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Lakshmi

Topic: Religion

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 31 min
Short description: Major Hindu goddess; goddess of wealth and beauty


Lakshmi
Mother Goddess
Goddess of Prosperity, Fortune, Wealth, Power, Abundance, Beauty[1][2] and Maya

Supreme Goddess in Vaishnavism[3]

Para Brahman[4]
Member of Tridevi and Pancha Prakriti
Raja Ravi Varma, Goddess Lakshmi, 1896.jpg
Sri Gaja Lakshmi by Raja Ravi Varma (1896)
Other namesBhargavi, Kamala, Narayani, Padma, Sri
Affiliation
AbodeVaikuntha, Manidvipa
Mantra
  • ॐ श्रीं श्रियें नमः। (Om̐ Śrī Sriyem̐ Namaḥ)
  • ॐ श्रीं महालक्ष्म्यै नमः। (Om̐ Śrīm̐ Mahālakṣmyaya Namaḥ)
SymbolsPadma (Lotus), Shankha (conch), Discus, Gada (mace), Jnana Mudra, Abhaya Mudra, Varadamudra, Gold
TreeTulasi
DayFriday
MountGaruda, Elephant, Lion or Tiger, Owl
FestivalsDeepavali (Lakshmi Puja), Sharad Purnima, Varalakshmi Vratam, Navaratri, Sankranti[5]
Personal information
SiblingsAlakshmi
ConsortVishnu[9]
Children• Kamadeva[6]

• Bala and Utsaha (Vayu Purana)[7] • Kardama, Chiklita, and 16 other sons (18 sons) (Rigveda)[8]

• Devasena and Valli (daughters) (South Indian tradition)

Template:Infobox Hindu term

Lakshmi (/ˈlʌkʃmi/;[10][nb 1] Sanskrit: लक्ष्मी, IAST: Lakṣmī, sometimes spelled Laxmi, lit. she who leads to one's goal) also known as Shri (Sanskrit: श्री, IAST: Śrī, lit. Noble),[12] is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity,[13] and associated with Maya ("Illusion"). Along with Parvati and Saraswati, she forms the Tridevi of Hindu goddesses.[14]

Within the goddess-oriented Shaktism, Lakshmi is venerated as the prosperity aspect of the Mother goddess.[15][16] Lakshmi is both the consort and the divine energy (shakti) of the Hindu god Vishnu, the Supreme Being of Vaishnavism; she is also the Supreme Goddess in the sect and assists Vishnu to create, protect, and transform the universe.[9][16][17][18] She is an especially prominent figure in Sri Vaishnavism, in which devotion to Lakshmi is deemed to be crucial to reach Vishnu.[19] Whenever Vishnu descended on the earth as an avatar, Lakshmi accompanied him as consort, for example, as Sita and Radha or Rukmini as consorts of Vishnu's avatars Rama and Krishna, respectively.[12][16][20] The eight prominent manifestations of Lakshmi, the Ashtalakshmi, symbolise the eight sources of wealth.[21]

Lakshmi is depicted in Indian art as an elegantly dressed, prosperity-showering golden-coloured woman standing or sitting in the padmasana position upon a lotus throne, while holding a lotus in her hand, symbolising fortune, self-knowledge, and spiritual liberation.[22][23] Her iconography shows her with four hands, which represent the four aspects of human life important to Hindu culture: dharma, kāma, artha, and moksha.[24][25] The Lakshmi Sahasranama of the Skanda Purana, Lakshmi Tantra, Markandeya Purana, Devi Mahatmya, and Vedic scriptures describe Lakshmi as having eight or eighteen hands, and as sitting on Garuda, a lion, or a tiger.[26][27][28] According to the Lakshmi Tantra, the goddess Lakshmi, in her ultimate form of Mahasri, has four arms of a golden complexion, and holds a citron, a club, a shield, and a vessel containing amrita.[29] In the Skanda Purana and the Venkatachala Mahatmayam, Sri, or Lakshmi, is praised as the mother of Brahma.[30]

Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for Lakshmi existing by the 1st millennium BCE.[31][32] Lakshmi's iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia, estimated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium CE.[33][34] The day of Lakshmi Puja during Navaratri, and the festivals of Deepavali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are celebrated in her honour.[35]

Etymology and epithets

A painting of Lakshmi on the inner walls of the Tanjore Big temple.

Lakshmi in Sanskrit is derived from the root word lakṣ (Template:Lang-sa2) and lakṣa (Template:Lang-sa2), meaning 'to perceive, observe, know, understand' and 'goal, aim, objective', respectively.[36] These roots give Lakshmi the symbolism: know and understand your goal.[37] A related term is lakṣaṇa, which means 'sign, target, aim, symbol, attribute, quality, lucky mark, auspicious opportunity'.[38]

Gaja Lakshmi, Cambodia, ca. 944-968

Lakshmi has numerous epithets and numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite her various names:[39][40] such as Sri (Radiance, eminence, splendor, wealth), Padmā (she who is mounted upon or dwelling in a lotus or She of the lotus), Kamalā or Kamalatmika (She of the lotus), Padmapriyā (Lotus-lover), Padmamālādhāra Devī (Goddess bearing a garland of lotuses), Padmamukhī (Lotus-faced-she whose face is as like as a lotus), Padmākṣī: (Lotus-eyed - she whose eyes are as beautiful as a lotus), Padmahasta: (Lotus-hand - she whose hand is holding [a] lotus[es]), Padmasundarī (She who is as beautiful as a lotus), Padmavati (She who was born from a lotus), Śrījā (Jatika of Sri), Narayani (belonging to Narayana or the wife of Narayana), Vaishnavi (worshipper of Vishnu or the power of Vishnu), Viṣṇupriyā (who is the beloved of Vishnu), Nandika (the one who gives pleasure). Shaktas also consider Lalita, who is praised with 1,000 names in the Lalita Sahasranama, as Lakshmi.[41]

Lakshmi Sahasranama of Skanda Purana praises Lakshmi as Mahadevi (she who is the great goddess), Mahamaya (she who is a great illusion), Karaveera Nivasini (The Goddess Who lives in Karaveera/Kolhapur) and Maha Astha Dasa Pithagne (she who has 18 great Shakti Peethas). She is also praised as Mahalakshmi (she who is great Lakshmi), Mahakali (she who is great Kali) and Mahasaraswati (she who is great Saraswati) who are the primary deities in Devi Mahatmya. The other prominent names included in this text are, Bhuvaneshvari (she who is the Queen or ruler of the Universe), Katyayani (she who is the daughter of sage Katyayana), Kaushiki (Shakti that came out of the sheath (or Kosha) of Parvati), Brahmani (She who is the power of Brahma), Kamakshi (she who fulfils desires by her eyes), Chandi (she who killed Mahishasura), Chamunda (She who killed Chanda and Munda), Madhu Kaidabha Bhanjini (she who killed Madhu and Kaidabha), Durga (she who killed Durgamasura), Maheshvari (she who is the power of Maheshvara), Varahi (she who is the power of Varaha, a form of Vishnu), Narasimhi (she who is the power of Narasimha, a form of Vishnu), Srividyaa (she who is Sri Vidya), Sri Manthra Raja Rajini (the queen of Sri Vidya), Shadadharadhi devata (she who is the goddess of the six chakras).[42][43] Dutch author Dirk van der Plas says, "In Lakshmi Tantra, a text of Visnuite signature, the name Mahamaya is connected with third or destructive of Goddess' three partial functions, while in supreme form she is identified with Lakshmi".[44]

Her other names include:[39][45] Aishwarya, Akhila, Anagha, Anapagamini, Anumati, Apara, Aruna, Atibha, Avashya, Bala, Bhargavi, Bhudevi, Chakrika, Chanchala, Chandravadana, Chandrasahodari, Chandraroopa, Devi, Deepta, Haripriya, Harini, Harivallabha, Hemamalini, Hiranyavarna, Indira, Jalaja, Jambhavati, Janaki, Janamodini, Jyoti, Jyotsna, Kalyani, Kamalika, Ketaki, Kriyalakshmi, Kshirsha, Kuhu, Lalima, Madhavi, Madhu, Malti, Manushri, Nandika, Nandini, Nikhila, Nila Devi, Nimeshika, Parama, Prachi, Purnima, Radha, Ramaa, Rukmini, Samruddhi, Samudra Tanaya, Satyabhama, Shraddha, Shreeya, Sita, Smriti, Sridevi, Sudha, Sujata, Swarna Kamala, Taruni, Tilottama, Tulasi, Vasuda, Vasudhara, Vasundhara, Varada, Varalakshmi, Vedavati, Vidya, Vimala, and Viroopa.

Symbolism and iconography

Bas relief of GajaLakshmi at the Buddhist Sanchi Stupa, Stupa I, North gateway, Satavahana dynasty sculpture, 1st century CE.[46]

Lakshmi is a member of the Tridevi, the triad of great goddesses. She represents the Rajas guna, and the Iccha-shakti.[47][48] The image, icons, and sculptures of Lakshmi are represented with symbolism. Her name is derived from Sanskrit root words for knowing the goal and understanding the objective.[37] Her four arms are symbolic of the four goals of humanity that are considered good in Hinduism: dharma (pursuit of ethical, moral life), artha (pursuit of wealth, means of life), kama (pursuit of love, emotional fulfillment), and moksha (pursuit of self-knowledge, liberation).[25][49]

In Lakshmi's iconography, she is either sitting or standing on a lotus and typically carrying a lotus in one or two hands. The lotus carries symbolic meanings in Hinduism and other Indian traditions. It symbolizes knowledge, self-realization, and liberation in the Vedic context, and represents reality, consciousness, and karma ('work, deed') in the Tantra (Sahasrara) context.[50] The lotus, a flower that blooms in clean or dirty water, also symbolises purity regardless of the good or bad circumstances in which it grows. It is a reminder that good and prosperity can bloom and not be affected by evil in one's surroundings.[51][52]

Lakshmi Sahasranama of Skanda Purana, Lakshmi Tantra, Markandeya Purana, Devi Mahatmya and Vedic scriptures describes Lakshmi as having eighteen hands and is described as holding rosary, axe, mace, arrow, thunderbolt, lotus, pitcher, rod, sakti, sword, shield, conch, bell, wine-cup, trident, noose and the discus in her eighteen hands.[26][27][28]

Below, behind, or on the sides, Lakshmi is very often shown with one or two elephants, known as Gajalakshmi, and occasionally with an owl.[53] Elephants symbolise work, activity, and strength, as well as water, rain and fertility for abundant prosperity.[54] The owl signifies the patient striving to observe, see, and discover knowledge, particularly when surrounded by darkness. As a bird reputedly blinded by daylight, the owl also serves as a symbolic reminder to refrain from blindness and greed after knowledge and wealth have been acquired.[55] According to historian D. D. Kosambi, most of the Imperial Gupta kings were Vaishnavas and held the goddess Lakshmi in the highest esteem.[56] Goddess Lakshmi is Simhavahini (mount as lion) on most of the coins during their rule.[57] Coins during the rule of Prakashadiya, a Gupta ruler, contain the Garudadhvaja on the obverse and Lakshmi on the reverse.[56] The Gupta period sculpture only used to associate lions with Lakshmi but was later attributed to Durga or a combined form of both goddesses.[58][59][60][61] Lions are also associated with Veera Lakshmi, who is one of the Ashtalakshmi.[62] Historian B. C. Bhattacharya says, "An image of Gajalakshmi is found with two lions — one on either side of her. Two elephants are also shown near her head and by this we can say that Lion is also the vahana of Lakshmi along with Garuda".[63]

In some representations, wealth either symbolically pours out from one of her hands or she simply holds a jar of money. This symbolism has a dual meaning: wealth manifested through Lakshmi means both materials as well as spiritual wealth.[50] Her face and open hands are in a mudra that signifies compassion, giving or dāna ('charity').[49]

Lord Vishnu with his head on the lap of the Goddess Andal

Lakshmi typically wears a red dress embroidered with golden threads, which symbolizes fortune and wealth. She, goddess of wealth and prosperity, is often represented with her husband Vishnu, the god who maintains human life filled with justice and peace. This symbolism implies wealth and prosperity are coupled with the maintenance of life, justice, and peace.[50] When Lakshmi and Vishnu appear together in images and statues, she is significantly smaller, which is often used to portray her devotional status as a wife. A frequently depicted scene of the pair illustrates Lakshmi massaging Vishnu's feet.[64]

In Japan, where Lakshmi is known as Kisshōten, she is commonly depicted with the Nyoihōju gem (如意宝珠) in her hand.[citation needed]

Literature

Goddess Lakshmi
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Lakshmi is one of the tridevi of Hindu goddesses. Her iconography is found in ancient and modern Hindu and Buddhist temples.

Vedas and Brahmanas

The meaning and significance of Lakshmi evolved in ancient Sanskrit texts.[65] Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda, in which the name is used to mean 'kindred mark, sign of auspicious fortune'.

Template:Lang-sa2
bhadraiṣāṁ lakṣmīrnihitādhi vāci

"an auspicious fortune is attached to their words"

—Rig Veda, x.71.2 —translated by John Muir[65]

In Atharva Veda, transcribed about 1000 BCE, Lakshmi evolves into a complex concept with plural manifestations. Book 7, Chapter 115 of Atharva Veda describes the plurality, asserting that a hundred Lakshmis are born with the body of a mortal at birth, some good, Punya ('virtuous') and auspicious, while others bad, paapi ('evil') and unfortunate. The good are welcomed, while the bad urged to leave.[65] The concept and spirit of Lakshmi and her association with fortune and the good is significant enough that Atharva Veda mentions it in multiple books: for example, in Book 12, Chapter 5 as Punya Lakshmi.[66] In some chapters of Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, an auspicious sign, good luck, good fortune, prosperity, success, and happiness.[2]

Later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as the wife of Viṣṇu (Nārāyaṇa).[2] For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri (Lakshmi) is part of one of many theories, in ancient India, about the creation of the universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges from Prajapati, after his intense meditation on the creation of life and nature of the universe. Sri is described as a resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy and powers.[65] The gods are bewitched, desire her, and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, talents, and gifts. Prajapati refuses, tells the gods that men should not kill women and that they can seek her gifts without violence.[67] The gods then approach Lakshmi. Agni gets food, Soma gets kingly authority, Varuna gets imperial authority, Mitra acquires martial energy, Indra gets force, Brihaspati gets priestly authority, Savitri acquires dominion, Pushan gets splendour, Saraswati takes nourishment and Tvashtri gets forms.[65] The hymns of Shatapatha Brahmana thus describe Sri as a goddess born with and personifying a diverse range of talents and powers.

According to another legend, she emerges during the creation of universe, floating over the water on the expanded petals of a lotus flower; she is also variously regarded as wife of Dharma, mother of Kāma, sister or mother of Dhātṛ and Vidhātṛ, wife of Dattatreya, one of the nine Shaktis of Viṣṇu, a manifestation of Prakṛti as identified with Dākshāyaṇī in Bharatasrama and as Sita, wife of Rama.[2][68]:103–12

Epics

In the Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches, happiness, loveliness, grace, charm, and splendor.[2] In another Hindu legend about the creation of the universe as described in Ramayana,[69] Lakshmi springs with other precious things from the foam of the ocean of milk when it is churned by the gods and demons for the recovery of Amṛta. She appeared with a lotus in her hand and so she is also called Padmā.[2][68]:108–11

Sita, the female protagonist of the Ramayana and her husband, the god-king Rama are considered as avatars of Lakshmi and Vishnu, respectively. In the Mahabharata, Draupadi is described as a partial incarnation of Sri (Lakshmi).[70] However, other chapter of the epic states that Lakshmi took the incarnation of Rukmini, the chief-wife of the Hindu god Krishna.[nb 2]

Upanishads

Shakta Upanishads are dedicated to the Tridevi of goddesses—Lakshmi, Saraswati and Parvati. Saubhagyalakshmi Upanishad describes the qualities, characteristics, and powers of Lakshmi.[73] In the second part of the Upanishad, the emphasis shifts to the use of yoga and transcendence from material craving to achieve spiritual knowledge and self-realization, the true wealth.[74][75] Saubhagya-Lakshmi Upanishad synonymously uses Sri to describe Lakshmi.[73]

Stotram and sutras

Numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite hymns dedicated to Lakshmi.[39] She is a major goddess in Puranas and Itihasa of Hinduism. In ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi. For example:[39]

Every woman is an embodiment of you.
You exist as little girls in their childhood,
As young women in their youth
And as elderly women in their old age.
—Sri Kamala Stotram
Every woman is an emanation of you.
—Sri Daivakrta Laksmi Stotram

Ancient prayers dedicated to Lakshmi seek both material and spiritual wealth in prayers.[39]

Through illusion,
A person can become disconnected,
From his higher self,
Wandering about from place to place,
Bereft of clear thought,
Lost in destructive behavior.
It matters not how much truth,
May shine forth in the world,
Illuminating the entire creation,
For one cannot acquire wisdom,
Unless it is experienced,
Through the opening on the heart....

Puranas

Lakshmi features prominently in Puranas of Hinduism. Vishnu Purana, in particular, dedicates many sections to her and also refers to her as Sri.[76] J. A. B. van Buitenen translates passages describing Lakshmi in Vishnu Purana:[76]

Sri, loyal to Vishnu, is the mother of the world. Vishnu is the meaning, Sri is the speech. She is the conduct, he the behavior. Vishnu is knowledge, she the insight. He is dharma, she the virtuous action. She is the earth, the earth's upholder. She is contentment, he the satisfaction. She wishes, he is the desire. Sri is the sky, Vishnu the Self of everything. He is the Sun, she the light of the Sun. He is the ocean, she is the shore.

Subhasita, genomic and didactic literature

Lakshmi, along with Parvati and Saraswati, is a subject of extensive Subhashita, genomic and didactic literature of India.[77] Composed in the 1st millennium BCE through the 16th century CE, they are short poems, proverbs, couplets, or aphorisms in Sanskrit written in a precise meter. They sometimes take the form of a dialogue between Lakshmi and Vishnu or highlight the spiritual message in Vedas and ethical maxims from Hindu Epics through Lakshmi.[77] An example Subhashita is Puranartha Samgraha, compiled by Vekataraya in South India, where Lakshmi and Vishnu discuss niti ('right, moral conduct') and rajaniti ('statesmanship' or 'right governance')—covering in 30 chapters and ethical and moral questions about personal, social and political life.[77]:22

Manifestations and aspects

Sculpture of Lord Vishnu and Goddess Lakshmi at Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu

Inside temples, Lakshmi is often shown together with Vishnu. In certain parts of India, Lakshmi plays a special role as the mediator between her husband Vishnu and his worldly devotees. When asking Vishnu for grace or forgiveness, the devotees often approach him through the intermediary presence of Lakshmi.[78] She is also the personification of spiritual fulfillment. Lakshmi embodies the spiritual world, also known as Vaikuntha, the abode of Lakshmi and Vishnu (collectively called Lakshmi Narayana). Lakshmi is the embodiment of the creative energy of Vishnu,[79] and primordial Prakriti who creates the universe.[80]

An early 20th-century painting depicting Vishnu resting on Ananta-Shesha, with Lakshmi massaging his feet.

According to Garuda Purana, Lakshmi is considered as Prakriti (Mahalakshmi) and is identified with three forms — Sri, Bhu and Durga. The three forms consists of Satva ('goodness'),[2] rajas, and tamas ('darkness') gunas,[81] and assists Vishnu (Purusha) in creation, preservation and destruction of the entire universe. Durga form represents the power to fight, conquer and punish the demons and anti-gods.

In the Lakshmi Tantra and Lakshmi Sahasranama of Skanda Purana, Lakshmi is given the status of the primordial goddess. According to these texts, Durga and the forms such Mahalakshmi, Mahakali and Mahasaraswati and all the Shaktis that came out of all gods such as Matrikas and Mahavidya[82] are all various forms of Goddess Lakshmi.[83] In Lakshmi Tantra, Lakshmi says to Indra that she got the name Durga after killing an asura named Durgama.[84] Indologists and authors Chitralekha Singh and Prem Nath says, "Narada Purana describes the powerful forms of Lakshmi as Durga, Mahakali, Bhadrakali, Chandi, Maheshwari, Mahalakshmi, Vaishnavi and Andreye".[85]

Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Parvati are typically conceptualized as distinct in most of India, but in states such as West Bengal and Odisha, they are regionally believed to be forms of Durga.[86] In Hindu Bengali culture, Lakshmi, along with Saraswati, are seen as the daughters of Durga. They are worshipped during Durga Puja.[87]

In South India, Lakshmi is seen in two forms, Sridevi and Bhudevi, both at the sides of Venkateshwara, a form of Vishnu. Bhudevi is the representation and totality of the material world or energy, called the Apara Prakriti, or Mother Earth; Sridevi is the spiritual world or energy called the Prakriti.[9][88] According to Lakshmi Tantra, Nila Devi, one of the manifestations or incarnations of Lakshmi is the third wife of Vishnu.[89][90] Each goddess of the triad is mentioned in Śrī Sūkta, Bhu Sūkta and Nila Sūkta, respectively.[91][92][93] This threefold goddess can be found, for example, in Sri Bhu Neela Sahita Temple near Dwaraka Tirumala, Andhra Pradesh, and in Adinath Swami Temple in Tamil Nadu.[94] In many parts of the region, Andal is considered as an incarnation of Lakshmi.[95]

Ashtalakshmi - Eight forms of Lakshmi

Ashta Lakshmi (Sanskrit: अष्टलक्ष्मी, Aṣṭalakṣmī, 'eight Lakshmis') is a group of eight secondary manifestations of Lakshmi. The Ashta Lakshmi presides over eight sources of wealth and thus represents the eight powers of Shri Lakshmi. Temples dedicated to Ashta Lakshmi are found in Tamil Nadu, such as Ashtalakshmi Kovil near Chennai and many other states of India.[96]

Ashta Lakshmi
Adi Lakshmi The First manifestation of Lakshmi
Dhanya Lakshmi Granary Wealth
Veera Lakshmi Wealth of Courage
Gaja Lakshmi Elephants spraying water, the wealth of fertility, rains, and food.[97]
Santana Lakshmi Wealth of Continuity, Progeny
Vidya Lakshmi Wealth of Knowledge and Wisdom
Vijaya Lakshmi Wealth of Victory
Dhana / Aishwarya Lakshmi Wealth of prosperity and fortune

Creation and legends

A painting depicting Samudra Manthana, with Lakshmi emerging with the lotus in her hands.

Devas (gods) and asuras (demons) were both mortal at one time in Hinduism. Amrita, the divine nectar that grants immortality, could only be obtained by churning Kshira Sagara ('Ocean of Milk'). The devas and asuras both sought immortality and decided to churn the Kshira Sagara with Mount Mandhara. The Samudra Manthana commenced with the devas on one side and the asuras on the other. Vishnu incarnated as Kurma, the tortoise, and a mountain was placed on the tortoise as a churning pole. Vasuki, the great venom-spewing serpent-god, was wrapped around the mountain and used to churn the ocean. A host of divine celestial objects came up during the churning. Along with them emerged the goddess Lakshmi. In some versions, she is said to be the daughter of the sea god since she emerged from the sea.[98]

In Garuda Purana, Linga Purana and Padma Purana, Lakshmi is said to have been born as the daughter of the divine sage Bhrigu and his wife Khyati and was named Bhargavi. According to Vishnu Purana, the universe was created when the devas and asuras churned the cosmic Kshira Sagara. Lakshmi came out of the ocean bearing lotus, along with divine cow Kamadhenu, Varuni, Parijat tree, Apsaras, Chandra (the moon), and Dhanvantari with Amrita ('nectar of immortality'). When she appeared, she had a choice to go to Devas or Asuras. She chose Devas' side and among thirty deities, she chose to be with Vishnu. Thereafter, in all three worlds, the lotus-bearing goddess was celebrated.[76]

Worship

Many Hindus worship Lakshmi on Deepavali (Diwali), the festival of lights.[99] It is celebrated in autumn, typically October or November every year.[100] The festival spiritually signifies the victory of light over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, good over evil and hope over despair.[101]

Deepavali celebrations include puja (prayers) to Lakshmi and Ganesha. Lakshmi is of the Vaishnavism tradition, while Ganesha of the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism.[102][103]

Before Deepavali night, people clean, renovate and decorate their homes and offices.[104] On Deepavali night, Hindus dress up in new clothes or their best outfits, light up diyas (lamps and candles) inside and outside their home, and participate in family puja (prayers) typically to Lakshmi. After the Lakshmi Puja, fireworks follow,[105] then a family feast including mithai (sweets), and an exchange of gifts between family members and close friends. Deepavali also marks a major shopping period, since Lakshmi connotes auspiciousness, wealth and prosperity.[106] This festival dedicated to Lakshmi is considered by Hindus to be one of the most important and joyous festivals of the year.

A very sacred day for the worship of Goddess Lakshmi falls on Chaitra Shukla Panchami, also called, Lakshmi Panchami, Shri Panchami, Kalpadi and Shri Vrata. As this worship is in the first week of the Hindu new year, by Hindu calendar, it is considered very auspicious.[107] Varalakshmi Vratam is celebrated by married Hindu women to pray for the well-being of their husbands.[108]

Gaja Lakshmi Puja is another autumn festival celebrated on Sharad Purnima in many parts of India on the full-moon day in the month of Ashvin (October).[35] Sharad Purnima, also called Kojaagari Purnima or Kuanr Purnima, is a harvest festival marking the end of monsoon season. There is a traditional celebration of the moon called the Kaumudi celebration, Kaumudi meaning moonlight.[109] On Sharad Purnima night, goddess Lakshmi is thanked and worshipped for the harvests. Vaibhav Lakshmi Vrata is observed on Friday for prosperity.[110]

Temples

Lakshmi Devi idol in Sanctum of temple at Doddagaddavalli, in Hassan District, Karnataka India .
Self emerged idol of goddess Lakshmi with Srinivasa in Kallur Mahalakshmi temple [Second Kolhapur]
Mahalaxmi temple Sulebhavi., Local form of goddess lakshmi

Some temples dedicated to Goddess Lakshmi are:

  • Agroha Dham
  • Ashtalakshmi Temple, Chennai
  • Azhagiya Manavala Perumal Temple
  • Bhagyalakshmi Temple, Hyderabad
  • Chottanikkara Temple, Kerala
  • 108 Divya Desams
  • Golden Temple, Sripuram
  • Goravanahalli Mahalakshmi Temple[111]
  • Lakshmi Devi Temple, Doddagaddavalli
  • Lakshmi Narasimha Temple, Nuggehalli
  • Lakshminarayana Temple, Hosaholalu
  • Lakshmi Temple, Khajuraho
  • Laxminarayan Temple, Delhi
  • Mahalakshmi Kollapuradamma Temple,Ratnagiri[112]
  • Mahalakshmi Temple, Dahanu
  • Mahalakshmi Temple, Kolhapur
  • Mahalakshmi Temple, Mumbai
  • Mookambika Temple, Kollur
  • Nachiyar Koil [As Vanchulavalli thayar]
  • Thirunarayur Nambi Temple
  • Narasimhaswamy Temple, Namakkal
  • Narasimhaswamy Temple, Namakkal [As Nammagiri Thayar]
  • Pundarikakshan Perumal Temple
  • Sri Kanaka Maha Lakshmi Temple, Andhra Pradesh
  • Mahalakshmi Temple Kallur [Second Kolhapur]
  • Goravanahalli Mahalakshmi Temple
  • Sri Lakshmi Kuberar Temple,Rathinamangalam
  • Mahalaksmi temple Bandora, Panaji
  • Mahalakshmi temple Ucchila
  • Mahalakshmi Mandir, Pune
  • Kanakadhara Mahalakshmi Temple,Punnorkode, Pazhamthottam
  • Pundarikakshan Perumal Temple
  • Narasimhaswamy Temple, Namakkal
  • Lakshmi Temple, Khajuraho
  • Mahalakshmi Kollapuradamma Temple,Ratnagiri
  • Shree Lakshmi Chandrala Parameshwari Temple, Karnataka
  • Mahalakshmi temple Sulebhavi Belgaum
  • Sweta Lakshmi Varahi Temple, Telanagana
  • Astabhuja mahalakshmi temple Haldwani
  • Shri Kollapuradamma Sri Mahalakshmi temple, Chitradurga
  • London Sri Mahalakshmi Temple
  • Mahalakshmi temple Delaware, United States
* Narasimhaswamy Temple, Namakkal [As Nammagiri Thayar] Lakshmi lustrated by elephants, Uttar Pradesh, Kausambi, 1st century BCE.

Numerous hymns, prayers, shlokas, stotra, songs, and legends dedicated to Lakshmi are recited during the ritual worship of the goddess.[39] These include:[113]

  • Sri Mahalakshmi Ashtakam
  • Sri Lakshmi Sahasaranama Stotra (by Sanat Kumara)
  • Sri Stuti (by Vedanta Desika)
  • Lakshmi Stuti (by Indra)
  • Kanakadhara Stotram (by Adi Shankara)
  • Chatuh Shloki (by Yamunacharya)
  • Sri Lakshmi Sloka (by Bhagavan Hari Swamiji)
  • Sri Sukta, which is contained in the Vedas and includes the Lakshmi Gayatri Mantra (Om Sri Mahalakshmyai ca vidmahe Vishnu patnyai ca dhimahi tanno Lakshmi prachodayat, Om)
  • Lakshmi Gayatri mantra mentioned in the Linga Purana (48.13) - (Samudratayai vidmahe Vishnunaikena dhimahi tanno Radha prachodayat)[114]
  • Ashtalakshmi Stotram (by U.V. Srinivasa Varadachariyar)[115]

Archaeology

Greek-influenced statue of Gaja Lakshmi, holding lotus and cornucopia, flanked by two elephants and two lions. From Kashmir, 6th century CE.

A representation of the goddess as Gaja Lakshmi or Lakshmi flanked by two elephants spraying her with water, is one of the most frequently found in archaeological sites.[31][32] An ancient sculpture of Gaja Lakshmi (from Sonkh site at Mathura) dates to the pre-Kushan Empire era.[31] Atranjikhera site in modern Uttar Pradesh has yielded terracotta plaque with images of Lakshmi dating to 2nd century BCE. Other archaeological sites with ancient Lakshmi terracotta figurines from the 1st millennium BCE include Vaisali, Sravasti, Kausambi, Campa, and Candraketugadh.[32]

The goddess Lakshmi is frequently found in ancient coins of various Hindu kingdoms from Afghanistan to India. Gaja Lakshmi has been found on coins of Scytho-Parthian kings Azes II and Azilises; she also appears on Shunga Empire king Jyesthamitra era coins, both dating to 1st millennium BCE. Coins from 1st through 4th century CE found in various locations in India such as Ayodhya, Mathura, Ujjain, Sanchi, Bodh Gaya, Kanauj, all feature Lakshmi.[116] Similarly, ancient Greco-Indian gems and seals with images of Lakshmi have been found, estimated to be from 1st-millennium BCE.[117]

A 1400-year-old rare granite sculpture of Lakshmi has been recovered at the Waghama village along Jehlum in Anantnag district of Jammu and Kashmir.[118]

The Pompeii Lakshmi, a statuette supposedly thought to be of Lakshmi found in Pompeii, Italy, dates to before the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE.[119]

Outside Hinduism

Jainism

Gaja Lakshmi at Shravanabelagola Temple, Karnataka.

Lakshmi is also an important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples.[120][121] Some Jain temples also depict Sri Lakshmi as a goddess of artha ('wealth') and kama ('pleasure'). For example, she is exhibited with Vishnu in Parshvanatha Jain Temple at the Khajuraho Monuments of Madhya Pradesh,[122] where she is shown pressed against Vishnu's chest, while Vishnu cups a breast in his palm. The presence of Vishnu-Lakshmi iconography in a Jain temple built near the Hindu temples of Khajuraho, suggests the sharing and acceptance of Lakshmi across a spectrum of Indian religions.[122] This commonality is reflected in the praise of Lakshmi found in the Jain text Kalpa Sūtra.[123]

Buddhism

The Japanese Kishijoten is adapted from Lakshmi.

In Buddhism, Lakshmi has been viewed as a goddess of abundance and fortune, and is represented on the oldest surviving stupas and cave temples of Buddhism.[124][125] In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal, and Southeast Asia, Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics and attributes of the Hindu Goddess, with minor iconographic differences.[126]

In Chinese Buddhism, Lakshmi is referred to as either Gōngdétiān (功德天, lit "Meritorious god" ) or Jíxiáng Tiānnǚ (吉祥天女, lit "Auspicious goddess") and is the goddess of fortune and prosperity. She is regarded as the sister of Píshāméntiān (毗沙門天), or Vaiśravaṇa, one of the Four Heavenly Kings. She is also regarded as one of the twenty-four protective deities, and her image is frequently enshrined in the Mahavira Hall of most Chinese Buddhist monasteries together with the other deities. Her mantra, the Sri Devi Dharani (Chinese: 大吉祥天女咒; pinyin: Dà Jíxiáng Tiānnǚ Zhòu) is classified as one of the Ten Small Mantras (Chinese: 十小咒; pinyin: Shí xiǎo zhòu), which are a collection of dharanis that are commonly recited in Chinese Buddhist temples during morning liturgical services.[127]

The Dharani is as follows:

Namo buddhāya, Namo dharmāya, Namah samghāya, Namah Śrī Mahādevīye, Tadyathā Om paripūraņa cāre samanta darśane. Mahā vihāra gate samanta vidhamane. Mahā kārya pratişţhāpane, sarvārtha sādhane, supratipūri ayatna dharmatā. Mahā vikurvite, mahā maitrī upasamhite, mahārşi susamgŗhīte samantārtha anupālane svāhā.

In Japanese Buddhism, Lakshmi is known as Kishijoten (吉祥天, 'Auspicious Heavens') and is also the goddess of fortune and prosperity.[128] Like in China, Kishijoten is considered the sister of Bishamon (毘沙門, also known as Tamon or Bishamon-ten), who protects human life, fights evil, and brings good fortune. In ancient and medieval Japan, Kishijoten was the goddess worshiped for luck and prosperity, particularly on behalf of children. Kishijoten was also the guardian goddess of Geishas.

In Tibetan Buddhism, Lakshmi is an important deity, especially in the Gelug School. She has both peaceful and wrathful forms; the latter form is known as Palden Lhamo, Shri Devi Dudsol Dokam, or Kamadhatvishvari, and is the principal female protector of (Gelug) Tibetan Buddhism and of Lhasa, Tibet.[citation needed]

While Lakshmi and Vaiśravaṇa are found in ancient Chinese and Japanese Buddhist literature, their roots have been traced to deities in Hinduism.[128]

Lakshmi is closely linked to Dewi Sri, who is worshipped in Bali as the goddess of fertility and agriculture.

Incarnations

Lakshmi is attributed with various incarnations, including the following:

Notes

  1. ↑ This pronunciation has a closer approximation of the Hindustani pronunciation. Pronounced UK: /ˈlækʃmi/,[11] US: /ˈlɑːkʃmi/
  2. ↑ Some scholars propose a theory that Sri and Lakshmi may have originally been different goddesses, who merged into one figure.[71] In contrasts, other scholars state that the association of Rukmini was a later interpolation in the epic.[72]

See also

References

  1. ↑
    1. Journal of Historical Research, Volumes 28-30. Department of History, Ranchi University. 1991. p. 3. https://books.google.com/books?id=HPBtAAAAMAAJ. "Lord Visnu is the refuge of the world and Goddess Lakshmi is the energy behind the Universe." 
    2. Amulya Mohapatra; Bijaya Mohapatra (1 January 1993). Hinduism: Analytical Study. Mittal Publications. p. 26. ISBN 9788170993889. https://books.google.com/books?id=vpiU9m7T_tQC. "Sri or Laxmi is the goddess of wealth and fortune , power and beauty." 
    3. Bulbul Sharma (2010). The Book of Devi. Penguin Books India. p. 47. ISBN 9780143067665. https://books.google.com/books?id=on_ZhlB5taUC. "Sri or Lakshmi, as depicted in the sacred texts, is the goddess of wealth and fortune, royal power and beauty." 
    4. Stephen Knapp (2012). Hindu Gods & Goddesses. Jaico Publishing House. p. 132. ISBN 9788184953664. https://books.google.com/books?id=eIqyv8A9XBAC. "Goddess Lakshmi is the consort and shakti, or potency, of Lord Vishnu. Lakshmi, or Sri when she is especially known as the goddess of beauty (though sometimes considered to be separate entities), is the goddess of fortune, wealth, power, and loveliness." 
    5. David Kinsley (1 January 1989). The Goddesses' Mirror: Visions of the Divine from East and West. SUNY Press. p. 55. ISBN 9780887068362. https://books.google.com/books?id=82oFlfs3MpwC&pg=PA55. 
    6. David Monaghan; Ariane Hudelet; John Wiltshire (10 January 2014). The Cinematic Jane Austen: Essays on the Filmic Sensibility of the Novels. McFarland & Company. p. 153. ISBN 9780786453221. https://books.google.com/books?id=0EPYqh8C2VgC. "In Hindu mythology, Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth, power and beauty." 
    7. Kaushal Kishore Sharma (1988). Rabindranath Tagore's Aesthetics. Abhinav Publications. p. 26. ISBN 9788170172376. https://books.google.com/books?id=v3kkOn2T9D4C&pg=PA26. "Lakshmi, our Goddess of wealth, represents not only beauty and power but also the spirit of goodness." 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 lakṣmī , Monier-Williams' Sanskrit–English Dictionary, University of Washington Archives
  3. ↑ Lakshmi Tantra, Volumes -13. Motilal Banarasidas Publishers. 2007. p. 70. ISBN 9788120817357. https://books.google.com/books?id=pENlKmZ4r94C&q=supreme. 
  4. ↑ Mahalakshmi Ashtakam. https://greenmesg.org/stotras/lakshmi/mahalakshmi_ashtakam.php. "Padmaasanasthite Devi Parabrahma Svaroopini Paramesi Jaganmaata, Mahalakshmi Namostu Te.O Devi, You are seated on the lotus, You are the Supreme Brahman, You are the great Lord and Mother of the universe, O Mahaalakshmi, obeisance to Thee." 
  5. ↑ "Translating the secrets of Makara Sankranti". Times of India. 14 January 2021. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/tea-with-life/translating-the-secrets-of-makara-sankranti/. 
  6. ↑ "The Seven Holy Cities [Chapter 7]". 6 September 2020. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-skanda-purana/d/doc423744.html. 
  7. ↑ "CHAPTER TWENTYEIGHT". https://doc-08-9g-docs.googleusercontent.com/docs/securesc/ju8svdjkd3vc3e04k57rtnejn5erico5/qq0a2nj044ves5bhjsesd6e6en99moed/1694308575000/02058467015715614041/11739233309228295674/1feDfjhpH5Yg_dcMvegkKCwooHSDP6Enpwp_0Uk-FTEh-98UgnQTFBORKNSAA30zfEwS7nZI8NcAYe6-4?ax=AA75yW7fHxJ8zH-w6VbiXp0Yu7izas6hgnTN63NVDi8WHC8efnTBOb_NLylg7QD0RwXupsCurPqJ_Lt0mYQYCewWTxEcol2b54oo_UIziMGNY42qY_LRj2Vbw3nrhK10fNKP0L-w7T35nFFc4XeZ6xvWpl9cPjIM51RnGHtfddEOaNhGIao7Ne0u1_iDoLldfW0qapjBjWCvVCqMfvbG5q-NunzTnslsnYvUsemQ8Bv1eqMt8DlJo6sWLGwD2CSi8eyfOFMJvA6j6_uA5v92v27SYlh8CgCRJ7MXUftd4rlbkEGCpqJiYs40i-hnLrVqk10ShqyHpd7Lo90_mdXM696CpwyKCySEbWueklYLL36M11_A5_yI313zLYTgy9iaL-xCm5PKREOSTlGSAwsdOL7l3h-cPYofwbQxCJPyzCzt0p8gTAS5cNSYsJZBaHLulTvbG6pQ-90LBAkFRUFAnnJDKLrZDQB7xO0pnnnxWCHYE40tY6RIo9z0WR5kCKppmIFYNhW9Y90KVLQ7duqomdaHxmT3L4ebmHFhRPSermsLQ_gM9jMoab7aVAdyZkBSpGaObuSV9Im_ydfFfd135dbJkO3qEpnINUagpPePJmP1wfTZCx9vs9I4fEIID86_RlD_99u5vtrmTq6u998kk1RpG3kCYjJZW8pXKAsrtAHPy0qWg4sasaJYSGiW3cZo5x3UySk4dCmsPtEJ3ZbUjh_VRxouoBqjmn4I9w1kghP3p8aW28tDhYrgwufWiMIUZwTCCGJI7axBjQyN-tFOR3lMu_jTAmsdrHj3evR0s_4k35nktuYb05IKGvX8NN_syDO4PxXPX3klPybs9EgkfwZaRjf2TwOT_3gDqWFoVGBiFHDff1FrzF01SgapwmLhR_u67D41jsEOHCQQvi-oUyn4eg9-XzR0-imZARN55cm8dVrcarH8vn0wOXdGlLSaMDo&uuid=31d73e62-3ff0-4f18-ad74-c950fc42a8e0&authuser=0&nonce=s4r3oduub409i&user=11739233309228295674&hash=mshkng5k66qcjrse85t07m8382tv5h8p. 
  8. ↑ "Prayers to Goddess Lakshmi". http://www.stephen-knapp.com/prayers_to_goddess_lakshmi.htm. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Anand Rao (2004). Soteriologies of India. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 167. ISBN 978-3-8258-7205-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=UxGEy6m4N9kC&pg=PA167. Retrieved 22 September 2016. 
  10. ↑ "Lakshmi". Lakshmi. Oxford University Press. http://www.lexico.com/definition/Lakshmi. 
  11. ↑ Lakshmi (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, September 2005, http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=Lakshmi  (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Coulter, Charles Russell; Turner, Patricia (4 July 2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities. Routledge. ISBN 9781135963903. https://books.google.com/books?id=sEIngqiKOugC&q=lakshmi+also+known+as+sri&pg=PA285. 
  13. ↑ James G. Lochtefeld (2001-12-15) (in en). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC&q=Lakshmi. 
  14. ↑ Mark W. Muesse. The Hindu Traditions: A Concise Introduction. Fortress Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-1451414004. https://books.google.com/books?id=VlQBfbwk7CwC. 
  15. ↑ Upendra Nath Dhal (1978). Goddess Laksmi: Origin and Development. Oriental Publishers & Distributors. p. 109. https://books.google.com/books?id=pSQKAQAAIAAJ. "Goddess Lakşmī is stated as the genetrix of the world; she maintains them as a mother ought to do . So she is often called as the Mātā." 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Williams, George M. (2003). Handbook of Hindu Mythology. ABC-CLIO, Inc. pp. 196–8. ISBN 1-85109-650-7. 
  17. ↑ Sashi Bhusan Dasgupta (2004). Evolution of Mother Worship in India. Advaita Ashrama (A Publication House of Ramakrishna Math, Belur Math). p. 20. ISBN 9788175058866. https://books.google.com/books?id=NbtiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT20. 
  18. ↑ Isaeva 1993, p. 252.
  19. ↑ Carman, John Braisted; Vasudha Narayanan (1989). The Tamil Veda : Piḷḷān's interpretation of the Tiruvāymol̲i. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-09305-0. OCLC 18624684. 
  20. ↑ Monaghan, Patricia (2010-12-31) (in en). Goddesses in World Culture. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-35465-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC&q=Radha. 
  21. ↑ James G. Lochtefeld (15 December 2001). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 65. ISBN 978-0823931798. https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC. 
  22. ↑ James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 385–386. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC. Retrieved 15 October 2016. 
  23. ↑ Heinrich Robert Zimmer (2015). Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Princeton University Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-4008-6684-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=5IYVBgAAQBAJ. Retrieved 15 October 2016. 
  24. ↑ Rhodes, Constantina. 2011. Invoking Lakshmi: The Goddess of Wealth in Song and Ceremony. State University of New York Press, ISBN:978-1438433202. pp. 29–47, 220–52.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 "Divali – THE SYMBOLISM OF LAKSHMI." Trinidad and Tobago: National Library and Information System Authority. 2009. Archived from the original on 8 November 2014.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 D. R. Rajeswari (1989). Sakti Iconography. Intellectual Publishing House. p. 19. ISBN 9788170760153. https://books.google.com/books?id=wK-fAAAAMAAJ. "According to Sapta Sati the iconographical characteristics of Lakshmi are as follows: She is having 18 hands carrying rosary, axe, mace, arrow, thunderbolt, lotus, pitcher, rod, Sakti, Sword, Shield, Conch, bell, wine-cup, trident, noose and the discus" 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Saligrama Krishna Ramachandra Rao (1991). Pratima Kosha: Descriptive Glossary of Indian Iconography, Volume 5. IBH Prakashana. p. 65. https://books.google.com/books?id=BIzrAAAAMAAJ. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 H. C. Das (1985). Cultural Development in Orissa. Punthi Pustak. p. 337. https://books.google.com/books?id=w80dAAAAMAAJ. "The Bisvakarmasastra depicts her holding a pot, a club in her right hands, and a shield and a wood apple in the left. The Markandeya Purana describes the developed form of Laksmi having as many as 18 hands." 
  29. ↑ Sanjukta Gupta (2007). Lakshmi Tantra. MOTILAL BANARIDAS. pp. 23. ISBN 9788120817340. https://books.google.com/books?id=pENlKmZ4r94C&q=GOLDEN+COMPLEXION. 
  30. ↑ Jaitentra Prakash Jain (1951). Skand Puran. Motilal banarasidas. pp. 66. https://holybooks-lichtenbergpress.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Skanda-Purana-Part-4.pdf. Retrieved 19 July 2022. "Obeisance to Sri. the mother of the worlds. Obeisance, obeisance to the mother of Brahma. Hail to you, to the lotuseyed one. Obeisance, obeisance to the lotus-faced one" 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Singh, Upinder. 2009. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. ISBN:978-8131711200, Pearson Education. p. 438
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Vishnu, Asha. 1993. Material life of northern India: Based on an archaeological study, 3rd century B.C. to 1st century BCE. ISBN:978-8170994107. pp. 194–95.
  33. ↑ Roveda, Vitorio. 2004. "The Archaeology of Khmer Images." Aséanie 13(13):11–46.
  34. ↑ Jones, Soumya (Fall 2007). "O goddess where art thou?: Reexamining the Female Divine Presence in Khmer art". SEAP Bulletin: 28–31. https://seap.einaudi.cornell.edu/sites/seap.einaudi.cornell.edu/files/2007fFeature-Goddess.pdf. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Jones, Constance (2011). J. G. Melton. ed. Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations. pp. 253–254, 798. ISBN 978-1598842050. 
  36. ↑ "lakṣ, लक्ष्." Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Germany: University of Koeln.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Plum-Ucci, Carol. Celebrate Diwali. ISBN:978-0766027787. pp. 79–86.
  38. ↑ "lakṣaṇa." Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Germany: University of Koeln. .
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5 Rhodes, Constantina. 2011. Invoking Lakshmi: The Goddess of Wealth in Song and Ceremony. State University of New York Press, ISBN:978-1438433202.
  40. ↑ Vijaya Kumara, 108 Names of Lakshmi, Sterling Publishers, ISBN:9788120720282
  41. ↑ Brooks 1992, p. 67.
  42. ↑ Prabhakar T. Malshe (1974). Kolhapur: A Study in Urban Geography. University of Poona. p. 3. https://books.google.com/books?id=1gw8AAAAMAAJ. 
  43. ↑ Munindra Misra (4 August 2015). Lord Vishnu & Goddess Lakshmi. Osmora Publishing. ISBN 9782765916727. https://books.google.com/books?id=RbBNCgAAQBAJ. 
  44. ↑ Dirk van der Plas (1987). Effigies Dei: Essays on the History of Religions. Brill. p. 72. https://books.google.com/books?id=ops3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA72. 
  45. ↑ "Sri Lakshmi Ashtottara Shatanamavali - śrī lakṣmī aṣṭōttaraśatanāmāvalī" (in en-IN). 2018-12-02. https://stotranidhi.com/en/sri-lakshmi-ashtottara-shatanamavali-in-english/. 
  46. ↑ The Toranas are dated to the 1st century CE. See: Ornament in Indian Architecture, Margaret Prosser Allen, University of Delaware Press, 1991, p.18 [1]
  47. ↑ "The Calcutta Review". 1855. https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm8oAAAAYAAJ&q=does+lakshmi+represent+rajas+gunna&pg=PA35. 
  48. ↑ Vanamali (2008-07-21) (in en). Shakti: Realm of the Divine Mother. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-59477-785-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=3FwoDwAAQBAJ&q=lakshmi+adi+shakti&pg=PT204. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Parasarthy, A. 1983. Symbolism in Hinduism. Chinmaya Mission Publication. ISBN:978-8175971493. pp. 57–59.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 Parasarthy, A. 1983. Symbolism in Hinduism. Chinmaya Mission Publication. ISBN:978-8175971493. pp. 91–92, 160–62.
  51. ↑ Nathan, R. S. 1983. Symbolism in Hinduism. Chinmaya Mission Publication. ISBN:978-8175971493. p. 16.
  52. ↑ Gibson, Lynne. 2002. Hinduism. Heinemann. ISBN:978-0435336196. p. 29.
  53. ↑ Laura Amazzone (2012). Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power. University Press of America. pp. 103–104. ISBN 978-0-7618-5314-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC&pg=PA103. Retrieved 15 October 2016. 
  54. ↑ Werness, Hope. 2007. Continuum Encyclopedia of Animal Symbolism in World Art. Bloomsbury. ISBN:978-0826419132. pp. 159–67.
  55. ↑ Ajnatanama. 1983. Symbolism in Hinduism. Chinmaya Mission Publication. ISBN:978-8175971493. pp. 317–18.
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi (1977). D. D. Kosambi Commemoration Volume. Banaras Hindu University. p. 97. https://books.google.com/books?id=o4MCAAAAMAAJ. 
  57. ↑ Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi (1977). D. D. Kosambi Commemoration Volume. Banaras Hindu University. p. 79. https://books.google.com/books?id=o4MCAAAAMAAJ. 
  58. ↑ Pal 1986, p. 79.
  59. ↑ Journal, Volumes 6-7. Asiatic Society (Kolkata, India). 1964. p. 96. https://books.google.com/books?id=Adk7AQAAIAAJ. "From the occurrence of cornucopiae, lotus flower and lion mount the goddess has been described as Lakshmi - Ambikā — a composite icon combining the concepts of Śrī or Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity, and Ambikā, the mother aspect of Durga." 
  60. ↑ Jackie Menzies (2006). Goddess: Divine Energy. Art Gallery of New South Wales. p. 113. ISBN 9780734763969. https://books.google.com/books?id=pzLqAAAAMAAJ. 
  61. ↑ Mihindukalasūrya Ār. Pī. Susantā Pranāndu (2005). Rituals, Folk Beliefs, and Magical Arts of Sri Lanka. Susan International. p. 228. ISBN 9789559631835. https://books.google.com/books?id=h94SAQAAIAAJ. "Lion: It was a 'vahana' of Lakshmi, the Goddess of Prosperity, and Parvati, the wife of Siva." 
  62. ↑ D. R. Rajeswari (1989). Sakti Iconography. Intellectual Publishing House. p. 22. ISBN 9788170760153. https://books.google.com/books?id=wK-fAAAAMAAJ. "In some places Gazalakshmi also has been given Lion as her Vahana. In South India Veera Lakshmi, one of the forms of eight Lakshmis is having Lion as her Vahana. In Rameshwaram also for Veera Lakshmi Lion is Vahana. She carries Trisula, Sphere, Sankha, Chakra, and Abhaya and Varada mudras." 
  63. ↑ Urmila Agarwal (1995). North Indian temple sculpture. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 60. ISBN 9788121504584. https://books.google.com/books?id=j3bqAAAAMAAJ. 
  64. ↑ Lochtefeld, James (2002) (in English). The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Hinduism (2 ed.). New York, USA: The Rosen Publishing Group Inc. pp. 386. ISBN 0-8239-3180-3. 
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 65.2 65.3 65.4 Muir, John, ed. 1870. "Lakshmi and Shri." Pp. 348–49 in Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India – Their Religions and Institutions at Google Books, volume 5. London: Trubner & Co.
  66. ↑ "Template:Lang-sa2"; अथर्ववेद: काण्डं 12 Atharva Veda Sanskrit Original Archive
  67. ↑ Naama Drury (2010), The Sacrificial Ritual in the Satapatha Brahmana, ISBN:978-8120826656, pages 61–102
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Williams, Monier. Religious Thought and Life in India, Part 1 (2nd ed.). .
  69. ↑ Ramayana, i.45.40–43
  70. ↑ "Svargarohanika parva". Sacred-texts.com. https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m18/m18004.htm. 
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  72. ↑ Brodbeck, Simon; Black, Brian (2007-08-09) (in en). Gender and Narrative in the Mahabharata. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-11995-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=56fr2p5f7l0C&q=Sri+Rukmini&pg=PA193. 
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Mahadeva, A. 1950. "Saubhagya-Lakshmi Upanishad." In The Shakta Upanishads with the Commentary of Sri Upanishad Brahma Yogin, Adyar Library Series 10. Madras.
  74. ↑ Saubhagya Lakshmi Upanishad (Original text, in Sanskrit). .
  75. ↑ Warrier, A. G. Krishna, trans. 1931. Saubhagya Lakshmi Upanishad. Chennai: Theosophical Publishing House. ISBN:978-0835673181.
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 76.2 van Buitenen, J. A. B., trans. Classical Hinduism: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, edited by Cornelia Dimmitt. Temple University Press. ISBN:978-0877221227. pp. 95–99
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 77.2 Sternbach, Ludwik. 1974. Subhasita, Gnomic and Didactic Literature, A History of Indian Literature 4. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN:978-3447015462.
  78. ↑ Kinsley 1988, pp. 31–32.
  79. ↑ Charles Russell Coulter; Patricia Turner (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities. Routledge. p. 285. ISBN 978-1-135-96390-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=sEIngqiKOugC&pg=PA285. 
  80. ↑ Pintchman, Tracy (2001). Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess. State University of New York Press. pp. 84–85. ISBN 978-0-7914-5007-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=-c_j8Xggl0gC&pg=PA85. 
  81. ↑ Pintchman 2001, p. 82.
  82. ↑ Gupta 2000, p. 27.
  83. ↑ Gupta 2000, p. [page needed].
  84. ↑ Gupta 2000, p. 52.
  85. ↑ Chitralekha Singh; Prem Nath (2001). Lakshmi. Crest Publishing House. p. 20. ISBN 9788124201732. https://books.google.com/books?id=xpkRAQAAIAAJ. 
  86. ↑ Fuller, Christopher John. 2004. The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton University Press. ISBN:978-0691120485. p. 41.
  87. ↑ Concise Encyclopaedia of India. 2006. ISBN 9788126906390. https://books.google.com/books?id=9dNOT9iYxcMC&q=lakshmi+daughter+Durga&pg=PA986. 
  88. ↑ Edward Balfour (1873). Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia. Adelphi Press. pp. 10–11. https://books.google.com/books?id=eoNRAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA10. Retrieved 22 September 2016. 
  89. ↑ T. N. Srinivasan (1982). A Hand Book of South Indian Images: An Introduction to the Study of Hindu Iconography. Tirumalai-Tirupati Devasthanams. p. 96. https://books.google.com/books?id=KGPqAAAAMAAJ. 
  90. ↑ S. M. Srinivasa Chari (1994). Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 176. ISBN 978-8120810983. https://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC. 
  91. ↑ Singh, Upinder (2008) (in en). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p. 438. ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq2iCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA438. Retrieved 15 December 2019. 
  92. ↑ S. M. Srinivasa Chari (1994). Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 177. ISBN 978-8120810983. https://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC. 
  93. ↑ Chitta Ranjan Prasad Sinha (2000). Proceedings of the 9th Session of Indian Art History Congress, Hyderabad, November 2000. Indian Art History Congress. p. 61. https://books.google.com/books?id=UrLWAAAAMAAJ. "Of the four Vedas : Rig, Yajur, Sāma and Atharva, Puruşa Sukta of Rig Veda identifies Lord Vişņu as the Cosmic God . Sri Suktam, Bhu Suktam and Nila Suktam of Rig Veda reveals the glory of Lakşmi and her forms Sri, Bhū and Nila." 
  94. ↑ Knapp, Stephen. Spiritual India Handbook. ISBN:978-8184950243. p. 392.
  95. ↑ Rao, A.V. Shankaranarayana (2012). Temples of Tamil Nadu. Vasan Publications. pp. 195–199. ISBN 978-81-8468-112-3. 
  96. ↑ Dehejia, Vidya, and Thomas Coburn. Devi: the great goddess: female divinity in South Asian art. Smithsonian. ISBN:978-3791321295.
  97. ↑ Dallapiccola, Anna. 2007. Indian Art in Detail. Harvard University Press. ISBN:978-0674026919. pp. 11–27.
  98. ↑ "Why Lakshmi goes to wrong people?". https://english.webdunia.com/article/hinduism-gods-goddess/why-lakshmi-goes-to-wrong-people-116102600013_1.html. 
  99. ↑ Vera, Zak (February 2010). Invisible River: Sir Richard's Last Mission. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4389-0020-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=8HhVcspIBU4C&pg=PA179. Retrieved 26 October 2011. ""First Diwali day called Dhanteras or wealth worship. We perform Laskshmi-Puja in evening when clay diyas lighted to drive away shadows of evil spirits."" 
  100. ↑ "Diwali." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
  101. ↑ Mead, Jean. How and why Do Hindus Celebrate Divali? ISBN:978-0-237-534-127.
  102. ↑ Om Lata Bahadur 2006, pp. 92–93.
  103. ↑ Kinsley 1988, pp. 33–34.
  104. ↑ Pramodkumar (March 2008). Meri Khoj Ek Bharat Ki. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-4357-1240-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=6A9EZRQIT9kC&q=lamps+kept+on+diwali+lakshmi&pg=PA109. Retrieved 26 October 2011. "It is extremely important to keep the house spotlessly clean and pure on Diwali. Lamps are lit in the evening to welcome the goddess. They are believed to light up her path." 
  105. ↑ Solski, Ruth (2008). Big Book of Canadian Celebrations. S&S Learning Materials. ISBN 978-1-55035-849-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=ni2z5Z35htkC&pg=PA54. Retrieved 26 October 2011. "Fireworks and firecrackers are set off to chase away evil spirits, so it is a noisy holiday too." 
  106. ↑ India Journal: 'Tis the Season to be Shopping Devita Saraf, The Wall Street Journal (August 2010)
  107. ↑ "Lakshmi Panchami 2021: Date, significance, time, puja". https://www.indiatoday.in/information/story/lakshmi-panchami-2021-date-significance-time-puja-1791614-2021-04-16. 
  108. ↑ Fieldhouse, Paul (2017). Food, feasts, and faith : an encyclopedia of food culture in world religions. Santa Barbara, California. pp. 263. ISBN 978-1-61069-411-7. OCLC 959260516. 
  109. ↑ "Sharad Poornima". http://www.indif.com/nri/festivals/sharad_poornima.asp. 
  110. ↑ "Observe Vaibhav Laxmi fast on Friday for prosperity - Times of India". 26 July 2019. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/astrology/hindu-mythology/observe-vaibhav-laxmi-fast-on-friday-for-prosperity/articleshow/70390018.cms. 
  111. ↑ "Sri Mahalakshmi Temple in Goravanahalli". 6 June 2017. https://www.karnataka.com/tumkur/mahalakshmi-temple-goravanahalli/. 
  112. ↑ "Ratnagiri Kollapuradamma Temple". 5 October 2021. https://templesinindiainfo.com/ratnagiri-kollapuradamma-temple-timings/. 
  113. ↑ Lakshmi Stotra. Sanskrit documents.
  114. ↑ Miller, Barbara Stoler (1975). "Rādhā: Consort of Kṛṣṇa's Vernal Passion". Journal of the American Oriental Society 95 (4): 655–671. doi:10.2307/601022. ISSN 0003-0279. https://www.jstor.org/stable/601022. 
  115. ↑ Hawley, John Stratton; Wulff, Donna Marie (1996). Devi: Goddesses of India. University of California Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-520-20058-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=NbcwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA108. 
  116. ↑ Upinder Singh (2009), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, ISBN:978-8131711200, Pearson Education, pages 438, 480 for image
  117. ↑ Duffield Osborne (1914), A Graeco-Indian Engraved Gem , American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 18, No. 1, pages 32–34
  118. ↑ "The Tribune, Chandigarh, India – Jammu & Kashmir". Tribuneindia.com. http://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090413/j&k.htm#20. 
  119. ↑ "Casa della Statuetta Indiana or House of the Indian Statuette". Pompeii in Pictures. http://www.pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/R1/1%2008%2005.htm. 
  120. ↑ Vidya Dehejia (2013). The Body Adorned: Sacred and Profane in Indian Art. Columbia University Press. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-231-51266-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=tkDk5QllVRoC&pg=PA151. "The Vishnu-Lakshmi imagery on the Jain temple speaks of the close links between various Indian belief systems and the overall acceptance by each of the values adopted by the other" 
  121. ↑ Robert S. Ellwood; Gregory D. Alles (2007). The Encyclopedia of World Religions. Infobase Publishing. p. 262. ISBN 978-1-4381-1038-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=1pGbdI4L0qsC&pg=PA262. Retrieved 15 October 2016. 
  122. ↑ 122.0 122.1 Dehejia, Vidya. 2009. The Body Adorned: Sacred and Profane in Indian Art. Columbia University Press. ISBN:978-0231140287. p. 151.
  123. ↑ Jacobi, Hermann. The Golden Book of Jainism, edited by Max Muller, and Mahendra Kulasrestha. ISBN:978-8183820141. p. 213.
  124. ↑ Wangu, Madhu Bazaz (2003). Images of Indian Goddesses: Myths, Meanings, and Models. Abhinav Publications. p. 57. ISBN 9788170174165. https://books.google.com/books?id=k8y-vKtqCmIC&pg=PA57. "The Goddess Lakshmi in Buddhist Art: The goddess of abundance and good fortune, Lakshmi, reflected the accumulated wealth and financial independence of the Buddhist monasteries. Her image became one of the popular visual themes carved on their monuments." 
  125. ↑ Heinrich Robert Zimmer (2015). Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Princeton University Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-4008-6684-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=5IYVBgAAQBAJ. Retrieved 15 October 2016. 
  126. ↑ Shaw, Miranda. 2006. "Chapter 13." Pp. 258–62 in Buddhist Goddesses of India. Princeton University Press. ISBN:978-0691127583.
  127. ↑ "Ten Small Mantras". http://www.buddhamountain.ca/Ten_Small_Mantras.php. 
  128. ↑ 128.0 128.1 Charles Russell Coulter; Patricia Turner (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities. Routledge. pp. 102, 285, 439. ISBN 978-1-135-96390-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=sEIngqiKOugC.  p. 102: "Kishijoten, a goddess of luck who corresponds to Lakshmi, the Indian goddess of fortune..."
  129. ↑ 129.0 129.1 (in English) An Introduction to Religious and Theological Studies, Second Edition. Cyril orji. 2021. ISBN 9781532685934. https://books.google.com/books?id=GrIWEAAAQBAJ&dq=vaishnavi+matrika+consort+of+vishnu&pg=PT220. 
  130. ↑ (in English) Understanding Culture and Society in India. Springer Nature Singapore. 2021. ISBN 9789811615986. https://books.google.com/books?id=izQ1EAAAQBAJ&dq=vaishno+devi+incarnation+of&pg=PA154. 

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