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Dravidian folk religion

Topic: Religion

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Short description: Indigenous Dravidian folk religion
Dravidian folk deity Ayyanar with two wives

The early Dravidian religion constituted a non-Vedic form of Hinduism in that they were either historically or are at present Āgamic. The Agamas are non-Vedic in origin,[1] and have been dated either as post-Vedic texts,[2] or as pre-Vedic compositions.[3] The Agamas are a collection of Tamil and Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of murti, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.[4] The worship of tutelary deities and sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is also recognized as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion.[5] Dravidian linguistic influence on early Vedic religion is evident; many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian. The linguistic evidence for Dravidian impact grows increasingly strong as one moves from the Samhitas down through the later Vedic works and into the classical post-Vedic literature.[6] This represents an early religious and cultural fusion[7][note 1] or synthesis[9] between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans that went on to influence Indian civilisation.[8][10][11][12]

Classification

Scholars do not share a uniform consensus on early Dravidian religion. Some scholars believe that the Dravidian religion was a belief system unique to the Neolithic people of South Asia before the origin of Indo-Aryan languages. Pope believes that in the pre-historic period the Dravidian religion was a precursor to Shaivism and Shaktism[13] while John B. Magee was of the view that native Dravidian religion prior to 1500 BCE was unclear.[14] Other scholars define it as a non-Vedic part of Hinduism. Henry O. Thompson's definition of Hinduism included Dravidian traditions as one of the important foundational element.[15] Sjoberg claims that the Dravidian religion influenced Hinduism more than its Indo-Aryan counterpart,[16][note 2][17][18][19][20] Gustav Oppert suggests Dravidian religion was centered on the worship of Goddess as mother, protector of villages and the seven sisters identified with Matrikas.[21][22][23] Wilder Theodre Elmore comments that the Dravidian folk religions are not a simple form of animism, but exhibit complex metaphysical concepts.[24] The widespread worship of certain village deities of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu may be argued to reflect a survival of the pre-Brahmanic religious tradition.[5][25][26]

The cult of the Female Principle was a major aspect of Dravidian religion, The concept of Shakti was an integral part of their religion [...] The cult of the Sapta Matrika, or Seven Divine Mothers, which is an integral part of the Shakta religion, may be of Dravidian inspiration.[27]

Dravidian influence on early Vedic religion is evident, many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian.[6] The linguistic evidence for Dravidian impact grows increasingly strong as we move from the Samhitas down through the later Vedic works and into the classical post-Vedic literature.[6] This represents an early religious and cultural fusion[7][note 1] or synthesis[9] between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora and fauna that went on to influence Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sramana and Charvaka.[8][10][11][12]

Scholars regard modern Hinduism as a fusion[7][note 1] or synthesis[9][note 3][28] of various Indian cultures and traditions.[7][9][29][note 7] Among its roots are the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India,[29][38] itself already the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations",[39][note 8] but also the Sramana[41] or renouncer traditions[29] of northeast India,[41] and mesolithic[42] and neolithic[43] cultures of India, such as the religions of the Indus Valley civilisation,[8][44][45][46] Dravidian traditions,[8][10][11][12] and the local traditions[29] and tribal religions.[10][note 9]

Religion in ancient Tamilakam

Ayyanar, guardian folk deity of Tamil Nadu villages

Ancient Tamil grammatical works Tholkappiyam, the ten anthologies Pattuppāṭṭu, the eight anthologies Eṭṭuttokai sheds light on early ancient Dravidian religion. Seyyon (Also known as Murugan) was glorified as "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent", as "the favored god of the Tamils".[47] Shiva was seen as the Supreme God.[47] Early iconography of Murugan[48] and Sivan[49][50][51] and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to Indus Valley Civilisation.[52][53] The Sangam landscape was classified into five categories, thinais, based on the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam, mentions that each of these thinai had an associated deity such Murugan in Kurinji – the hills and mountains, Thirumal in Mullai – the forests, and Vendhan in Marutham – the plains and croplands, Kadalon in the Neithal – the coasts and the seas, and Kottravai in Pālai – the deserts. Other gods mentioned were Mayyon and Vāli, who were all assimilated into Hinduism over time.

Typical layout of Dravidian architecture which evolved from koyil as a king's residence.

Throughout Tamilakam, a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance.[54] The king was "the representative of God on earth" and lived in a koyil, which means "residence of a god". The modern Tamil word for temple is koil (Tamil: கோயில்). Ritual worship was also given to kings.[55][56] Modern words for god like kō (Tamil: கோ "king"), iṟai (இறை "emperor") and āṇḍavar (ஆண்டவன் "conqueror") now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like the legendary marriage of Shiva to Queen Meenātchi who ruled Madurai, and Indhiran, a god who was later merged into Indra.[57] Tolkaappiyar refers to the Three Crowned Kings as the "Three Glorified by Heaven", (Template:Indic).[58] In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple.[59]

The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. This mother goddess was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and one and was typically associated with Shaktism.[60] Her worship was accepted in the northern parts of India with various names as Devi, Ksetradevata etc.[61] More recent scholarship has been correcting the misrepresentation made by a section of Westerner and Indian Brahmanical scholars in the portrayal of the tradition of the goddess. Western scholars like Denobili portrayed Brahmin as "gentilism" and the goddess tradition as "idolatarous".[62]

The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appear predominantly a goddess.[63] In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.[64] Among the early Dravidians the practice of erecting memorial stones, Natukal, had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about the 16th century.[65] It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.[66] Many Hindu sects such as Bhakti movement and Lingayatism originated in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka respectively. In addition to literary sources, folk festivals, village deities, shamanism, ritual theater and traditions, which are unique to the region, are also good indicators of what early Dravidian people believed/practiced.

The most popular deity is Murugan, he is known as the patron god of the Tamils and is also called Tamil Kadavul (Tamil God).[67][68] In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest son and Pillaiyar the eldest son of Shiva. This differs from the North Indian tradition, which represents Murugan as the elder son. The goddess Parvati is often depicted as having a green complexion in Tamil Hindu tradition, implying her association with nature. The worship of Amman, also called Mariamman, who is thought to have been derived from an ancient mother goddess, is also very common.[69] Kan̲n̲agi, the heroine of the Cilappatikār̲am, is worshipped as Pattin̲i by many Tamils, particularly in Sri Lanka.[70] There are also many followers of Ayyavazhi in Tamil Nadu, mainly in the southern districts.[71] In addition, there are many temples and devotees of Vishnu, Shiva, Ganapati, and the other Hindu deities. Some other deities that later emerged independently in Tamil tradition include: Angala Devi, Madurai Veeran, Karuppu Sami, Muniandi, Sudalai Madan, Isakki, Devi Kanya Kumari, and Periyachi.

In rural Tamil Nadu, many local deities, called aiyyan̲ārs, are believed to be the spirits of local heroes who protect the village from harm.[72] Their worship often centres around nadukkal, stones erected in memory of heroes who died in battle. This form of worship is mentioned frequently in classical literature and appears to be the surviving remnants of an ancient Tamil tradition.[73] The early Dravidian religion constituted a non-Vedic form of Hinduism in that they were either historically or are at present Āgamic. The Agamas are non-vedic in origin[1] and have been dated either as post-Vedic texts[2] or as pre-Vedic compositions.[3] A large portion of these deities continue to be worshipped as the Village deities of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka, and their subsequent influence in South-east Asia, examples of which include the Mariamman temples in Singapore and Vietnam. Worship of anthills, snakes and other forms of guardian deities and heroes are still worshiped in the Konkan coast, Maharashtra proper and a few other parts of India including North India which traces its origins to ancient Dravidian religion which has been influencing formation of mainstream Hinduism for thousands of years.

A hero stone, known as "Natukal" by Tamils, "Gandragallu" by Telugu and "Virgal" by Kannadigas, is a memorial commemorating the honorable death of a hero in battle. Erected between the 3rd century BCE and the 18th century CE, hero stones are found all over India, most of them in southern India. They often carry inscriptions displaying a variety of adornments, including bas relief panels, frieze, and figures on carved stone.[74] Usually they are in the form of a stone monument and may have an inscription at the bottom with a narrative of the battle. According to the historian Upinder Singh, the largest concentration of such memorial stones are found in Karnataka. About two thousand six hundred and fifty hero stones, the earliest dated to the 5th century have been discovered in Karnataka.[75] The custom of erecting memorial stones dates back to the Iron Age (1000–600 BCE), though a vast majority were erected between the 5th and 13th centuries CE.

Veriyattam

Veriyattam refers to spirit possession of women, who took part in priestly functions. Under the influence of the god, women sang and danced, but also read the dim past, predicted the future, diagnosed diseases.[76] Twenty two poets of the Sangam age in as many as 40 poems portray Veriyatal. Velan is a reporter and prophet endowed with supernatural powers. Veriyatal had been performed by men as well as women.[77]

Nadukkal

Among the early Tamils, the practice of erecting hero stones (nadukkal) had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about 11th century.[78] It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.[79] A Chola-period Arikandam statue was discovered from Cholapuram village in Sivaganga district depicting the self-decapitation of a devotee to goddess Kali to redeem a vow he had made to the deity.[80]

Theyyam

Theyyam is a ritual shaman dance popular in Kerala and parts of Karnataka. Theyyam migrates into the artist who has assumed the spirit and it is a belief that the god or goddess comes in the midst of fathering through the medium of possessed dancer. The dancer throws rice on the audience and distributes turmeric powder as symbols of blessing. Theyyam incorporates dance, mime and music and enshrines the rudiments of ancient tribal cultures which attached great importance to the worship of heroes and the spirits of ancestors, is a socio-religious ceremony. There are over 400 Theyyams performed, the most spectacular ones are those of Raktha Chamundi, Kari Chamundi, Muchilottu Bhagavathi, Wayanadu Kulaven, Gulikan and Pottan. These are performed in front of shrines, sans stage or curtains.

The early character of Tamil religion was celebrative. It embodied an aura of sacral immanence, sensing the sacred in the vegetation, fertility, and color of the land. The summum bonum of the religious experience was expressed in terms of possession by the god, or ecstasy. Into this milieu there immigrated a sobering influence—a growing number of Jain and Buddhist communities and an increasing influx of northerners.[citation needed]

The layout of villages can be assumed to be standard across most villages. An Amman (mother goddess) is at the centre of the villages while a male guardian deity (Template:Indic) has a shrine at the village borders. Nowadays, Amman can be either worshipped alone or as a part of the Vedic pantheon.[81]

Folk dance rituals

  • There are multiple folk dance rituals in Karnataka used for the worship of gramadevata. One of these from Tulu areas is Yakshagana, literally meansing the song (gana) of the yaksha, (nature spirits).[82] Yakshagana is the scholastic name (used for the last 200 years) for art forms formerly known as kēḷike, āṭa, bayalāṭa, and daśāvatāra (Kannada: ದಶಾವತಾರ). From the Old Mysore region comes Somana Kunitha.
  • Koothu (Tamil: கூத்து), and alternatively spelt as kuttu, means dance or performance in Tamil, it is a folk art originated from the early Tamil country.[83][84]

Discourse

During the era of the British Raj, several Christian authors in the field of ethnology often drew a comparison between the Dravidian folk religion and the various Indo-Aryan Brahmanical traditions. A later record of the colonial administration, titled Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, described the south Indian faith along the binary lines of deities and demons, essentially categorising the worship of the Dravidian population to "demons", or to "deities who rule[d] such demons to induce their interposition". The text considered the village goddess who guarded the village from disease and calamity in the category of superior demons, who, it stated, had attained the status of deities. Little distinction existed, according to the text, between the deities and the demons. The goddesses were placed within the paradigm of demonolatry, and the scholar identified blood sacrifice as a significant trait of the Dravidian religion. The reverend Samuel Mateer set apart the idolatry of Brahman-centered Hinduism from the worship of "evil and malignant spirits" that was performed by the indigenous natives of Southern India.[85] The scholar Whitehead concluded that the "village deity" was little more than a petty spirit that tyrannised and protected a local hamlet, inspiring fear due to an ability to inflict diseases and injury to the villagers, not evoking any admiration or morality.[86]Template:Indian religions

Derivatives

Due to the Girmityas, Tamil and Telugu immigration to British, French, and Dutch colonies brought the religious practices that were derived from Dravidian Folk Religion but were syncretized with Vedic Hinduism. One of the most famous examples is the Cult of Mariamman which can be found across the Tamil Diaspora. The religious tradition is famous for their traditions of body mutilation, walking on hot coals, and Karakattam Puja.

In the Caribbean, a unique tradition called Caribbean Shaktism developed as a syncretic religion of this Tamil Mariamman worship and with aspects of Catholicism or other influences of the Caribbean religion.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Lockard: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Indo-Aryan peoples and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."[7] Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."[8]
  2. ↑ Tyler, in India: An Anthropological Perspective(1973), page 68, as quoted by Sjoberg, calls Hinduism a "synthesis" in which the Dravidian elements prevail: "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process, the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself.[16]
  3. ↑ Hiltebeitel: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of "Hindu synthesis," Brahmanic synthesis," or "orthodox synthesis," takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency" (c. 320-467 CE)."
  4. ↑ Ghurye: He [Hutton] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. "The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet buit into the temple of Hinduism".[31]
  5. ↑ Tyler, in India: An Anthropological Perspective(1973), page 68, as quoted by Sjoberg, calls Hinduism a "synthesis" in which the Dravidian elements prevail: "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself.[16]
  6. ↑ Hopfe & Woodward: "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."[36]
  7. ↑ See also:
  8. ↑ See:
    • David Gordo White: "[T]he religion of the Vedas was already a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations."[39]
    • Richard Gombrich: "It is important to bear in mind that the Indo-Aryans did not enter an unhabited [sic] land. For nearly two millennia they and their culture gradually penetrated India, moving east and south from their original seat in the Punjab. They mixed with people who spoke Munda or Dravidian languages, who have left no traces of their culture beyond some archaeological remains; we know as little about them as we would about the Indo-Aryans if they had left no texts. In fact we cannot even be sure whether some of the aerchaeological finds belong to Indo-Aryans, autochthonous populations, or a mixture.
      It is to be assumed - though this is not fashionable in Indian historiography - that the clash of cultures between Indo-Aryans and autochtones was responsible for many of the changes in Indo-Aryan society. We can also assume that many - perhaps most - of the indigenous population came to be assimilated into Indo-Aryan culture.[40]
  9. ↑ Tiwari mentions the Austric and Mongoloid people.[10] See also Adivasi people for the variety of Indian people.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Mudumby Narasimhachary (ed.) (1976). "Āgamaprāmāṇya of Yāmunācārya". Gaekwad's Oriental Series 160. Oriental Institute, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Tripath, S. M. (2001). Psycho-Religious Studies Of Man, Mind And Nature. Global Vision. ISBN:9788187746041.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Nagalingam, Pathmarajah (2009). The Religion of the Agamas. Siddhanta Publications.
  4. ↑ Grimes, John A. (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press. ISBN:9780791430682. LCCN 96-12383.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 The Modern Review. 28. Prabasi. 1920. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Krishnamurti (2003), p. 6.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Lockard 2007, p. 50.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Lockard 2007, p. 52.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Tiwari 2002, p. v.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Zimmer 1951, p. 218-219.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Larson 1995, p. 81.
  13. ↑ Iyengar, T. R. Sesha (1982). Dravidian India. Asian Educational Services. 
  14. ↑ Magee, John Benjamin (1967). Religion and modern man: a study of the religious meaning of being human. Harper & Row. https://archive.org/details/religionmodernma00mage. 
  15. ↑ Thompson, Henry O. (1988). World religions in war and peace. McFarland. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Sjoberg 1990, p. 43.
  17. ↑ Khan, Abdul Jamil (2006). Urdu/Hindi: an artificial divide : African heritage, Mesopotamian roots, Indian culture & British colonialism. Algora Publishing. 
  18. ↑ Eliot, Charles (2007). Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol I. (of 3). Echo Library. pp. 12. 
  19. ↑ Grimes, John A. (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press. ISBN:9780791430682. LCCN 96-12383.
  20. ↑ Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992). "Vedic Hinduism" (PDF). Harvard University. pp. 2–4. Retrieved 2019-01-23.
  21. ↑ Gustav oppert, original inhabitants of Bharata.
  22. ↑ Dravidian Gods in Modern Hinduism, Wilder Theodre Elmore
  23. ↑ Vicissitudes of Goddess, Sree Padma
  24. ↑ page 134 Dravidian Gods in Modern Hinduism, Wilder Theodre Elmore
  25. ↑ Schastok, Sara L. The Śamalājī Sculptures and Sixth-Century Art in Western India. Leiden: Brill, 1985. pp. 58–60.
  26. ↑ Guy Beck (1993), Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound, University of South Carolina Press, ISBN:978-0-87249-855-6, pages 151–152.
  27. ↑ Bhattacharyya, N. N., History of the Sakta Religion, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. (New Delhi, 1974, 2d ed. 1996).
  28. ↑ Samuel 2010, p. 193.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 Flood 1996, p. 16.
  30. ↑ Ghurye 1980, p. 3-4.
  31. ↑ Ghurye 1980, p. 4.
  32. ↑ Sjoberg 1990.
  33. ↑ Nath 2001.
  34. ↑ Werner 2005, p. 8-9.
  35. ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Hopfe & Woodward 2008, p. 79.
  37. ↑ Samuel 2010.
  38. ↑ Samuel 2010, p. 41-42.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 White 2006, p. 28.
  40. ↑ Gombrich 1996, p. 35-36.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Gomez 2002, p. 42.
  42. ↑ Doniger 2010, p. 66.
  43. ↑ Jones 2006, p. xvii.
  44. ↑ Narayanan 2009, p. 11.
  45. ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 3.
  46. ↑ Jones 2006, p. xviii.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Kanchan Sinha, Kartikeya in Indian art and literature, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan (1979).
  48. ↑ Mahadevan, Iravatham (2006). A Note on the Muruku Sign of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe Discovery. Harappa. http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html. 
  49. ↑ Ranbir Vohra (2000). The Making of India: A Historical Survey. M. E. Sharpe. p. 15. ISBN 9780765607119. https://archive.org/details/makingindiahisto00vohr. 
  50. ↑ Grigorii Maksimovich Bongard-Levin (1985). Ancient Indian Civilization. Arnold-Heinemann. p. 45. 
  51. ↑ Rosen, Steven; Schweig, Graham M. (2006). Essential Hinduism. Greenwood. p. 45. 
  52. ↑ Basham 1967
  53. ↑ Simoons, Frederick J. (1998). Plants of life, plants of death. p. 363. 
  54. ↑ Harman, William P. (1992). The sacred marriage of a Hindu goddess. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 6. 
  55. ↑ Anand, Mulk Raj (1980). Splendours of Tamil Nadu. Marg Publications. https://www.google.co.uk/search?tbm=bks&q=The+king+is+%27the+representative+of+God+on+earth%27+and+lives+in+a+palace+called+%27+Koyil%27%2C+which+means+the+residence+of+God.+The+ritual+worship+of+God. 
  56. ↑ Chopra, Pran Nath (1979). History of South India. S. Chand. 
  57. ↑ Bate, Bernard (2009). Tamil oratory and the Dravidian aesthetic: democratic practice in south India. Columbia University Press. 
  58. ↑ A. Kiruṭṭin̲an̲ (2000). Tamil culture: religion, culture, and literature. Bharatiya Kala Prakashan. pp. 17. 
  59. ↑ Embree, Ainslie Thomas (1988). Encyclopedia of Asian history. 1. Scribner. ISBN 9780684188980. https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0000embr. 
  60. ↑ Thiruchandran, Selvy (1997). Ideology, caste, class, and gender. Vikas. 
  61. ↑ Oppert, Gustav Salomon (1886). On the original inhabitants of Bharatavarsa or India. p. 398
  62. ↑ Sree Padma (2013). "Goddess Explained". In Vicissitudes of the Goddess. Oxford University Press. p. 11
  63. ↑ Manickam, Valliappa Subramaniam (1968). A glimpse of Tamilology. Academy of Tamil Scholars of Tamil Nadu. pp. 75. https://books.google.com/books?id=bIQOAAAAYAAJ&q=sangam+priestess. 
  64. ↑ Lal, Mohan (2006). The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature. 5: Sasay To Zorgot. Sahitya Akademi. pp. 4396. ISBN 8126012218. 
  65. ↑ Shashi, S. S. (1996). Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. 100. Anmol. 
  66. ↑ Subramanium, N. (1980). Śaṅgam polity: the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils. Ennes. 
  67. ↑ M. Shanmugam Pillai. "Murukan in Cankam Literature: Veriyattu Tribal Worship". First International Conference Seminar on Skanda-Murukan in Chennai, 28–30 December 1998. http://murugan.org/research/shanmugampillai.htm. Retrieved 6 December 2006.  This article first appeared in the September 1999 issue of the Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies.
  68. ↑ Harold G. Coward, John R. Hinnells, Raymond Brady Williams, The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and the United States
  69. ↑ "Principles and Practice of Hindu Religion". Hindu Heritage Study Program. http://www.bnaiyer.com/hinduism/hist-34.html. 
  70. ↑ Balachandran, P. K. (23 March 2006). "Tracing the Sri Lanka-Kerala link". Hindustan Times. http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/5983_1657214,00430014.htm. 
  71. ↑ Ponnu, R.. Sri Vaikunda Swamigal and the Struggle for Social Equality in South India. Ram. p. 98. 
  72. ↑ Jarzombek, M. (2009). "Horse shrines in Tamil India: Reflections on modernity". Future Anterior 4 (1): 18–36. doi:10.1353/fta.0.0031. http://web.mit.edu/mmj4/www/downloads/future_ant4_1.pdf. 
  73. ↑ "'Hero stone' unearthed". The Hindu (Chennai, India). 22 July 2006. http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/22/stories/2006072202680200.htm. 
  74. ↑ "Hero-stone Memorials of India". Kamat Potpourri. http://www.kamat.com/database/content/hero-stones/index.htm. 
  75. ↑ Chapter "Memorializing death in stone", Singh (2009), p. 48
  76. ↑ Iyengar, Srinivasa (1929). History of the Tamils: from the earliest times to 600 A.D.. Asian Educational Services. pp. 77. 
  77. ↑ Venkatasubramanian, T. K. (2010). Music as History in Tamil Nadu. Primus. pp. 16. ISBN 978-9380607061. https://books.google.com/books?id=pzurjfF3AE4C&q=Twenty+two+poets+of+the+Sangam+age+in+as+many+as&pg=PA16. 
  78. ↑ Shashi, S. S. (1996). Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. 100. Anmol. 
  79. ↑ Subramanium, N. (1980). Śaṅgam polity: the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils. Ennes. 
  80. ↑ "1,000-year-old statue depicting self-sacrifice found in Tamil Nadu's Sivaganga". The Times of India. 2023-07-03. ISSN 0971-8257. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/1000-year-old-statue-depicting-self-sacrifice-found/articleshow/101443535.cms?from=mdr. 
  81. ↑ Hastings, James (2003). Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Kessinger Publishing. 
  82. ↑ "yaksha". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9077732/yaksha. 
  83. ↑ Dance forms of Tamilnadu
  84. ↑ Tamilnadu.com
  85. ↑ Padma, Sree (2014-07-03) (in en). Inventing and Reinventing the Goddess: Contemporary Iterations of Hindu Deities on the Move. Lexington. pp. 70. ISBN 978-0-7391-9002-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=9Jn_AwAAQBAJ&dq=dravidian+deities+malevolent&pg=PA70. 
  86. ↑ Padma, Sree (2014-07-03) (in en). Inventing and Reinventing the Goddess: Contemporary Iterations of Hindu Deities on the Move. Lexington. pp. 72. ISBN 978-0-7391-9002-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=9Jn_AwAAQBAJ&dq=dravidian+deities+malevolent&pg=PA70. 

Works cited



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