Jinn

Jinn

Jinn gather to do battle with the hero Faramarz. Illustration in an illuminated manuscript of the Iranian epic Shahnameh
Grouping	Mythical creature
Folklore	Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia, Islamic folklore

Jinn (Arabic: جِنّ‎, jinn) – also romanized as djinn or anglicized as genies – are invisible creatures in early religion in pre-Islamic Arabia and later in Islamic culture and beliefs.^[1] Like humans, they are accountable for their deeds and can be either believers (Muslims) or disbelievers (kafir), depending on whether they accept God's guidance. Since jinn are neither innately evil nor innately good, Islam acknowledged spirits from other religions and was able to adapt them during its expansion. Jinn are not a strictly Islamic concept; they may represent several pagan beliefs integrated into Islam.^{[2][lower-alpha 1]} To assert a strict monotheism and the Islamic concept of tawhid (oneness of God), Islam denies all affinities between the jinn and God, thus placing the jinn parallel to humans, also subject to God's judgment and afterlife. The Quran condemns the pre-Islamic Arabian practice of worshipping or seeking protection from them.^[4]

Although generally invisible, jinn are supposed to be composed of thin and subtle bodies (Arabic: أَجْسَام), and can change at will. They favour a snake form, but can also choose to appear as scorpions, lizards, or as humans. They may even engage in sexual affairs with humans and produce offspring. If they are injured by someone, they usually seek revenge or possess the assailant's body, refusing to leave it until forced to do so by exorcism. Jinn do not usually meddle in human affairs, preferring to live with their own kind in tribes similar to those of pre-Islamic Arabia.

Individual jinn appear on charms and talismans. They are called upon for protection or magical aid, often under the leadership of a king. Many people who believe in jinn wear amulets to protect themselves against the assaults of jinn, sent out by sorcerers and witches. A commonly-held belief maintains that jinn cannot hurt someone who wears something with the name of God written upon it. While some Muslim scholars in the past had ambivalent attitudes towards jinn, contemporary Muslim scholarship increasingly associate jinn with idolatry.

Etymology and translation

The winged genie in the bucket and cone motif, depicting a demi-divine entity,^[5] probably a forerunner of the pre-Islamic tutelary deities, who became the jinn in Islam. Relief from the north wall of the Palace of king Sargon II at Dur Sharrukin, 713–716 BCE.

Jinn is an Arabic collective noun deriving from the Semitic root JNN (Arabic: جَنّ / جُنّ, jann), whose primary meaning is 'to hide' or 'to adapt'. Some authors interpret the word to mean, literally, 'beings that are concealed from the senses'.^[6] Cognates include the Arabic majnūn (مَجْنُون, 'possessed' or, generally, 'insane'), jannah (جَنَّة, 'garden', 'eden' or 'heaven'), and janīn (جَنِين, 'embryo').^[7] Jinn is properly treated as a plural (however in Classical Arabic, may also appear as jānn, Arabic: جَانّ), with the singular being jinnī (Arabic: جِنِّيّ).^{[lower-alpha 2]}

The origin of the word jinn remains uncertain.^[3]:{{{1}}} Some scholars relate the Arabic term jinn to the Latin genius – a guardian spirit of people and places in Roman religion – as a result of syncretism during the reign of the Roman empire under Tiberius and Augustus;^[8]:{{{1}}} however, this derivation is also disputed.^[3]:{{{1}}} Supporters argue that both Roman genii as well as Arabian jinn are considered to be lesser deities inhabiting local sanctuaries, trees or springs, and persons or families.^[9] Aramaic ginnaya (Classical Syriac: ܓܢܝܐ‎) with the meaning of 'tutelary deity'^[3]:{{{1}}} or 'guardian' are attributed to similar functions and are another possible origin of the term jinn.

Another suggestion holds that the word is of Persian origin and appeared in the form of the Avestic Jaini, a wicked (female) spirit. Jaini were among various creatures in the possibly even pre-Zoroastrian mythology of peoples of Iran.^[10][11] Wensick advocates a purely Arabic origin of the term, asserting that according to the common Semitic view psychic and bodily affections are caused by spirits. An object reacting upon such an affect would be an incarnation of said spirit. Since these spirits are covered from the sight of humans, they would have been called jinn.^[12]:{{{1}}}

The anglicized form genie is a borrowing of the French génie, also from the Latin genius. It first appeared^[13] in 18th-century translations of the Thousand and One Nights from the French,^[14] where it had been used owing to its rough similarity in sound and sense and further applies to benevolent intermediary spirits, in contrast to the malevolent spirits called 'demon' and 'heavenly angels', in literature.^[15] In Assyrian art, creatures ontologically between humans and divinities are also called genie.^[16]

Though not a precise fit, descriptive analogies that have been used for these beings in Western thought include demon, spirit and fairy, depending on source.^{[17][3]:{{{1}}}} In turn, the Arabic translation for the Greek Nymph ('arūsa) is also used for jinn by Middle Eastern sources.^[12]:{{{1}}} Although the term spirit is frequently used, it has been criticised for not capturing the corporeal nature of the jinn, and that the term genie should be used instead.^[18]

Pre-Islamic era

A Sinai desert cobra. Snakes are the animals most frequently associated with jinn. Black snakes are commonly believed to be evil jinn, whereas white snakes are held to be benign (Muslim) jinn.^[19]

The exact origins of belief in jinn are not entirely clear.^{[20](pp 1–10)} Belief in jinn in the pre-Islamic Arab religion is testified not only by the Quran, but also by pre-Islamic literature in the seventh century.^[21]:{{{1}}} Some scholars of the Middle East hold that they originated as malevolent spirits residing in deserts and unclean places, who often took the forms of animals;^[20]:{{{1}}} others hold that they were originally pagan nature deities who gradually became marginalized as other deities took greater importance.^{[20](pp 1–10)}

Fear and veneration

Jinn were already worshipped by many Arabs during the Pre-Islamic period.^{[8]:{{{1}}}[21]:{{{1}}}} Julius Wellhausen observed that jinn were often thought to "inhabit or haunt desolate, dark and dingy places in the desert".^[22] For that reason, they were held responsible for various diseases and mental illnesses.^{[8]:{{{1}}}[20](pp 1–10)} Emilie Savage-Smith, asserts that malicious jinn and good gods were distinct in pre-Islamic Arabia, but admits that such distinction is not absolute.^[12]:{{{1}}} In the regions north to the Hejaz, Palmyra and Baalbek, the terms jinni and ilah (deity) were often used interchangeably.^[23] Julius Wellhausen likewise agrees that in pre-Islamic Arabia it was assumed there are at least some friendly and helpful beings among the jinn. He distinguishes between a god and a jinni, not on the basis of morality, but on the basis of worship; the jinn are worshipped in private while the gods are worshipped in public.^[12]:{{{1}}}

Al-Jahiz credits the pre-Islamic Arabs with believing that the society of jinn constitutes several tribes and groups, analogous to pre-Islamic Arabian culture. Jinn could also protect, marry, kidnap, possess, and kill people.^{[24][25](p 424)} Despite being invisible, jinn are considered to have bodies (ajsām), as described by Zakariya al-Qazwini, they are among animals, along with humans, burdened beasts (like horses), cattles, wild beasts, birds, and reptiles.^[26]:{{{1}}} Jinn are further known as shapeshifters, often assuming the form of an animal, favoring the form of a snake. Other chthonic animals regarded as forms of jinn include scorpions and lizards. Both scorpions and serpents have been venerated in the ancient Near East.

When they shift into a human form however, they are said to stay partly animal and are not fully human.^{[3]:{{{1}}}[8]:{{{1}}}} Although the power of jinn usually exceed those of humans, it is conceivable a man could kill a jinni in single combat, but feared for attacking without being seen.^[27] Some sources even speak of killed jinn leaving behind a carcass similar to either a serpent or a scorpion.^{[8](pp91–93)}

Poetry and Soothsaying

Despite that they were often feared or inspired awe, the jinn were also pictured to befriend humans or have romantic feelings for them. According to common Arabian belief, soothsayers, pre-Islamic philosophers, and poets were inspired by the jinn.^{[8]:{{{1}}}[20](pp 1–10)}

The Arabian poet al-Aʿshā (d. after 3/625) is said to got his inspiration for his poetry by a friend named Misḥal ("daʿawtu khalīlī Misḥalan") and further calls him his jinni-brother ("akhī ʾl-jinnī").^[28] Similarly, the poet Thābit (d. 54/674) who later converted to Islam and became known as "the poet of the prophet", referred to his jinni-friend as his "sharp-sighted brother from the jinn" ("wa-akhī min al-jinn al-baṣīr").^[28] The relationship between jinn and humans can also be romantic in nature. According to one famous Arabian story, the jinni Manzur fell in love with a human woman called Habbah. He is supposed to have taught her the arts of healing.^[29]

The mutual relationship between jinn and humans is different than that of a jinni and a soothsayer (kāhin). The soothsayer is presented as someone who is totally controlled by the jinni entering. The soothsayer was consulted to reveal hidden information or settle disputes, as it was believed, the jinn speaking through them reveal hidden knowledge.^[30]

Islam

Quran

The 72nd chapter of the Qur'an entitled Al-Jinn (The Jinn), as well as the heading and introductory bismillah of the next chapter entitled al-Muzzammil (The Enshrouded One)

Jinn are mentioned approximately 29 times in the Quran.^[20]:{{{1}}} The Quran does confirm their existence to Muslims, but assumes that the audience is familiar with the subject without elaborating on the jinn in further detail.^[31] According to the Quran 51:56-56, Muhammad was sent as a prophet to both human and jinn communities, and that prophets and messengers were sent to both communities.^[32][33][34]

Throughout the Quran humans and jinn (al-ins wa-l-jinn) appear frequently as a pair, designating their equal status in regards of their creation and rejecting that jinn share divinity with the Creator.^{[35]:{{{1}}}[5]} The term ins derives from anisa, which means "to be familiar with", and refers to recognisable familiar human beings. In contrast, the term jinn refers to foreign, invisible, or unknown anthropomorphic beings, which are nonetheless subject to the same considerations as the former.^[9]:{{{1}}} They were both created to worship God ( 51:56).^{[36][35]:{{{1}}}} Because they are supposed to worship God from free will, they are both able for good and evil deeds ( 7:179, 55:56).^{[36][35]:{{{1}}}} They are, like humans, rational beings formed of nations ( 7:38).^{[36][35]:{{{1}}}}

Surah al-jinn is about the revelation to jinn.^[8]:{{{1}}} The same Surah mentions righteous jinn on one hand, and malicious jinn on the other.^[35]:{{{1}}} The jinn can neither harm nor benefit humans, for they are occupied with looking after themselves and their own place on the cosmos.^[35]:{{{1}}} This is in notable contrast to demons and devils in the Judeo-Christian tradition.^[35]:{{{1}}} The Quran doesn't condemn the jinn as a source of harm, but by mistaking them for beings deserving cultic veneration.( 72:6).^{[36][12]:{{{1}}}[35]:{{{1}}}} Jinn and humans are blamed for ascribing divine attributes to another creature (i.e. jinn); jinn to themselves and humans to the jinn.^{[12]:{{{1}}}[9]:{{{1}}}}

Despite their similarities, there are important differences between these two species recognised. Whereas humans are made from "clay" or "dirt", jinn were created from "smokeless fire" ( Quran 15:27, Quran 55:15),^[35]:{{{1}}} which is possibly the reason why they are credited with some extraordinary abilities, such as invisibility, transformation, and ascending into the air like devils ( Quran 72:8).^[35]:{{{1}}} Despite some superhuman powers, the jinn occupy no fundamentally different position in the Quran than humans. Like humans, the jinn have no knowledge of the future.^[35]:{{{1}}} Like humanity, jinn face epistemic limitations regarding "the hidden/occult" (ar-ghayb) and have to rely on God's messengers, and face eschatological judgement.^{[35]:{{{1}}}[37][36]}

Exegesis

Kashan, Iran, late 12th–13th century mina’i-fritware bowl. The scene in this bowl can be understood as depicting the enthroned (Second) Sulaymān with messengers to either side, crowned human headed winged jinn.^[38]

In Quranic interpretation, the term jinn can be used in two different ways:^{[39]:{{{1}}}[9]}

1. a specific invisible being, offspring of abu Jann considered to be, along with humans, thaqalān (accountable for their deeds), created out of "fire and air" (Arabic: مَارِجٍ مِن نَّار, mārijin min nār).^[40]
2. any object that cannot be detected by human sensory organs, including angels, devils, and the (spiritual) interior of human beings.^{[40][41][lower-alpha 3]}

Belief in jinn is not included among the six articles of Islamic faith, as belief in angels is. Nontheless, many Muslim scholars, including the Hanbalī scholar ibn Taymiyya and the Ẓāhirī scholar ibn Hazm, believe they are essential to the Islamic faith, since they are mentioned in the Quran.^{[3]:{{{1}}}[44]} It is generally accepted by the majority of Muslim scholars that jinn can possess individuals. This is considered to be part of the doctrines (aqidah) of the "people of the Sunnah" (ahl as-sunnah wal-jammah'a) in the tradition of Ash'ari.^[45]:{{{1}}} The Atharī scholars ibn Taimiyya and ibn Qayyim agree on this matter.^[45] From among the Sunni schools of theology, only the Māturīdīs seems to debate possession. Al-Rustughfanī deemed jinn-possession impossible.^[46] Al-Māturīdī focuses on the dynamics between jinn and humans based on Quran 72:6. He states that seeking refuge among the jinn increases fear and anxiety, however, not because of the jinn, but due to the psychological dependence of the individual towards external powers. By that, he refers to seeking refuge among the jinn as a form of širk, due to the reliance on a created thing instead of God.^[39]:{{{1}}}

Jurisprudence

The Singer Ibrahim and the jinn. Ibrahim has been imprisoned by his master Muhammad al-Amin and visited by a jinn in guise of an old man. The jinn offers him food and drink and is so impressed by Ibrahim's voice that he convinces Muhammad to free him.^[47]

The jinn are obligated to follow the divine law (sharīʿa), as derived from the Quran by Muslim jurists (faqīh). Thus, the jinn are considered, along with humans, to be mukallāf.

Since both creations must perform the required prayers (salah), Muslim jurists debated if one is allowed to perform the prayer behind a jinni. Shibli cites two Hanbalite scholars who regard this as permissible without hesitation. Since Muhammad was sent to jinn and humans, both are mukallāf and subject to the command to pray.^{[lower-alpha 4]}

Because humans and jinn are capable of procreation, Muslim jurists dealt with the issue of permissibility of intercourse between these two types of creatures. Some Ḥadīths, though considered fabricated (mawḍūʻ) by some muhaddith (hadith scholars), pushed the necessity for an explanation:^[48]

"The Hour will come when the children of jinn will become many among you."

—Suyuti, Laqt al-marjân, 38.^[48]

"Among you are those who are expatriated (mugharrabûn);" and this, he explained, meant "crossed with jinn."

—Suyuti, Laqt al-marjân, 28.^[48]

Although there are recorded cases between human-jinn relationships^{[lower-alpha 5]} most Muslim jurists agree that such a relationship is not permissible.^[49] Even those scholars who allowed such relationships, still considered them undesirable (makruh).^[48] Offspring of human-jinn relationships are nonetheless, usually considered to be gifted and talented people with special abilities.^[25]

Although conjuring jinn is considered unbelief (kufr) by Islamic scholars, most agree that they are capable of performing magic.^{[50][further explanation needed]}

Folklore

Examples of the Jinn of the Air depicted on Seljuk 13th century tilework from Kubad Abad.

The jinn (also known as: Albanian: Xhindi, Turkish: Cin, Russian: Chort) were adopted by later Islamic culture, since the Quran affirms their existence.^[51] Although depictions are categorized into little tradition (folklore) and greater tradition (official Islam) for research purposes, both depictions are largely the same.^{[lower-alpha 6]}

The Quran doesn't consider foreign mythological beings to be devils, but entities erroneously ascribed divine power to. Therefore, jinn were considered a third class of invisible beings, often neutral or morally ambiguous, not consequently equated with devils.^[8]:{{{1}}} Islam allowed to integrate local beliefs about spirits and deities from Iran, Africa, Turkey and India, into a monotheistic framework without demonizing them.^[52] Thus, they exist alongside other mythological entities, such as demons (divs) and peri (fairies).^[53]

The moral attitude of the jinn is usually associated with their religion. Good jinn are usually considered Muslim jinn or jinn Islam, whereas unbelieving jinn were tempted by the devils (shayatin) and are called kāfir jinn or jinn kāfir.^[54] Besides Islam, they could also practise Christianity and Judaism.^[55] Good jinn might teach people moral lessons and might be benevolent,^[56] or aid spiritual persons, such as shamans (kam) in Central Asia, or spiritual healers in Senegal.^[57][58]

Most of the time, jinn are believed not to interfere with humans and live mostly in desolate or abandoned places.^[59][60] This is, for example, evident from the Turkish phrase İn Cin top oynuyor.^[61] It is only when they are angered or disturbed, for example, if their children are trodden upon or hot water is thrown on them,^[62] that they take revenge on humans. For this reason, Muslims utter "destur" (permission), before doing something which might accidentally hurt jinn, such as sprinkling hot water on public grounds or into bushes, so present jinn are advised to leave the place.^{[59][63][20]:{{{1}}}}

Angered or straightforwardly evil mannered jinn, could hurt people by inflicting physical damage, causing illness, or taking control over a human's body.^[55] A human, however, can't be controlled by jinn at any time. The individual needs to be in a state of dha'iyfah (Arabic: ضَعِيفَة, "(mental) weakness"). Feelings of insecurity, mental instability, unhappy love and depression (being "tired from the soul") are forms of dha'iyfah.^[64] In that case, it is believed that an exorcism is required to save the person from the assaulting jinni.^[65] To protect oneself from jinn, many Muslims wear amulets with the name of God graved on. Jinn are also said to be scared of iron and wolves.^[66]

Culture

The cave chamber Majlis al Jinn, believed to be a gathering place of the jinn in Omani lore

In folk literature

The jinn can be found in various stories of the One Thousand and One Nights, including in:

• "The Fisherman and the Jinni";^[67]
• "Ma‘ruf the Cobbler": more than three different types of jinn are described;^[68][69]
• "Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp": two jinn help young Aladdin;^[70] and
• "Tale of Núr al-Dín Alí and his Son Badr ad-Dīn Ḥasan": Ḥasan Badr al-Dīn weeps over the grave of his father until sleep overcomes him, and he is awoken by a large group of sympathetic jinn.^[71]

In some stories, the jinn are credited with the ability of instantaneous travel (from China to Morocco in a single instant); in others, they need to fly from one place to another, though quite fast (from Baghdad to Cairo in a few hours).

Modern and post-modern era

Prevalence of belief

Though discouraged by some teachings of modern Islam, cultural beliefs about jinn remain popular among Muslim societies and their understanding of cosmology and anthropology.^[72] Affirmation on the existence of jinn as sapient creatures living along with humans is still widespread in the Middle Eastern world, and mental illnesses are still often attributed to jinn possession.^[73]

According to a survey undertaken by the Pew Research Center in 2012, at least 86% of Muslims in Morocco, 84% in Bangladesh, 63% in Turkey, 55% in Iraq, 53% in Indonesia, 47% in Thailand and 15% elsewhere in Central Asia, affirm a belief in the existence of jinn. The low rate in Central Asia might be influenced by Soviet religious oppression.^[74] 36% of Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina believe in jinn, which is higher than the European average (30%), although only 21% believe in sorcery and 13% would wear talisman for protection against jinn. 12% support offerings and appeal given to the jinn.^[75]

Sleep paralysis is understood as a "jinn attack" by many sleep paralysis sufferers in Egypt, as discovered by a Cambridge neuroscience study Jalal, Simons-Rudolph, Jalal, & Hinton (2013).^[76] The study found that as many as 48% of those who experience sleep paralysis in Egypt believe it to be an assault by the jinn.^[76] Almost all of these sleep paralysis sufferers (95%) would recite verses from the Quran during sleep paralysis to prevent future "jinn attacks". In addition, some (9%) would increase their daily Islamic prayer (salah) to get rid of these assaults by jinn.^[76] Sleep paralysis is generally associated with great fear in Egypt, especially if believed to be supernatural in origin.^[77]

However, despite belief in jinn being prevalent in Iran's folklore, especially among more observant believers of Islam, some phenomena such as sleep paralysis were traditionally attributed to other supernatural beings; in the case of sleep paralysis, it was bakhtak (night hag). But at least in some areas of Iran, an epileptic seizure was thought to be a jinn attack or jinn possession, and people would try to exorcise the jinn by citing the name of God and using iron blades to draw protective circles around the victim.^[78]

Most of the Islamic-majority countries in West Africa have a long tradition of jinn stories and populations that mostly believe in their existence, although there are some Islamic movements in the area that reject their existence.^[79]

In Iran, many modern preachers substituted (evil) jinn by devils.^[80] Similarly, in many modern tales, the term jinn is for div (demon), causing a shift in meaning.^[81]

Post-modern literature and movies

Jinn feature in the magical realism genre, introduced into Turkish literature by Tekin (1983),^[82] who uses magical elements known from pre-Islamic and Islamic Anatolian lore. Since the 1980s, this genre has become prominent in Turkish literature. A story by Tekin combines elements of folkloric and religious belief with a rationalized society. The protagonist is a girl who befriends inanimate objects and several spirits, such as jinn and peri (fairy). While the existence of jinn is generally accepted by the people within the novel, when her family moves from rural Anatolia into the city, the jinn do not appear anymore.

Jinn are still accepted as real by Muslims in the novel's urban setting, but play no part in modern life. The existence of jinn is accepted throughout the novel, but when the setting changes to the city, they cease to have any importance, symbolizing the replacement of tradition by modernization for Anatolian immigrants.^[83]

Contrary to the neutral to positive depiction of jinn in Tekin's novels, jinn became a common trope in Middle Eastern horror movies. In Turkish horror, jinn have been popular since 2004.^[84] They are still a popular trope today. A study from 2020 shows that jinn are still the favorite Horror element among teenagers.^[85] Out of 89 films, 59 have direct references to jinn as the antagonist, 12 use other sorts of demons, while other types of horror, such as the impending apocalypse, hauntings, or ghosts, constitute only 14 films.^[86] Unlike other Horror elements, such as ghosts and zombies, the existence of jinn is affirmed by the Quran, and thus it is accepted by the majority of Muslims.^[87] The presentation of jinn usually combines Quranic with oral and cultural beliefs about jinn.^[86] The jinn are presented as inactive inhabitants of the earth, only interfering with human affairs when summoned by a sorcerer or witch.^[87] Although the jinn, often summoned by pagan rituals or sorcery, appear to pose a challenge to Islam, the films assure that Islamic law protects Muslims from their presence. It is the one who summoned them in the first place who gets punished or suffers from the presence of jinn.^[87]

Similarly, jinn appear in Iranian horror movies despite a belittling of the popular understanding of jinn by an increasing number of Islamic fundamentalistic reformists.^[88] In the post-Iranian revolution psychological horror movie Under the Shadow the protagonist is afraid the jinn, who are completely veiled and concealed and intrude into her life frequently. In the end, however, she is forced by the Iranian guards to take on a Chador, and thus becomes like the jinn she feared. The jinn symbolize the Islamic regime and their intrusion into private life, criticises the Islamic regime and patriarchal structures.^[89]

Visual art

Although there are very few visual representations of jinn in Islamic art, when they do appear, it is usually related to a specific event or individual jinn.

Visual representations of jinn appear in manuscripts and their existence is often implied in works of architecture by the presence of apotropaic devices like serpents, which were intended to ward off evil spirits. Lastly, King Solomon is illustrated very often with jinn as the commander of an army that included them.

In the Kitāb al-Bulhān

One of the Seven jinn-kings in the late 14th-century Book of Wonders. The red king of the djinns, Al-Ahmar.

In the Book of Wonders compiled in the 14th century by Abd al-Hasan al-Isfahani, there are illustrations of various supernatural beings (demons, ʿafārīt,^[90] jinn, the evil eye, devils, lilith, celestial spirits, etc.).^{[91][92]:{{{1}}}}

Each celestial spirits is referred to as a "King of the Jinn", represented alongside his spiritual helpers and alongside the corresponding talismanic symbols.^[92]:{{{1}}} For instance, the 'Red King of Tuesday' was depicted in the Book of Wonders as a sinister form astride a lion. In the same illustration, he holds a severed head and a sword, because the 'Red King of Tuesday' was aligned with Mars, the god of war.^[92]:{{{1}}} Alongside that, there were illustrations of the 'Gold King' and the 'White King'.^[92]:{{{1}}}

Aside from the seven 'Kings of the Jinn', the Book of Wonders included an illustration of Huma (Arabic: حمى), or the 'Fever'. Huma was depicted as three-headed and as embracing the room around him, in order to capture someone and bring on a fever in them.^[92]:{{{1}}}

Ornamentation of intertwined serpents above the door of the Citadel of Aleppo.

Architectural representation

Takht-i Marmar, the marble throne supported by jinn and divs (demons), Gulistan Palace, Teheran, created for Fath Ali Shah (r. 1797–1833).

In addition to these representations of jinn in vicinity to kingship, there were also architectural references to jinn throughout the Islamic world. In the Citadel of Aleppo, the entrance gate Bab al-Hayyat made reference to jinn in the stone relief carvings of serpents; likewise, the water gate at Ayyubid Harran housed two copper sculptures of jinn, serving as talismans to ward off both snakes and evil jinn in the form of snakes.^[93]:{{{1}}}

Alongside these depictions of the jinn found at the Aleppo Citadel, depictions of the jinn can be found in the Rūm Seljuk palace. There are a phenomenal range of creatures that can be found on the eight-pointed tiles of the Seal of Sulaymān device.^[93]:{{{1}}} Among these were the jinn, that belonged among Solomon's army and as Solomon claimed to have control over the jinn, so did the Rūm Seljuk sultan that claimed to be the Sulaymān of his time.^[93]:{{{1}}} In fact, one of the most common representations of jinn are alongside or in association with King Solomon. It was thought that King Solomon had very close ties to the jinn, and even had control over many of them.^[93]:{{{1}}} The concept that a great and just ruler has the ability to command jinn was one that extended far past only King Solomon– it was also thought that emperors, such as Alexander the Great, could control an army of jinn in a similar way.^[93]:{{{1}}} Given this association, Jinn were often seen with Solomon in a princely or kingly context, such as the small, animal-like jinn sitting beside King Solomon on his throne illustrated in an illuminated manuscript of Aja'ib al-Makhluqat by Zakariya al-Qazwini, written in the 13th century.^[94]

Talismanic representation

Image of a talisman (Tawiz), supposed to ward off jinn, evil eye, sorcery, and demons.

The jinn had an indirect impact on Islamic art through the creation of talismans that were alleged to guard the bearer from the jinn and were enclosed in leather and included Qur'anic verses.^[8]:{{{1}}} It was not unusual for those talismans to be inscribed with separated Arabic letters, because the separation of those letters was thought to positively affect the potency of the talisman overall.^[8]:{{{1}}} An object that was inscribed with the word of Allah was thought to have the power to ward off evil from the person who obtained the object, though many of these objects also had astrological signs, depictions of prophets, or religious narratives.^[95]

Jinn and magical practises

Zawba'a or Zoba'ah, the jinn-king of Friday

Jinn might be invoked, along with demons and devils, for means of sorcery, incantation, protection, or divination.^[96][97] Soothsayers (kāhin) are credited with the ability to ask jinn about things of the past, since their lives are believed to last longer than that of humans.^[98]:{{{1}}}

Common beliefs regarding sorcery and commanding jinn are attested in ibn al-Nadim's Kitāb al-Fihrist.^[99]:{{{1}}} Since he locates such practises not as a branch of science or philosophy, but rather in a chapter about stories and fables, the author might not have believed in the efficiency on sorcery himself.^[99]:{{{1}}} He reports that the art of commanding jinn and demons is traced back to Solomon and Jamshid. The first who would have practised a lawful method of incantation is supposed to be Abū Naṣr Aḥmad b. Hilāl.^[99]:{{{1}}} Ibn Nadim explains lawful and unlawful subjugating of jinn and demons as distinct: While the former controls the jinn by the power of God's divine names, the latter pleases demons and devils by prohibited offerings and sinful acts.^[99]:{{{1}}} Al-Jāḥiẓ is another author who tells about another man allegedly controlling jinn and demons: In the Umayyad period, ibn Hilāl is said to have the power to summon demons and jinn.^[99]:{{{1}}} He further claimed to have married a daughter of Satan and begotten a child.^[99]:{{{1}}}

There is evidence that subjugation of spirits, jinn, and demons, was also cultivated by various Islamic authorities. Al-Ṭabasī, who was considered a reliable muḥadīth (scholar of ḥadīth) and pious ascetic, wrote an extensive treatise (al-Shāmil fī al-baḥr al-kāmil) on subjugating demons and jinn.^[99]:{{{1}}} According to Zakariya al-Qazwini, it was well-known that jinn obeyed al-Ṭabasī. He gives an example, that al-Ṭabasī demonstrated the jinn to the famous scholar Ghazālī, who saw them as shadows on the wall.^[99]:{{{1}}} He professes that jinn only obey when the individual turns away from the temptations of creation and devoting oneself towards God.^[99]:{{{1}}} The al-Shāmil gives detailed instructions for preparations of various incantations. Unlike, for example in the writings of al-Razi, the al-Shāmil has no direct link to Hellenistic or Hermetic magic or philosophy.^[99]:{{{1}}} Magic was also used in the Ottoman Empire as evident from the Talismanic shirts of Murad III.^[100]

Related to the occult traditions in Islamic culture is the belief in the "Seven kings of the Week", also known as rūḥāiya ulia (higher spirits; angels) and rūḥāiya sufula (lower spirits; demons). These beings are, for example, invoked for the preparation of Magic squares.^{[101][20]:{{{1}}}} This belief is attested by the Book of Wonders.^[92] It contains artistic depictions of several supernatural beings (demons, jinn, the evil eye, fever (Huma, Arabic: حمى), devils, lilith, etc.).^[91][92] Some of these beings indicate that the work connects Hebrew, Christian, and Islamic magical traditions.^[92] The original work is attributed to al-Bakhi, who founded a system of astrological magic based on Neo-Platonic thought.^[92] Although many pages are damaged, it is possible to reconstruct their meanings from Ottoman copies.^[92] Each king is depicted with helpers and associated talismanic symbols.^[92]

Comparative mythology

Ancient Mesopotamian religion

Beliefs in entities similar to the jinn are found throughout pre-Islamic Middle Eastern cultures.^{[20](pp1–10)} The ancient Sumerians believed in Pazuzu, a wind demon,^{[20](pp1–10)[102](pp147–148)} who was shown with "a rather canine face with abnormally bulging eyes, a scaly body, a snake-headed penis, the talons of a bird and usually wings."^{[102]:{{{1}}}} Ancient Mesopotamian religion has udug, Babylonian utukku, a class of demons that were believed to haunt remote wildernesses, graveyards, mountains, and the sea, all locations where jinn were later thought to reside.^{[20](pp1–10)} The Babylonians also believed in the rabisu, a vampiric demon believed to leap out and attack travelers at unfrequented locations, similar to the post-Islamic ghūl,^{[20](pp1–10)} a specific kind of jinn whose name is etymologically related to that of the Sumerian galla, a class of Underworld demon.^[103][104]

Lamashtu, also known as Labartu, was a divine demoness said to devour human infants.^{[20](pp1–10)[102]:{{{1}}}} Lamassu, also known as Shedu, were guardian spirits, sometimes with evil propensities.^{[20](pp1–10)[102](pp115–116)} The Assyrians believed in the alû, sometimes described as a wind demon residing in desolate ruins who would sneak into people's houses at night and steal their sleep.^{[20](pp1–10)}

In the ancient Syrian city of Palmyra, entities similar to jinn were known as ginnayê,^{[20](pp1–10)} an Aramaic name which may be etymologically derived from the name of the genii from Roman mythology.^{[20](pp1–10)} Like jinn among modern-day Bedouin, ginnayê were thought to resemble humans.^{[20](pp1–10)} They protected caravans, cattle, and villages in the desert^{[20](pp1–10)} and tutelary shrines were kept in their honor.^{[20](pp1–10)} They were frequently invoked in pairs.^{[20](pp1–10)}

Judaism

The sheyd אַשְמְדּאָי (Ašmodai) in bird-like form, with typical rooster feet, as depicted in Compendium rarissimum totius Artis Magicae 1775

The Jewish depiction of jinn (Hebrew: Shedim)^[105] closely resemble that of the Islamic depictions in many regards. The story of Solomon being replaced by the evil jinn-king, is well known in both Quranic exegesis and the Talmud.^[20]:{{{1}}} Likewise, they may be rebellious and evil or lawful obeying the holy scripture (i.e. the Torah).^[106] Their resemblance to humans is captured in a description in the Babylonian Talmud: "In three regards the shedim are like angels, and in three like humans: They have wings, they fly from one end of the world to another, they know the future listening from behind the veil of the angels; and in three regards they resemble humans: They eat and drink, procreate, and die like humans."^[107]

In earlier midrashim they are corporeal beings. If they take on human forms, their feet would remain that of roosters (instead of hooves in Muslim depiction). Later, in Judaism such entities developed into more abstract beings, in contrast to Islam where they retained their corporeal image.^[108] However, like their Islamic-counterparts they are credited with possession.^[105] Like Muslim excorcism on jinn, Jewish excorcism as well includes negotiations with these beings, asking for their religion, sex, name, and intention. The treatment of possession by jinn (jnun, shedim, etc.) differs from that of traditional Jewish cure of spirit possession associated with ghosts (Dybbuk).^[109]

Buddhism

As in Islam, the idea of spiritual entities converting to one's own religion can be found in Buddhism. According to lore, Buddha preached to Devas and Asura, spiritual entities who, like humans, are subject to the cycle of life, and who resemble the Islamic notion of jinn, who are also ontologically placed among humans in regard to eschatological destiny.^{[8]:{{{1}}}[110]}

Christianity

Abraham Ecchellensis writes that the jinn would be the children of Lilith and devils, therefore the jinn would share three qualities with humans, such as procreation, eating, and dying, but share three qualities with devils in regard to flying, invisibility, and passing through solid substances, a depiction linked to the Jewish account on shedim. Because of their human-like qualities, they are less noxious to humans than devils, and many would indeed live in some familiarity and even friendship with humans. In India, certain young jinn would assume a human form to play games with native children of human parents.^[111]

Van Dyck's Arabic translation of the Old Testament uses the alternative collective plural "jann" (Arab:الجان; translation:al-jānn) to render the Hebrew word usually translated into English as "familiar spirit" (אוב, Strong #0178) in several places (Leviticus 19:31, 20:6; 1 Samuel 28:3,7,9; 1 Chronicles 10:13).^[112]

Some scholars evaluated whether the jinn might be compared to fallen angels in Christian traditions. Comparable to Augustine's descriptions of fallen angels as ethereal, jinn seem to be considered as the same substance. Although the concept of fallen angels is not absent in the Quran,^[113] the jinn nevertheless differ in their major characteristics from that of fallen angels: While fallen angels fell from heaven, the jinn did not, but try to climb up to it in order to receive the news of the angels. Jinn are closer to daemons.^[114]

See also

• Throne Verse
• The Case of the Animals versus Man
• Daemon
• Human–animal hybrid
• Marid
• Nasnas
• Qareen
• Shadow person
• Superstitions in Muslim societies
• Three Thousand Years of Longing, a 2022 film starring Idris Elba as a djinn.
• Uthra
• Will-o'-the-wisp
• Yōkai

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

|last=Esterābādī |first=Solṭān-Moḥammad ibn Tāj al-Dīn Ḥasan
|date=n.d.
|title=Toḥfat al-majāles
|place=Tehran, IR

Further reading

External links

• Etymology of genie

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