Eastern Catholics usually by submersion, or at least partial immersion. However, submersion is gaining in popularity within the Latin Church. In newer church sanctuaries, the baptismal font may be designed to expressly allow for baptism by immersion.^[127] Anglicans baptize by immersion or affusion.^[128][129]

According to evidence which can be traced back to about the year 200,^[130] sponsors or godparents are present at baptism and vow to uphold the Christian education and life of the baptized.^[131]

Baptists argue that the Greek word βαπτίζω originally meant "to immerse". They interpret some Biblical passages concerning baptism as requiring submersion of the body in water.^[132] They also state that only submersion reflects the symbolic significance of being "buried" and "raised" with Christ.^{[133][non-primary source needed]} Baptist Churches baptize in the name of the Trinity—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. However, they do not believe that baptism is necessary for salvation; but rather that it is an act of Christian obedience.^[134]

Some "Full Gospel" charismatic churches such as Oneness Pentecostals baptize only in the name of Jesus Christ, citing Peter's preaching baptism in the name of Jesus as their authority.^{[135][non-primary source needed]}

In 1982 the World Council of Churches published the ecumenical paper Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry. The preface of the document states:

Those who know how widely the churches have differed in doctrine and practice on baptism, Eucharist and ministry, will appreciate the importance of the large measure of agreement registered here. Virtually all the confessional traditions are included in the Commission's membership. That theologians of such widely different denominations should be able to speak so harmoniously about baptism, Eucharist and ministry is unprecedented in the modern ecumenical movement. Particularly noteworthy is the fact that the Commission also includes among its full members theologians of the Catholic and other churches which do not belong to the World Council of Churches itself.^[136]

A 1997 document, Becoming a Christian: The Ecumenical Implications of Our Common Baptism, gave the views of a commission of experts brought together under the aegis of the World Council of Churches. It states:^[131]

... according to Acts 2:38, baptisms follow from Peter's preaching baptism in the name of Jesus and lead those baptized to the receiving of Christ's Spirit, the Holy Ghost, and life in the community: "They devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers"^[137] as well as to the distribution of goods to those in need.^{[138][non-primary source needed]}

Those who heard, who were baptized and entered the community's life, were already made witnesses of and partakers in the promises of God for the last days: the forgiveness of sins through baptism in the name of Jesus and the outpouring of the Holy Ghost on all flesh.^[135] Similarly, in what may well be a baptismal pattern, 1 Peter testifies that proclamation of the resurrection of Jesus Christ and teaching about new life^[139] lead to purification and new birth.^[140] This, in turn, is followed by eating and drinking God's food,^[141] by participation in the life of the community—the royal priesthood, the new temple, the people of God^[142]—and by further moral formation.^[143] At the beginning of 1 Peter the writer sets this baptism in the context of obedience to Christ and sanctification by the Spirit.^[144] So baptism into Christ is seen as baptism into the Spirit.^[145] In the fourth gospel Jesus' discourse with Nicodemus indicates that birth by water and Spirit becomes the gracious means of entry into the place where God rules.^[114][146]

The vast majority of Christian denominations believe theologically that baptism is a sacrament, that has actual spiritual, holy and salvific effects. Certain key criteria must be complied with for it to be valid, i.e., to actually have those effects. If these key criteria are met, violation of some rules regarding baptism, such as varying the authorized rite for the ceremony, renders the baptism illicit (contrary to the church's laws) but still valid.^[147]

One of the criteria for validity is use of the correct form of words. The Catholic Church teaches that the use of the verb "to baptize" is essential.^[51] Catholics of the Latin Church, Anglicans and Methodists use the form "I baptize you in the name of ...". The passive voice is used by Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholics, the form being "The Servant of God is baptized in the name of ...".^[148]

Use of the Trinitarian formula ("in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit") is also considered essential; thus these churches do not accept as valid baptisms of non-Trinitarian churches such as Oneness Pentecostals.^[149]

Another essential condition is use of water. A baptism in which some liquid that would not usually be called water, such as wine, milk, soup or fruit juice, was used would not be considered valid.^[150]

Another requirement is that the celebrant intends to perform baptism. This requirement entails the intention "to do what the Church does",^[151] not necessarily to have Christian faith, since it is not the person baptizing, but the Holy Spirit working through the sacrament, who produces the effects of the sacrament. Doubt about the faith of the baptizer is thus no ground for doubt about the validity of the baptism.^[152]

Some conditions expressly do not affect validity—for example, whether submersion, immersion, affusion (pouring) or aspersion (sprinkling) is used.^[153] However, if water is sprinkled, there is a danger that the water may not touch the skin of the unbaptized. As has been stated, "it is not sufficient for the water to merely touch the candidate; it must also flow, otherwise there would seem to be no real ablution. At best, such a baptism would be considered doubtful. If the water touches only the hair, the sacrament has probably been validly conferred, though in practice the safer course must be followed. If only the clothes of the person have received the aspersion, the baptism is undoubtedly void."^[150] For many communions, validity is not affected if a single submersion or pouring is performed rather than a triple, but in Orthodoxy this is controversial. According to the Catholic Church, baptism imparts an indelible "seal" upon the soul of the baptized and therefore a person who has already been baptized cannot be validly baptized again. This teaching was affirmed against the Donatists who practiced rebaptism. The grace received in baptism is believed to operate ex opere operato and is therefore considered valid even if administered in heretical or schismatic groups.^[154]

The Catholic, Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican, Presbyterian, and Methodist Churches accept baptism performed by other denominations within this group as valid, subject to certain conditions, including the use of the Trinitarian formula.^[155] It is only possible to be baptized once, so people with valid baptisms from other denominations may not be baptized again upon conversion or transfer. For Catholics, this is affirmed in the Canon Law 864,^[156] in which it is written that "[e]very person not yet baptized and only such a person is capable of baptism."^[157] Such people are accepted upon making a profession of faith, and if they have not yet validly received the sacrament/rite of confirmation or chrismation, by being confirmed. Specifically, "Methodist theologians argued that since God never abrogated a covenant made and sealed with proper intentionality, rebaptism was never an option, unless the original baptism had been defective by not having been made in the name of the Trinity."^[158] In some cases, it can be difficult to decide if the original baptism was in fact valid; if there is doubt, conditional baptism is administered, with a formula on the lines of "If you are not yet baptized, I baptize you ...".^[159][160]

The Catholic Church ordinarily recognizes as valid the baptisms of Christians of the Eastern Orthodox, Churches of Christ, Congregationalist, Anglican, Lutheran, Old Catholic, Polish National Catholic, Reformed, Baptist, Brethren, Methodist, Presbyterian, Waldensian, and United Protestant denominations; Christians of these traditions are received into the Catholic Church through the sacrament of Confirmation.^[161] Some individuals of the Mennonite, Pentecostal and Adventist traditions who wish to be received into the Catholic Church may be required to receive a conditional baptism due to concerns^[which?] about the validity of the sacraments in those traditions.^[161] The Catholic Church has explicitly denied the validity of the baptism conferred in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.^[162]

The Reformed Churches recognize as valid, baptisms administered in the Catholic Church, among other churches using the Trinitarian formula.^[163][164]

Practice in the Eastern Orthodox Church for converts from other communions is not uniform. However, generally, baptisms performed in the name of the Holy Trinity are accepted by the Orthodox Christian Church; Christians of the Oriental Orthodox, Catholic, Lutheran, Old Catholic, Moravian, Anglican, Methodist, Reformed, Presbyterian, Brethren, Assemblies of God, or Baptist traditions can be received into the Eastern Orthodox Church through the sacrament of Chrismation.^[165] If a convert has not received the sacrament (mysterion) of baptism, he or she must be baptized in the name of the Holy Trinity before they may enter into communion with the Orthodox Church. If he or she has been baptized in another Christian confession (other than Orthodox Christianity) his or her previous baptism is considered retroactively filled with grace by chrismation or, in rare circumstances, confession of faith alone, as long as the baptism was done in the name of the Holy Trinity (Father, Son and Holy Spirit). The exact procedure is dependent on local canons and is the subject of some controversy. Oriental Orthodox Churches recognize the validity of baptisms performed within the Eastern Orthodox Communion. Some also recognize baptisms performed by Catholic Churches. Any supposed baptism not performed using the Trinitarian formula is considered invalid.^[166]

In the eyes of the Catholic Church, all Orthodox Churches, Anglican, and Lutheran Churches, the baptism conferred by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is invalid.^[167] An article published together with the official declaration to that effect gave reasons for that judgment, summed up in the following words: "The Baptism of the Catholic Church and that of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints differ essentially, both for what concerns faith in the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, in whose name Baptism is conferred, and for what concerns the relationship to Christ who instituted it."^[168]

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints stresses that baptism must be administered by one having proper authority; consequently, the church does not recognize the baptism of any other church as effective.^[169]

Jehovah's Witnesses do not recognise any other baptism occurring after 1914^[170] as valid,^[171] as they believe that they are now the one true church of Christ,^[172] and that the rest of "Christendom" is false religion.^[173]

There is debate among Christian churches as to who can administer baptism. Some claim that the examples given in the New Testament only show apostles and deacons administering baptism. Ancient Christian churches interpret this as indicating that baptism should be performed by the clergy except in extremis, i.e., when the one being baptized is in immediate danger of death.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". There are some Christians termed "Hyperdispensationalists" (Mid-Acts dispensationalism) who accept only Paul's Epistles as directly applicable for the church today. They do not accept water baptism as a practice for the church since Paul who was God's apostle to the nations was not sent to baptize. Ultradispensationalists (Acts 28 dispensationalism) who do not accept the practice of the Lord's supper, do not practice baptism because these are not found in the Prison Epistles.^[281] Both sects believe water baptism was a valid practice for covenant Israel. Hyperdispensationalists also teach that Peter's gospel message was not the same as Paul's.^[282] Hyperdispensationalists assert: * The great commission^[283] and its baptism is directed to early Jewish believers, not the Gentile believers of mid-Acts or later.

• The baptism of Acts 2:36–38 is Peter's call for Israel to repent of complicity in the death of their Messiah; not as a Gospel announcement of atonement for sin, a later doctrine revealed by Paul.

Water baptism found early in the Book of Acts is, according to this view, now supplanted by the one baptism^[145]Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". foretold by John the Baptist.^[284]Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". OthersLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". make a distinction between John's prophesied baptism by Christ with the Holy Spirit and the Holy Spirit's baptism of the believer into the body of Christ; the latter being the one baptism for today.{{citation needed|date=February 2021} erted,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". is the "baptism of the Holy Spirit" of the believer into the Body of Christ church.^[285]Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

Many in this groupLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". also argue that John's promised baptism by fire is pending, referring to the destruction of the world by fire.^[286]Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

Other HyperdispensationalistsLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". believe that baptism was necessary until mid-Acts.

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Most Christian churches see baptism as a once-in-a-lifetime event that can be neither repeated nor undone. They hold that those who have been baptized remain baptized, even if they renounce the Christian faith by adopting a non-Christian religion or by rejecting religion entirely. But some other organizations and individuals are practicing debaptism.^[287]

A comparative summary of the practice of baptism throughout various Christian denominations is given below.^{[288] [289][290]} (This section does not give a complete listing of denominations, and therefore, it only mentions a fraction of the churches practicing "believer's baptism".)

The word "baptism" or "christening" is sometimes used to describe the naming or inauguration of certain objects for use.^[340]

Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Baptism of Ships: since at least the time of the Crusades, rituals have contained a blessing for ships. The priest asks God to bless the vessel and protect those who sail on it. The ship is usually sprinkled with holy water.^[51]

The name Baptism of Bells has been given to the blessing of (musical, especially church) bells, at least in France, since the 11th century. It is derived from the washing of the bell with holy water by the bishop, before he anoints it with the oil of the infirm without and with chrism within; a fuming censer is placed under it and the bishop prays that these sacramentals of the church may, at the sound of the bell, put the demons to flight, protect from storms, and call the faithful to prayer.^[341]

"Baptism of Dolls": the custom of 'dolly dunking' was once a common practice in parts of the United Kingdom, particularly in Cornwall where it has been revived in recent years.^[342]

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Many scholars have drawn parallels between rites from mystery religions and baptism in Christianity. Apuleius, a 2nd-century Roman writer, described an initiation into the mysteries of Isis. The initiation was preceded by a normal bathing in the public baths and a ceremonial sprinkling by the priest of Isis, after which the candidate was given secret instructions in the temple of the goddess. The candidate then fasted for ten days from meat and wine, after which he was dressed in linen and led at night into the innermost part of the sanctuary, where the actual initiation took place, the details of which were secret. On the next two days, dressed in the robes of his consecration, he participated in feasting.^[343] Apuleius describes also an initiation into the cult of Osiris and yet a third initiation, of the same pattern as the initiation into the cult of Isis, without mention of a preliminary bathing.^[344] The water-less initiations of Lucius, the character in Apuleius's story who had been turned into an ass and changed back by Isis into human form, into the successive degrees of the rites of the goddess was accomplished only after a significant period of study to demonstrate his loyalty and trustworthiness, akin to catechumenal practices preceding baptism in Christianity.^[345]

Jan Bremmer has written on the putative connection between rites from mystery religions and baptism:

There are thus some verbal parallels between early Christianity and the Mysteries, but the situation is rather different as regards early Christian ritual practice. Much ink was spilled around 1900 arguing that the rituals of baptism and of the Last Supper derived from the ancient Mysteries, but Nock and others after him have easily shown that these attempts grossly misinterpreted the sources. Baptism is clearly rooted in Jewish purificatory rituals, and cult meals are so widespread in antiquity that any specific derivation is arbitrary. It is truly surprising to see how long the attempts to find some pagan background to these two Christian sacraments have persevered. Secularizing ideologies clearly played an important part in these interpretations but, nevertheless, they have helped to clarify the relations between nascent Christianity and its surroundings.^[346]

Thus the practice is derivative, whether from Judaism, the Mysteries or a combination (see the reference to Hellenistic Judaism in the Etymology section.)

The Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica, or Gnostic Catholic Church (the ecclesiastical arm of Ordo Templi Orientis), offers its Rite of Baptism to any person at least 11 years old.^[347]

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Mandaeans revere John the Baptist and practice frequent baptism (masbuta) as a ritual of purification, not of initiation. They are possibly the earliest people to practice baptism.^[27] Mandaeans undergo baptism on Sundays (Habshaba), wearing a white sacral robe (rasta). Baptism for Mandaeans consists of a triple full immersion in water, a triple signing of the forehead with water and a triple drinking of water. The priest (Rabbi) then removes a ring made of myrtle worn by the baptized and places it on their forehead. This is then followed by a handshake (kushta, "hand of truth") with the priest. The final blessing involves the priest laying his right hand on the baptized person's head.^{[42]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".} Living water (fresh, natural, flowing water)^[42] is a requirement for baptism, therefore can only take place in rivers. All rivers are named Jordan (yardena) and are believed to be nourished by the World of Light. By the river bank, a Mandaean's forehead is anointed with sesame oil (misha) and partakes in a communion of bread (pihta) and water. Baptism for Mandaeans allows for salvation by connecting with the World of Light and for forgiveness of sins.^{[348][349][350]}

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The Sethian baptismal rite is known as the Five Seals, in which the initiate is immersed five times in running water.^[351]

Yazidi baptism is called mor kirin (literally: "to seal"). Traditionally, Yazidi children are baptized at birth with water from the Kaniya Sipî ("White Spring") at Lalish. It essentially consists of pouring holy water from the spring on the child's head three times.^[352][353]

Many Islamic scholars such as Shaikh Bawa Muhaiyaddeen have compared the Islamic practice of wudu to a baptism.^[354] Wudu is a practice that Muslims practice to go from ritual impurity to ritual purity. Ritual purity is required for Salah (praying) and also to hold a physical copy of the Qur’an,^[355] and so wudu is often done before salah. However, it is permissible to pray more than one salah without repeating wudu, as long as ritual purity is not broken, for example by using the bathroom.^[356]

Another similar purification ritual is ghusl, which takes someone from major ritual impurity (janabah) to lesser ritual impurity, which is then purified by wudu. If one is in a state of janabah, both ghusl and wudu are required if one wants to pray.

Although original sin does not exist in Islam, wudu is widely regarded to remove sins. In a Sahih hadith, Muhammad says "Whenever a man performs his ablution intending to pray and he washes his hands, the sins of his hands fall down with the first drop. When he rinses his mouth and nose, the sins of his tongue and lips fall down with the first drop. When he washes his face, the sins of his hearing and sight fall down with the first drop. When he washes his arms to his elbows and his feet to his ankles, he is purified from every sin and fault like the day he was born from his mother. If he stands for prayer, Allah will raise his status by a degree. If he sits, he will sit in peace."^[357]

People of the Yadav community of Hindu religion follow baptism, where it is called Karah Pujan. In this, the person who is being baptized is bathed in boiling Milk. The newborn baby is also included in this process, in which he is bathed with boiling milk and then he is garlanded with flowers.^{[358][359][360]}

• Baptismal font
• Baptism by fire
• Baptistery
• Chrism
• Christifideles
• Consolamentum
• Disciple (Christianity)
• Divine filiation
• Ghusl
• Holy water in Eastern Christianity
• Mikvah
• Misogi
• Prevenient Grace
• Ritual purification
• Theophany
• Water and religion
• Amrit Sanchar, in Sikhism

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• Bellarmine, Robert (1847). "The Tenth Precept, Which Is on the Sacrament of Baptism.". The Art of Dying Well. Richardson and Son. 
• Canadian Council of Churches, Commission on Faith and Witness (1992). Initiation into Christ: Ecumenical Reflections and Common Teaching on Preparation for Baptism]. Winfield, B.C.: Wood Lake Books. ISBN 2-89088-527-5. https://www.councilofchurches.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/INITIATION-INTO-CHRIST.pdf. 
• Chaney, James M. (2009). William the Baptist. Oakland, TN: Doulos Resources. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-4421-8560-9. OCLC 642906193. http://www.doulosresources.org/books/william/william.html. 
• Dallmann, Robert (2014). Baptisms – One? Many? Or Both?. ChristLife, Inc.. ISBN 978-0991489107. http://www.christ-like.net/baptisms.html. 
• Deharbe, Joseph (1912). "Chap. II. The Sacraments (Baptism)". A Complete Catechism of the Catholic Religion. Schwartz, Kirwin & Fauss. 
•  Fanning, William Henry Windsor (1907). "Baptism". in Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 
• Gerfen, Ernst (1897). 'Baptizein': the Voice of the Scriptures and Church History Concerning Baptism. Columbus, OH: Press of F.J. Heer. 
• Guelzo, Allen C (1985). Who Should Be Baptized?: a Case for the Baptism of Infants. Reformed Episcopal Pamphlets. Philadelphia: Reformed Episcopal Publication Society. . 26 pp. N.B.: States the Evangelical Anglican position of the Reformed Episcopal Church.
• Guelzo, Allen C (1985). What Does Baptism Mean?: a Brief Lesson in the Spiritual Use of Our Baptisms. Reformed Episcopal Pamphlets. Philadelphia: Reformed Episcopal Publication Society. 
• Jungkuntz, Richard (1968). The Gospel of Baptism. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. OCLC 444126. 
• Kolb, Robert W. (1997). Make Disciples, baptizing: God's gift of new life and Christian witness. St. Louis: Concordia Seminary. ISBN 0-911770-66-6. OCLC 41473438. 
• Linderman, Jim (2009). Take Me to the Water: Immersion Baptism in Vintage Music and Photography 1890–1950. Atlanta: Dust to Digital. ISBN 978-0-9817342-1-7. 
• Matzat, Don (Spring 1997). "In Defense of Infant Baptism". Issues, Etc. Journal 2 (3). http://www.issuesetcarchive.org/issues_site/resource/journals/v2n3.htm. Retrieved February 26, 2009. 
• Baptism and the Unity of the Church. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans; Geneva: W.C.C. [i.e. World Council of Churches] Publications. Also mentioned on t.p.: "Institute for Ecumenical Research, Strasbourg, France". 1998. ISBN 2-8254-1250-3. 
• Scaer, David P. (1999). Baptism. St. Louis: The Luther Academy. OCLC 41004868. 
• Schlink, Edmund (1972). The Doctrine of Baptism. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. ISBN 0-570-03726-3. OCLC 228096375. 
• Slade, Darren M. (August 15, 2014). "The Early Church's Inconsequential View of the Mode of Baptism". American Theological Inquiry 7 (2): 21–34. https://www.academia.edu/8008124. 
• Stookey, Laurence Hull (1982). Baptism, Christ's act in the church. Nashville, TN: Abingdon. ISBN 0-687-02364-5. OCLC 7924841. 
• Torrell, Jean-Pierre (2011). A Priestly People: Baptismal Priesthood and Priestly Ministry. New York/ Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4815-8. 
• Weigel, George (2016). "The Most Important Day of Your Life". First Things. https://www.firstthings.com/web-exclusives/2016/04/the-most-important-day-of-your-life. 
• Willimon, William H. (1980). Remember who you are: baptism, a model for Christian life. Nashville: Upper Room. ISBN 0-8358-0399-6. OCLC 6485882. https://archive.org/details/rememberwhoyouar0000will. 
• World Council of Churches (1982). Baptism, Eucharist, and ministry. Geneva: World Council of Churches. ISBN 2-8254-0709-7. OCLC 9918640. 

• "Writings of the Early Church Fathers on Baptism"
• The Sacrament of Baptism in the Catechism of the Catholic Church/Holy See website
• "Baptism." Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
•  "Baptism". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. 

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