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Dyeus

Topic: Religion

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 17 min
Short description: Sky-god in Proto-Indo-European mythology
The sky of the Central Asian steppe.

Dyḗus (lit. "daylight-sky-god"), also Dyḗus ph₂tḗr (lit. "father daylight-sky-god"),[1][2] is the reconstructed name of the daylight-sky god in Proto-Indo-European mythology. Dyēus was the bright sky of the day conceived as a divine entity and as the seat of the gods, the *deywṓs. Associated with the vast diurnal sky and with the fertile rains, Dyēus was often paired with *Dhéǵhōm, the Earth Mother, in a relationship of union and contrast.

While its existence is not directly attested by archaeological or written materials, Dyēus is considered by scholars the most securely reconstructed deity of the Indo-European pantheon, as identical formulas referring to him can be found among the subsequent Indo-European languages and myths of the Vedic Indo-Aryans, Latins, Greeks, Phrygians, Thracians, Illyrians, Albanians and Hittites.[3][2]

Name

Etymology

The divine name *Dyēus stems from the root *dyeu-, denoting the "diurnal sky" or the "brightness of the day" (in contrast to the darkness of the night), ultimately deriving from *di or dei- ("to shine, be bright").[1][4] Cognates in Indo-European languages revolving around the concepts of "day", "sky" and "deity" and sharing the root *dyeu as an etymon suggest that Dyēus was the vast and bright sky of the day conceived as a divine entity.[1][4]

A vṛddhi-derivative appears in *deywós ("celestial"), the common word for "god" in proto-Indo-European. In classic Indo-European, associated with the late Khvalynsk culture (3900–3500),[5] *Dyēus also had the meaning of "Heaven", whereas it denoted "god" in general (or the Sun-god in particular) in the Anatolian tradition.[6] The suffix-derivative *diwyós ("divine") is also attested in Latin, Greek and Sanskrit.[4][7]

The root *deynos ("day"), interpreted as a back-formation of *deywós, has descendant cognates in Vedic Sanskrit divé-dive ("day by day"), Latin diēs ("day") and Dies, goddess of the day and counterpart to Greek Hemera,[8][9] Hittite siwat ("day"), Palaic Tīyat- ("Sun, day"), Ancient Greek endios ("midday"), Old Armenian tiw (տիւ, "bright day"), Old Irish noenden ("nine-day period"), Welsh heddyw ("today"),[10] or Slavic Poludnitsa ("Lady Midday").[11][12]

While the Greek goddess Pandeia or Pandia (Greek: Πανδία, Πανδεία, "all brightness") may have been another name for the Moon Goddess Selene,[13] her name still preserves the root *di-/*dei-, meaning "to shine, be bright".[14]

Epithets

The most constant epithet associated with *Dyēus is "father" (*ph₂tḗr). The vocable "Father Dyēus" was inherited in the Vedic Dyáuṣ Pitṛ́, Greek Zeus Patēr, Illyrian Dei-pátrous, Roman Jupiter (*Djous patēr), even in the form of "dad" or "papa" in the Scythian Papaios for Zeus, or the Palaic expression Tiyaz papaz.[15] The epithet *Ph₂tḗr Ǵenh₁-tōr ("Father Procreator") is also attested in the Vedic, Iranian, Greek, and perhaps the Roman ritual traditions.[16]

Role

Dyēus was the Sky or Day conceived as a divine entity, and thus the dwelling of the gods, the Heaven.[6] As the gateway to the deities and the father of both the Divine Twins and the goddess of the Dawn (Hausōs), Dyēus was a prominent deity in the Proto-Indo-European pantheon.[17][18] He was however likely not their ruler or the holder of the supreme power like Zeus and Jupiter.[6]

Dyēus was associated with the bright and vast sky, but also to the cloudy weather in the Vedic and Greek formulas *Dyēus' rain.[19] Although several reflexes of Dyēus are storm deities, such as Zeus and Jupiter, this is thought to be a late development exclusive to Mediterranean traditions, probably derived from syncretism with Canaanite deities and the Proto-Indo-European god Perkwunos.[20]

Due to his celestial nature, Dyēus is often described as "all-seeing" or "with wide vision" in Indo-European myths. It is unlikely however that he was in charge of the supervision of justice and righteousness, as it was the case for the Zeus or the Indo-Iranian Mithra–Varuna duo; but he was suited to serve at least as a witness to oaths and treaties.[21] Proto-Indo-Europeans also visualized the sun as the "lamp of Dyēus" or the "eye of Dyēus", as seen in various reflexes: "the god’s lamp" in Euripides' Medes, "heaven’s candle" in Beowulf, "the land of Hatti’s torch" (the Sun-goddess of Arinna) in a Hittite prayer,[22] Helios as the eye of Zeus,[23][24] Hvare-khshaeta as the eye of Ahura Mazda, and the sun as "God's eye" in Romanian folklore.[25]

Consort

Dyēus is often paired with *Dʰéǵʰōm, the Earth goddess, and described as uniting with her to ensure the growth and sustenance of terrestrial life; the earth becomes pregnant as the rain falls from the sky.[26][18] The relationship between Father Sky (*Dyēus Ph₂tḗr) and Mother Earth (*Dʰéǵʰōm Méhₐtēr) is also of contrast: the latter is portrayed as the vast and dark dwelling of mortals, located below the bright seat of the gods.[27] According to Jackson however, as the thunder-god is frequently associated with the fructifying rains, she may be a more fitting partner of Perkwunos than of Dyēus.[28]

While Hausos and the Divine Twins are generally considered the offsprings of Dyēus alone,[29] some scholars have proposed a spouse-goddess reconstructed as *Diwōnā or *Diuōneh₂,[30][31] with a possible descendant in Zeus's consort Dione. A thematic echo occurs in the Vedic tradition as Indra's wife Indrānī displays a similar jealous and quarrelsome disposition under provocation. A second descendant may be found in Dia, a mortal said to unite with Zeus in a Greek myth. The story leads ultimately to the birth of the Centaurs after the mating of Dia's husband Ixion with the phantom of Hera, the spouse of Zeus.[29] Another female name derived from *Dyeus may be found in the Mycenaean Greek Diwia, attested in the second part of the 3rd millennium BC and which may have survived in the Pamphylian dialect of Asia Minor.[32][33][34] The reconstruction is however only based upon the Greek–and to a lesser extent the Vedic–tradition, and it remains therefore not secured.[29]

If the female goddesses Hera, Juno, Frigg and Shakti share a common association with marriage and fertility, Mallory and Adams note however that "these functions are much too generic to support the supposition of a distinct PIE 'consort goddess' and many of the 'consorts' probably represent assimilations of earlier goddesses who may have had nothing to do with marriage."[35]

Evidence

Cognates stemming either from the root *dyeu ("daylight, bright sky"), the epithet *Dyēus Ph₂ter ("Father Sky"), the vṛddhi-derivative *deiwós ("celestial", a "god"), the derivative *diwyós ("divine"), or the back-formation *deynos (a "day") are among the most widely attested in Indo-European languages.[2][3]

  • Laurel-wreathed head of Zeus, c 360–340 BC.
    PIE: *dyēus, the daylight-sky god,[2][3]
    • Indo-Iranian: *dyaus,[36]
      • Sanskrit: Dyáuṣ (द्यौष्), the god of Heaven, and dyú (द्यु), the common word for "heaven",[1][4]
      • Old Avestan: dyaoš (𐬛𐬫𐬀𐬊𐬱), "heaven", mentioned in a single verse of the Avesta,[37] and Young Avestan: diiaoš, "hell", as a result of the Zoroastrian religious transformation,[38][36]
    • Mycenaean Greek: di-we (𐀇𐀸 /diwei/), dative case of an otherwise scarcely attested name,[39]
      • Cypriot Syllabary: ti-wo, interpreted as pertaining to Zeus and the possible genitive Diwoi.[40][41][42][43]
        • Greek: Zeus (Ζεύς), the god of the Sky,[4] also Boeotian Lac., Corinth., Rhod. Deús (Δεύς),[39][44]
    • Italic: *djous (dious),[38]
    • Anatolian: *diéu-, *diu-, a "god",[51]
    • Illyrian: dei- or -dí, meaning "heaven" or "God", as in Dei-pátrous, the "sky-father", and Perën-di, a sky and thunder god (here attached to per-en-, an extension of PIE *per- "to strike"),[53][54][55]
    • Proto-Messapic: *dyēs,[56]
      • Messapic: Zis or Dis, the sky-god,[57]
    • Albanian: Zojz, a sky and lightning god,[58][59]
    • Thracian: Zi-, Diu-, or Dias- (in personal names),[57]
    • Phrygian: Tiy-.[57]

Sky-Father epithet

Ritual and formulaic expressions stemming from the vocable *Dyēus Ph₂ter ("Father Dyēus") were inherited in the following liturgic and poetic traditions:

  • The Roman god Jupiter (Iovis-pater), 1811.
    PIE: *Dyēus Ph₂ter, "Father Sky",[2][3]
    • Greek: Zeus Pater (Ζεῦ πάτερ),[4]
    • Vedic: Dyáuṣ-pitṛ́ (द्यौष्पितृ),[4]
    • Italic: *Djous-patēr,[38]
      • Latin: Jupiter (Iūpiter),[4][1] along with the archaic forms Diespiter and Iovispater,[60]
      • Oscan: Dípatír, Umbrian: Iupater (or Iuve patre),[38] South Picene: (Toutiks) dipater,[61]
    • Illyrian: Dei-pátrous, recorded by Hesychius as Δειπάτυροϛ ("Deipáturos"), a god worshiped in Tymphaea.[1][4]

Other reflexes are variants that have retained both descendants of the root *dyeu- ("sky") and the original structure "Father God". Some traditions have replaced the epithet *ph₂ter with the nursery word papa ("dad, daddy"):

  • Luwian: Tātis tiwaz, "Daddy Tiwaz", the Sun-god,[62]
  • Palaic: Tiyaz papaz, "Papa Tiyaz", the Sun-god,[15]
  • Scythian: Papaios (Papa Zios), "father Zeus", the god of the Sky,[15]
  • Old Irish: in Dagdae Oll-athair, "Great Father the Dagda" (from the Proto-Celtic formula *sindos dago-dēwos ollo fātir, "Great Father the Good God").[63][64]

Other variants are less secured:

  • Hittite: attas Isanus, "Father Sun-god"; the name of the sky-god was replaced with a Hattic sun-god loan, but the original structure of the formula left intact,[17]
  • Latvian: Debess tēvs, "Father of Heaven",[2]
  • Old Norse: Óðinn Alföðr, "Odin, All-Father" or "Odin Father of All",[65][66]
  • Russian: Stribogŭ, "Father God",[2]
  • Albanian: Zot, "lord" or "God", epithet of Zojz, the sky-father (generally thought to be derived from Proto-Albanian *dźie̅u ̊ a(t)t-, "heavenly father";[67] although the etymology *w(i)tš- pati-, "lord of the house", has also been proposed).[68]

"Celestial" derivations

Cognates stemming from *deywós, a vṛddhi-derivation of *dyēus (the sky-god) are attested in the following traditions:[69]

  • PIE: *deywós (lit. skyling, pl. *deywṓs), meaning "celestial, heavenly one", hence a "god",[4][7][69]
    • Indo-Iranian: *daivá (daiua), a "god",[70][36]
      • The Germanic god Týr, 1895.
        Sanskrit: devá (देव), meaning "heavenly, divine, anything of excellence",[4][7] and devi, female title meaning "goddess";
      • Avestan: daēva (𐬛𐬀𐬉𐬎𐬎𐬀, daēuua), a term for "demons" in Zoroastrianism, as a result of a religious reformation that degraded the status of prior deities,[4][7]
        • Old Persian: daiva meaning "false deities, demons",[44]
    • Balto-Slavic: *deiwas,[71]
    • Germanic: *tīwaz (pl. *tīwōz), a word for "god", although specifically associated with a Germanic god whose name was supplanted by the title "God", *Tīwaz,[76][77]
      • Old Norse: Týr, associated with justice;[78] the plural tívar survived as a poetic word for 'the gods', and týr appears in kennings for Odin and Thor,[79] such as in the Odin's names Sigtýr ("victory-god"), Gautatýr ("god of the Geats"), Fimbultýr ("powerful god"), or Hertýr ("army-god"),[80][81]
      • Old English: Tīw (or Tīg), Old High German: Zio (or *Ziu), a god,[76][82]
      • Gothic: *Teiws, and the associated rune ᛏ (Tyz),[83][78]
      • The word 'Tuesday' in ON Týs-dagr, OE Tīwes-dæg and OHG Zies-tag, a calque of Latin dies Martis;[76][79] interpreted as a remnant of the sky and war functions of *Tīwaz by G. Kroonen, although M. L. West views it as unlikely,[76][77]
    • Italic: *deiwos, a "god, a deity",[82]
      • Old Latin: deivos (deiuos), the "gods",[82][44]
      • Oscan: deivas, Venetic: deivos, "gods",[82][7]
      • Volscian: deue Decluna, attested in an inscription from Velitrae, possibly from the 3rd century BC.[86][87]
    • Celtic: *dēwos, a "god, a deity",[88][89] and *dago-dēwos, the "good god", old name of the Dagda,[64][63]
      • Celtiberian: teiuo, a "god",[88][89]
      • Gaulish: dēuos, a "god",[88][89]
        • Gaulish: Devona (/deuona/) or Divona (/diuona/), a deity of sacred waters springs and rivers whose name means "Divine",[90]
      • Old Welsh: Dubr Duiu ("Water of the Divinity"),[91] evolving into Mod. Welsh Dyfrdwy (River Dee, Wales).[92] The form deva, diva ("goddess") likewise appears in Celtic river names throughout Western Europe,[90][93][94] such as in the Scottish rivers Dēoúa (modern-day Dee, Galloway),[90] and Dēouana (Δηουανα; modern-day Don, Aberdeenshire).[95][96]
      • Old Irish: día, a "god",[88][89][7] and An Dag-da, the druid-god of wisdom,[64][63]
        • Irish: Dhe ("god"), attested in the modern Sùil Dhé mhóir prayer ("The eye of the great God", in reference to the Sun), featured in Carmina Gadelica.[97][98]
    • Messapic: deiva, dīva, "goddess",[7][56]
    • Phrygian: devos.[7]

Other cognates are less secured:

Other cognates deriving from the word *diwyós (*dyeu "sky" + yós, a thematic suffix) are attested in the following traditions:[105]

  • PIE: *diwyós, meaning "divine, heavenly",[4][106]
    • Mycenaean Greek: di-wi-jo (/diwjos/), di-wi-ja (/diwja/),[7][107]
      • Greek: dîos (δῖος), "belonging to heaven, godlike", also "belonging to Zeus" in tragedies,[107][105]
      • Greek: Día (Δῖα < *Díw-ya), a goddess venerated in classical times at Phlius and Sicyon, and possibly identified with Hebe, the cup-bearer of the gods,[108]
    • Sanskrit: divyá, "heavenly",[107][105]
    • Avestan: daeuuiia, "devilish, diabolic",[44]
    • Latin: dīus, "godlike",[107]
      • Latin: Diāna (from an older Dīāna), goddess of the moon and the countryside.[109][110]
      • Latin: Dīs Pater, from dīves ('wealthy, rich'), probably derived from dīus via the intermediate form *deiu-(o/e)t- ("who is like the gods, protected by the gods").[111]

Legacy

As the pantheons of the individual mythologies related to Proto-Indo-European religion evolved, attributes of Dyēus seem to have been redistributed to other deities. In Greek and Roman mythology, Dyēus was the chief god, while the etymological continuant of Dyēus became a very abstract god in Vedic mythology, and his original prominence over other gods largely diluted.[17][3]

In non-Indo-European traditions

Various loanwords of *deiwós were introduced in non-Indo-European languages, such as Estonian taevas or Finnish taivas ("sky"), borrowed from Proto-Indo-Iranian.[1][112] In Turkic mythology, Tengri is portrayed as the Heavenly-Father, and Mircea Eliade notes that "morphologically and in its general outlines, the Indo-European religion resembles that of the Turko-Tatars—supremacy of the celestial God, absence or minor importance of goddesses, cult of fire, and so on."[113]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 West 2007, p. 167.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 431.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 West 2007, p. 166–171.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 408–409.
  5. ↑ Anthony 2007, p. 78–79.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 West 2007, p. 168: "But in general we may say that MIE had *dyéus (Dyéus) for ‘heaven (Heaven)’ [...] In Anatolian the picture is a little different [...] The reflex of *dyeus (Hittite sius) does not mean ‘heaven’ but either ‘god’ in general or the Sun-god. [...] The Greek Zeus is king of the gods and the supreme power in the world, his influence extending everywhere and into most spheres of life. There is little reason, however, to think that the Indo-European Dyeus had any such importance."
  7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 7.12 West 2007, p. 120.
  8. ↑ Hyginus. Fabulae, Preface, translated by Smith and Trzaskoma, p. 95.
  9. ↑ Cicero. de Natura Deorum, 3.17
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 West 2007, p. 167–168.
  11. ↑ Dixon-Kennedy 1998, p. 227.
  12. ↑ Máchal, Jan (1918). "Slavic Mythology". In L. H. Gray (ed.). The Mythology of all Races. III, Celtic and Slavic Mythology. Boston. p. 267.
  13. ↑ Hard, Robin; Rose, H. J. (2004) (in en). The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology". Routledge. pp. 46. ISBN 978-0-415-18636-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC. 
  14. ↑ Fairbanks, Arthur. The Mythology of Greece and Rome. New York: D. Appleton–Century Company. 1907. p. 162. Regarding the meaning of "Pandia", Kerenyi (Kerenyi, Karl. The Gods of the Greeks. Thames & Hudson. 1951), p. 197, says: '"the entirely shining" or the "entirely bright"— doubtless the brightness of nights of full moon.'
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 West 2007, p. 171.
  16. ↑ Jackson 2002, p. 71.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 230–231.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 432.
  19. ↑ West 2007, p. 169.
  20. ↑ Green, Miranda J. (1990). "Pagan Celtic Religion: Archaeology and Myth". Transactions of the Honourable Society of the Cymmrodorion: 13–28. 
  21. ↑ West 2007, p. 171–175.
  22. ↑ West 2007, p. 195.
  23. ↑ Sick, David (2004). "Mit(h)ra(s) and the Myths of the Sun" (in en). Numen 51 (4): 432–467. doi:10.1163/1568527042500140. ISSN 1568-5276. 
  24. ↑ Bortolani, Ljuba Merlina (2016) (in en). Magical Hymns from Roman Egypt: A Study of Greek and Egyptian Traditions of Divinity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781316673270. https://books.google.com/books?id=sYcwDQAAQBAJ. 
  25. ↑ Ionescu, Doina; Dumitrache, Cristiana (2012). "The Sun Worship with the Romanians". Romanian Astronomical Journal 22 (2): 155–166. Bibcode: 2012RoAJ...22..155I. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304944477. 
  26. ↑ West 2007, p. 180–181, 191.
  27. ↑ West 2007, p. 178–179.
  28. ↑ Jackson 2002, p. 80–81.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 West 2007, p. 192–193.
  30. ↑ Dunkel, George E. (1988–1990). "Vater Himmels Gattin". Die Sprache 34: 1–26. 
  31. ↑ Jackson 2002, p. 72–74.
  32. ↑ Ventris, Michael; Chadwick, John. Documents in Mycenaean Greek. Cambridge at the University Press. 1956. p. 125.
  33. ↑ Bremmer, Jan N. (2010). Bremmer, Jan N.. ed (in en). Gods of Ancient Greece: Identities and Transformations: Identities and Transformations. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-4289-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=bBqrBgAAQBAJ. 
  34. ↑ Skelton, Christina. Greek-Anatolian Language Contact and the Settlement of Pamphylia. Classical Antiquity. Vol. 36, Issue 1. The Regents of the University of California. 2017. pp. 104-105. Template:ISSN: 0278-6656
  35. ↑ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 124.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Lubotsky, Alexander. "Indo-Aryan Inherited Lexicon". Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Project. Leiden University. See entries dyáv- and devá- (online database).
  37. ↑ De Witt Griswold, Hervey (1923) (in en). The Religion of the Rigveda. H. Milford, Oxford University Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-8120807457. https://books.google.com/books?id=-2gNAQAAIAAJ. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 38.5 de Vaan 2008, p. 315.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Beekes 2009, p. 498–499.
  40. ↑ Chaniotis, Angelos; Stavrianopoulou, Eftychia (1997). "Epigraphic Bulletin for Greek Religion 1993-1994" (in en). Kernos. Revue internationale et pluridisciplinaire de religion grecque antique (10): 269. ISSN 0776-3824. http://journals.openedition.org/kernos/666. 
  41. ↑ Yon, Marguerite (2009). "Le culte impérial à Salamine". Cahiers du Centre d’Études Chypriotes 39 (1): 300. doi:10.3406/cchyp.2009.929. 
  42. ↑ Fourrier, Sabine (2015). "Lieux de culte à Salamine à l’époque des royaumes". Cahiers du Centre d’Études Chypriotes 45 (1): 216. doi:10.3406/cchyp.2015.1635. 
  43. ↑ Yon, Marguerite. La ville de Salamine. Fouilles françaises 1964-1974 / The town of Salamis. French excavations 1964-1974. In: Kinyras : L'Archéologie française à Chypre / French Archaeology in Cyprus Table ronde tenue à Lyon, 5-6 novembre 1991 / Symposium held in Lyons November 5th-6th 1991 Lyon : Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée Jean Pouilloux, 1993. p. 145. (Travaux de la Maison de l'Orient, 22) www.persee.fr/doc/mom_0766-0510_1993_act_22_1_1796
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 44.4 44.5 Wodtko, Irslinger & Schneider 2008, pp. 70–71.
  45. ↑ West 2007, p. 166–167.
  46. ↑ Buck, Carl Darling. Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press. 1933. p. 203.
  47. ↑ Witczak, Krzysztof T. (1999). "On the Indo-European origin of two Lusitanian theonyms (laebo and reve)". Emerita. 67 (1): p. 71. doi:10.3989/emerita.1999.v67.i1.185. ISSN 1988-8384.
  48. ↑ Watkins 1995, pp. 214-216.
  49. ↑ Prósper, Blanca María (2011). "The instrumental case in the thematic noun inflection of Continental Celtic". Historische Sprachforschung / Historical Linguistics 124: 250–267. ISSN 0935-3518. 
  50. ↑ Weinstock, Stefan (1960). "Two Archaic Inscriptions from Latium". The Journal of Roman Studies 50: 112–118. doi:10.2307/298293. ISSN 0075-4358. 
  51. ↑ Kloekhorst 2008, pp. 766–767.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 Kloekhorst 2008, p. 763.
  53. ↑ West 2007, p. 167, 243: "The Albanian Perëndi ‘Heaven’, ‘God’, has been analysed as a compound of which the first element is related to perunŭ and the second to *dyeus."
  54. ↑ Mallory & Adams 1997, pp. 408–409, 582: "It is argued that the underlying meaning here is not oak but rather that the Norse and Baltic forms are from *per-kw-, an extension on the root *per- ‘strike’ [...] These would then be related to *peruhₓnos ‘the one with the thunder stone’ [...], and possibly Albanian peren-di..."
  55. ↑ Treimer 1971, pp. 31–33.
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 De Simone 2017, p. 1843.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 West 2007, p. 166.
  58. ↑ Mann 1952, p. 32.
  59. ↑ Feizi 1929, p. 82.
  60. ↑ Wissowa, Georg (1902). Religion und Kultus der Römer. C. H. Beck. p. 100. See Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 5,12 (Loeb Classical Library).
  61. ↑ Hamp, Eric P. (1997). Adams, Douglas Q.. ed (in en). Festschrift for Eric P. Hamp. 1. Institute for the Study of Man. pp. 148. ISBN 978-0-941694-62-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=dRFmAAAAMAAJ. 
  62. ↑ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 130.
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 63.2 Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 231.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 Delamarre 2003, p. 134.
  65. ↑ Chaney, William A. (1970) (in en). The Cult of Kingship in Anglo-Saxon England: The Transition from Paganism to Christianity. University of California Press. pp. 34. ISBN 978-0-520-01401-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQfqjVJj01wC. 
  66. ↑ Wanner, Kevin J. (2008) (in en). Snorri Sturluson and the Edda: The Conversion of Cultural Capital in Medieval Scandinavia. University of Toronto Press. pp. 157. ISBN 978-0-8020-9801-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=BoLC0woy4iYC. 
  67. ↑ Treimer 1971, pp. 31–33; Mann 1977, p. 72; Demiraj 1997, pp. 431–432; Curtis 2017, pp. 1746, 1757, 2254
  68. ↑ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 348; Orel 1998, p. 526
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Ringe 2006, p. 14.
  70. ↑ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 536.
  71. ↑ Kim 2017, p. 1980.
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 Derksen 2015, p. 128.
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Bojtár, Endre (1999) (in en). Foreword to the Past: A Cultural History of the Baltic People. Central European University Press. pp. 280–281. ISBN 978-963-9116-42-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=Er1_CwAAQBAJ. 
  74. ↑ Doniger, Wendy, ed (2006) (in en). Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions. Encyclopaedia Britannica. pp. 711. ISBN 978-1-59339-266-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=-kcNAQAAMAAJ. 
  75. ↑ Vaiškūnas, Jonas (2006). "The Moon in Lithuanian Folk Tradition". Folklore 32: 157–158. doi:10.7592/FEJF2006.32.moon. http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol32/moon.pdf. 
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 76.2 76.3 Kroonen 2013, p. 519.
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 West 2007, p. 167 n. 8: "But he does not seem to be the old Sky-god, and it is preferable to suppose that he once had another name, which came to be supplanted by the title ‘God’."
  78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 Simek 1996, p. 337.
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 West 2007, p. 120 n. 1.
  80. ↑ Marold 1992, p. 714.
  81. ↑ Lecouteux 2016.
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 82.3 82.4 82.5 de Vaan 2008, p. 167.
  83. ↑ Lehmann 1986, p. 352.
  84. ↑ Hunt, Ailsa. Reviving Roman Religion: Sacred Trees in the Roman World. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2016. pp. 148-149 (footnote nr. 92). ISBN:978-1-107-15354-7
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  86. ↑ Woodard, Roger D. Myth, Ritual, and the Warrior in Roman and Indo-European Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. 2013. p. 197. ISBN:978-1-107-02240-9
  87. ↑ Baldi, Phillip. The Foundations of Latin. New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 2002. pp. 140-142. ISBN:3-11-016294-6
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  89. ↑ 89.0 89.1 89.2 89.3 Delamarre 2003, p. 142–143.
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 90.2 Delamarre 2003, p. 142.
  91. ↑ Rhys, John (2016) (in en). Celtic Folklore. Cambridge University Press. pp. 441. ISBN 978-1-108-07909-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=22CcCwAAQBAJ. 
  92. ↑ Wainwright, F. T. (1950). "Cledemutha". The English Historical Review 65 (255): 203–212. doi:10.1093/ehr/LXV.CCLV.203. ISSN 0013-8266. 
  93. ↑ James, Alan G. (2014). The Brittonic Language in the Old North: A Guide to the Place-name Evidence. Volume 2: Guide to the Elements. p. 139. http://www.spns.org.uk/bliton/BLITON2014ii_elements.pdf. 
  94. ↑ MacLeod, Sharon P. (1998). "Mater Deorum Hibernensium: Identity and Cross-Correlation in Early Irish Mythology". Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium 18/19: 340–384. ISSN 1545-0155. 
  95. ↑ Strang, Alastair (1997). "Explaining Ptolemy's Roman Britain". Britannia 28: 1–30. doi:10.2307/526763. ISSN 0068-113X. 
  96. ↑ Marx, Christian (2014). "Rectification of position data of Scotland in Ptolemy's Geographike Hyphegesis" (in en). Survey Review 46 (337): 231–244. doi:10.1179/1752270613Y.0000000085. ISSN 0039-6265. 
  97. ↑ West 2007, p. 216.
  98. ↑ Carmichael, Alexander. Carmina gadelica: hymns and incantations with illustrative notes on words, rites, and customs, dying and obsolete. Edinburgh; London: Oliver and Boyd. 1928. pp. 316-317.
  99. ↑ Rudnyckyj 1978, p. 79.
  100. ↑ Gołąb 1992, p. 52.
  101. ↑ 101.0 101.1 Sakhno 2017, p. 1577.
  102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 Derksen 2008, p. 108.
  103. ↑ Jakobson 1962, p. 228.
  104. ↑ Witczak, Krzysztof T. (1999). "On the Indo-European origin of two Lusitanian theonyms (laebo and reve)" (in en). Emerita 67 (1): 65–73. doi:10.3989/emerita.1999.v67.i1.185. ISSN 1988-8384. 
  105. ↑ 105.0 105.1 105.2 Ringe 2006, p. 62–63.
  106. ↑ Ringe 2006, p. 76.
  107. ↑ 107.0 107.1 107.2 107.3 Beekes 2009, p. 338.
  108. ↑ West 2007, p. 192.
  109. ↑ de Vaan 2008, p. 168.
  110. ↑ Green, C. M. C. Roman Religion and the Cult of Diana at Aricia. New York: Cambridge University Press. 2007. pp. 71-73. ISBN:978-0-521-85158-9
  111. ↑ de Vaan 2008, pp. 173–174.
  112. ↑ Delamarre 2003, p. 143.
  113. ↑ Eliade, Mircea (1989). Shamanism.. Arkana. pp. 378. ISBN 0-14-019155-0. OCLC 21226282. 

Bibliography

Further reading

  • "Indo-European *Deiwos and Related Words" by Grace Sturtevant Hopkins, Language Dissertations number XII, December 1932 (supplement to Language, journal of the Linguistic Society of America).
  • Cook, Arthur Bernard. "The European Sky-God. III: The Italians." Folklore 16, no. 3 (1905): 260-332. www.jstor.org/stable/1253947.
  • Cook, Arthur Bernard. "Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak. (Conclusion.)." The Classical Review 18, no. 7 (1904): 360-75. www.jstor.org/stable/694614.
  • KERÉNYI, CARL, and Christopher Holme. "THE WORD ‘ZEUS’ AND ITS SYNONYMS, ‘THEOS’ AND ‘DAIMON’." In Archetypal Images in Greek Religion: 5. Zeus and Hera: Archetypal Image of Father, Husband, and Wife, 3-20. PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY: Princeton University Press, 1975. doi:10.2307/j.ctt13x190c.5.
  • Kretschmer, Paul. "Dyaus, Ζεὺς, Diespiter Und Die Abstrakta Im Indogermanischen." Glotta 13, no. 1/2 (1923): 101-14. www.jstor.org/stable/40265088.
  • Laroche, E. "Les Noms Anatoliens Du "dieu" Et Leurs Dérivés." Journal of Cuneiform Studies 21 (1967): 174-77. doi:10.2307/1359369.
  • Seebold, Elmar. "Der Himmel, Der Tag Und Die Götter Bei Den Indogermanen." Historische Sprachforschung / Historical Linguistics 104, no. 1 (1991): 29-45. www.jstor.org/stable/40849007.

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