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LGBT people and military service

Topic: Social

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Template:LGBT rightsTemplate:LGBT sidebar Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) personnel are able to serve in the armed forces of some countries around the world: the vast majority of industrialized, Western countries including some South American countries such as Argentina and Chile [1][2] in addition to South Africa , and Israel.[3] The rights concerning intersex people are more vague.

This keeps pace with the latest global figures on acceptance of homosexuality, which suggest that acceptance of LGBTQ communities is becoming more widespread only in secular, affluent countries.[4]

However, an accepting policy toward gay and lesbian soldiers does not invariably guarantee that LGBTQ citizens are immune to discrimination in that particular society. Even in countries where LGBTQ persons are free to serve in the military, activists lament that there remains room for improvement. Israel, for example, a country that otherwise struggles to implement LGBTQ-positive social policy, nevertheless has a military well known for its broad acceptance of openly gay soldiers.[5][6]

History has seen societies that both embrace and shun openly gay service-members in the military. But more recently, the high-profile 2010 hearings on "Don't ask, don't tell" in the United States propelled the issue to the center of international attention. They also shed light both on the routine discrimination, violence, and hardship faced by LGBTQ-identified soldiers, as well as arguments for and against a ban on their service.[7]

History

In ancient Greece, the Sacred Band of Thebes was a military unit from 378 BCE which consisted of male lovers who were known for their effectiveness in battle.[8] Same-sex love also occurred among the Samurai class in Japan, being practiced between an adult and a younger apprentice.[9]

However, homosexual behavior has been considered a criminal offense according to civilian and military law in some countries throughout history. There are various accounts of trials and executions of members of the Knights Templar in the fourteenth century and British sailors during the Napoleonic Wars for homosexuality.[10] Official bans on gays serving in the military first surfaced in the early 20th century. The U.S. introduced a ban in a revision of the Articles of War of 1916 and the UK first prohibited homosexuality in the Army and Air Force Acts in 1955.[11] However some nations, of which Sweden is the most well-known case, never introduced bans on homosexuality in the military, but issued recommendations on exempting homosexuals from military service.[12]

To regulate homosexuality in the U.S. military, physical exams and interviews were used to spot men with effeminate characteristics during recruitment. These exams included having wider hips and the absence of a gag reflex in prospective soldiers. Both of these physical characteristics could get a man disqualified from service. Many soldiers accused of homosexual behavior were discharged for being "sexual psychopaths", although the number of discharges greatly decreased during wartime efforts.[13]

The rationale for excluding gays and lesbians from serving in the military is often rooted in cultural norms and values and has changed over time. Originally, it was believed that gays were not physically able to serve effectively. The most common argument during the later 20th century focused more on military effectiveness. And finally, more recent justifications include the potential for conflict between heterosexual and homosexual service members and possible "heterosexual resentment and hostility."[14]

Many countries have since revised these policies and allow gays and lesbians to openly serve in the military (e.g. Israel in 1993 and the UK in 2000). There are currently more than 30 countries, including nearly all NATO members, which allow gays and lesbians to serve, and around 10 more countries that do not outwardly prohibit them from serving.[15]

The U.S. was one of the last developed nations to overturn its ban on allowing gays, lesbians and bisexuals to openly serve in the military when it repealed the Don't Ask Don't Tell policy in 2010.[16]

Being LGBT in the military

In the United States, despite policy changes allowing for open LGBQ military service and the provision of some benefits to same-sex military couples, cultures of homophobia and discrimination persist.[17]

Several academics have written on the effects on employees in non-military contexts concealing their sexual orientation in the workplace. Writers on military psychology have linked this work to the experiences of LGBQ military service personnel, asserting that these studies offer insights into the lives of open LGBQ soldiers and those who conceal their orientation.[18] Sexual orientation concealment and sexual orientation linked harassment are stressors for LGBT individuals that lead to negative experiences and deleterious job-related outcomes. Specifically, non-open LGBT persons are found to experience social isolation.[18][19] In particular, these products of work related stress can affect military job performance, due to the high reliance on connection and support for the well-being of all service members.[18][20][21][22]

In the United States, LGBQ soldiers are not required to disclose their sexual orientation, suggesting that some LGBQ service members may continue to conceal their sexual orientation.[23] Studies suggest this could have harmful effects for the individual. A 2013 study conducted at the University of Montana found that non-open LGB US veterans face significantly higher rates of depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and alcohol or other substance abuse than their heterosexual counterparts. These veterans also reported facing significant challenges serving while concealing their sexual orientation; 69.3% of subjects in the study reported experiencing fear or anxiety as a result of concealing their sexual identity, and 60.5% reported that those experiences led to a more difficult time for the respondent than heterosexual colleagues. This study also concludes that 14.7% of LGB American veterans made serious attempts at suicide.[24] This rate of suicide attempts compares to another study of the entire American veteran community that found .0003% of American veterans attempt suicide.[25]

Evidence suggests that for LGB service members in the United States, the conditions of service and daily life have improved dramatically following the repeal of Don't Ask, Don't Tell. Soldiers who choose to come out experience feelings of liberation, and report that no longer having to hide their orientation allows them to focus on their jobs.[26] Support groups for LGB soldiers have also proliferated in the United States.[27]

Discrimination

In the US army, six states (Texas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma and West Virginia) initially refused to comply with Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel's order that gay spouses of National Guard members be given the same federal marriage benefits as heterosexual spouses, forcing couples to travel hours round trip to the nearest federal installation. Furthermore, some benefits offered on bases, like support services for relatives of deployed service members, could still be blocked.[28] This changed with a ruling by US Attorney General Loretta Lynch in the Supreme Court on 26 June 2015 which ruled that Federal marriage benefits would be made available to gay couples in all 50 US states.[29]

In 2013, legal changes were said to revert to practices to those before Don't Ask, Don't Tell, the National Defense Authorization Act contains language some claimed permitted individuals to continue discriminating against LGB soldiers.[30]

From June 30, 2016, to April 11, 2019, transgender personnel in the United States military were allowed to serve in their preferred gender upon completing transition. From January 1, 2018, to April 11, 2019, transgender individuals could enlist in the United States military under the condition of being stable for 18 months in their preferred or biological gender. On July 26, 2017, President Donald Trump announced on his Twitter page that transgender individuals would no longer be allowed "to serve in any capacity in the U.S. Military", effectively reinstating the ban.[31][32][33]

Further, throughout the US army, transgender people are still suffering from discrimination: they are prohibited from serving openly because of medical regulations that label them as mentally unstable.[34] On the contrary, in Australia, Canada, Germany, Israel, Italy, the Netherlands, and United Kingdom, as of 2010, when civil partnerships became legal in the respective countries, military family benefits followed the new laws, without discrimination.[35]

Fear of discrimination may prevent military service members to be open about their sexual orientation. A 2004 report stated that in some cases, in Belgium, homosexual personnel have been transferred from their unit if they have been "too open with their sexuality." (As of 2004), the Belgian military reserved the right to deny gay and lesbian personnel high-level security clearances, for fear they may be susceptible to blackmail.[36] In 1993, a study showed that in Canada, France, Germany, Israel, the Netherlands and Norway, the number of openly homosexual service members was small, representing only a minority of homosexuals usually serving. Serving openly may make their service less pleasant or impede their careers, even though there were no explicit limitations to serve. Thus service members who acknowledged their homosexuality were "appropriately" circumspect in their behavior while in military situations; i.e. they did not call attention to themselves.[37] Today, in the Danish army, LGBT military personnel refrain from being completely open about their homosexuality. Until training is completed and a solid employment is fixed they fear losing respect, authority and privileges, or in worse cases their job in the Danish army.[38] In 2010, the same updated study showed that in Australia, Canada, Germany, Israel, Italy and United Kingdom, no special treatment to prevent discrimination was in place in those armies, the issue is not specifically addressed, it is left to the leadership discretion. Commanders said that sexual harassment of women by men poses a far greater threat to unit performance than anything related to sexual orientation.[35]

On the other hand, the Dutch military directly addressed the issue of enduring discrimination, by forming the Homosexuality and Armed Forces Foundation, a trade union that continues to represent gay and lesbian personnel to the ministry of defense, for a more tolerant military culture. Although homosexuals in the Dutch military rarely experience any explicitly aggressive acts against them, signs of homophobia and cultural insensitivity are still present.[36]

Violence

Physical, sexual, psychological (harassment, bullying) violence faced by LGBT is a fact of life for many LGBT identified persons. In an inherently violent environment, LGBT people may face violence unique to their community in the course of military service.

According to a 2012 news article, the Israeli Defense Force does not ask the sexual orientation of its soldiers, however half of the homosexual soldiers who serve in the IDF suffer from violence and homophobia. LGBT soldiers are often victims of verbal and physical violence and for the most part, commanders ignore the phenomenon.[39]

SAPRO, the organization responsible for the oversight of the Department of Defense (DoD - US) sexual assault policy, produces the "Workplace and Gender Relations Survey of Active Duty Member (WGRA)": The 2012 report does not have any paragraph studying the specific situation of LGBT people. The study focuses on men and women. The specificity of the violence faced by LGBT people is not considered.[40]

In the Australian army, the problem is not known officially; only a few cases of harassment and discrimination involving gays and lesbians have been recorded. A researcher mentioned that "one would not want to be gay and in the military": Although there has been no major public scandal regarding harassment of gays, this does not mean that such behavior does not occur, but it has been under-studied. Generally, however, incidents of discrimination or harassment brought to the attention of commanders are handled appropriately, incidents in which peers who had made inappropriate remarks are disciplined by superiors promptly and without reservation.[41]

In the United States military, sexual violence in the form of harassment and assault affects a large percentage of its LGBT soldiers. Research conducted through an online survey and published in the Journal of Traumatic Stress shows that 80.7% of LGB and 83.9% of transgender service members, reported experiencing sexual harassment during their time in the military. The survey also found that 25.7% of LGB and 30.4% of transgender service members reported experiencing sexual assault.[42] These researchers concluded that their findings pointed to LGBT service members being at a higher risk of sexual and/or stalking victimization.[42]

These forms of sexual victimization against LGBT U.S. military service members have been linked to adverse mental health effects ranging from depressive symptoms to suicidal behavior.[42] LGBT veterans experienced posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depressive symptoms, substance use, and suicidal behavior among other mental health issues oftentimes at a higher rate than non-LGBT veterans.[42] It was found that depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders are 1.5 times more common in the LGBT community as well as evidence that supports the thought that members of the LGBT community who have gone through physical, sexual, and emotional trauma have a higher risk of suicide.[43] The statistics reflect that 11.48% of LGB veterans reported that they had "seriously considered" attempting suicide within the past year, compared to 3.48% of heterosexual veterans.[43] According to national data from the Vietnam Era Twin Registry, when looking at veterans who had at least one same-gendered sexual partner in their lifetime, 55.3% of them reported suicidal ideation, compared to just 25.2% of those with no same-gender partners.[43] In terms of attempting suicide, among the veterans surveyed with at least one same-gender partner, 14.7% reported they had attempted, compared to just 3.9% of veterans with no same-gender partner.[43] In veterans who could not or did not serve openly in the military, they were found to suffer from higher rates of depression and PTSD specifically associated with concealing their sexual orientation while in the service.[44]

There are mental health care options available for LGBT veterans, but studies show that those in need of care may avoid it due to past experiences or fear of stigma in healthcare settings, or the belief that healthcare professionals are not equipped to meet their needs due to lack of training.[45] Studies have supported this hypothesis by looking at physicians' "knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of their clinical competence," finding that many are, or at least think they are, inadequately prepared to properly care for patients that identify as LGBT and/or are veterans.[45]

Arguments regarding inclusion

Arguments for inclusion

Until recently, many countries banned gays and lesbians from serving openly in the armed forces. The reasons to enforce this ban included the potential negative impact on unit cohesion and privacy concerns. However, many studies commissioned to examine the effects on the military found that little evidence existed to support the discriminatory policy.[46] Moreover, when the bans were repealed in several countries including the UK, Canada, and Australia, no large scale issues arose as a result.[47]

Several studies provide evidence that allowing gays and lesbians to openly serve in the armed forces can result in more positive work related outcomes. Firstly, discharging trained military personnel for their sexual orientation is costly and results in loss of talent. The total cost for such discharges in the U.S. for violating the Don't Ask Don't Tell policy amounted to more than 290 million dollars.[48] Secondly, privacy for service members has actually increased in countries with inclusive policies and led to a decrease in harassment. Although it is important to note that many gays and lesbians do not disclose their sexual orientation once the ban is repealed.[49] Finally, allowing gays to openly serve ends decades of discrimination in the military and can lead to a more highly qualified pool of recruits. For instance, the British military reduced its unfilled position gap by more than half after allowing gays to openly serve.[50] Therefore, more evidence exists now to support policies that allow gays and lesbians to openly serve in the military.

Arguments against inclusion

While most research data have all but debunked traditional arguments in favor of policies like Don't Ask, Don't Tell, homosexuality is still perceived by many countries to be incompatible with military service.[51]

A recurrent argument for a ban on homosexuals in the military rests on the assumption that, in the face of potentially homosexual members of their unit, prospective recruits would shy away from military service. Based on an inconclusive study produced by the RAND Corporation in the run-up to the repeal of Don't Ask, Don't Tell, American military recruits were expected to decrease by as much as 7%.[52] However, this does not appear to have materialized.[53]

In a line of work that regularly demands that personnel be in close living quarters, allowing openly homosexual servicemen is argued to flout a fundamental tenet of military service: ensuring that soldiers remain undistracted from their mission. If gay men are allowed to shower with their fellow male soldiers, so goes the argument, this would, in effect, violate the "unique conditions" of military life by putting sexually compatible partners in close proximity, with potentially adverse effects on retention and morale of troops.[54] Testimony advanced during the hearings on Don't Ask, Don't Tell of 1993, with US Senator Sam Nunn and General Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. recalled "instances where heterosexuals have been solicited to commit homosexual acts, and, even more traumatic emotionally, physically coerced to engage in such acts".[55]

Transgender military service

Like sexual orientation, policies regulating the service of transgender military personnel vary greatly by country. Based on data collected by the Hague Centre for Strategic Studies[56] nineteen countries currently allow transgender people to serve in their military. They are: Australia , Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil , Canada , Czech Republic, Denmark , Estonia, Finland , France , Germany , Israel, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway , Spain , Sweden, and the United Kingdom .[57]

While the US military's Don't Ask, Don't Tell policy was rescinded in 2011 allowing open service by gay, lesbian, and bisexual service members, transgender people were still barred from entering the US military.[58] This ban, which was subsequently removed,[59] was effective via enlistment health screening regulations: "Current or history of psychosexual conditions (302), including but not limited to transsexualism, exhibitionism, transvestism, voyeurism, and other paraphilias."[60] Unlike Don't Ask, Don't Tell, this policy was not a law mandated by Congress, but an internal military policy. Studies suggest that the propensity of trans individuals to serve in the US military is as much as twice that as cisgender individuals. In the Harvard Kennedy School's 2013 National Transgender Discrimination Survey, 20% of transgender respondents reported having served in the armed forces, compared with 10% of cisgender respondents.[61][62]

American transgender veterans face institutional hardships, including the provision of medical care while in the armed services and after discharge stemming from their gender identity or expression. Transgender veterans may also face additional challenges, such as facing a higher rate of homelessness and home foreclosure, higher rates of losing jobs often directly stemming from their trans identity, and high rates of not being hired for specific jobs because of their gender identity.[62][63]

Intersex military service

Main page: Social:Intersex people and military service

The armed forces of Israel, the United States and Australia have employed intersex individuals depending on the nature of their conditions, but the guidelines are vague and seldom talked about.[64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75]

LGBT Military Index

The LGBT Military Index is an index created by the Hague Centre for Strategic Studies that uses 19 indicative policies and best practices to rank over 100 countries on the inclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender service members in the armed forces. Countries with higher rankings, especially the ones at the top, stand out for their multiple concerted efforts to promote the inclusion of gay and lesbian soldiers. In many of them special support and advocacy organizations are present. By contrast, countries near the bottom of the index show the lack of aspiration to promote greater inclusion of the LGBT military personnel.[76][77][78]

By country

Table

Legend
LGBT people can serve
Only LGB
Prohibited
unknown or unclear
No Military
Legality of Military Service by LGBT people
Country Status
 Abkhazia Unknown or unclear
 Afghanistan Prohibited
 Albania Only LGB
 Algeria Prohibited
 Argentina Only LGB
 Artsakh Unknown or unclear
 Andorra No Military
 Angola Unknown or unclear
 Antigua and Barbuda Prohibited
 Armenia Prohibited[79]
 Australia LGBT people can serve
 Austria LGBT people can serve[80]
 Azerbaijan Prohibited
 Bahamas Only LGB
 Bahrain Prohibited
 Bangladesh Prohibited
 Barbados Prohibited
 Belarus Prohibited[81]
 Belgium LGBT people can serve
 Belize Prohibited
 Benin Unknown or unclear
 Bhutan Prohibited
 Bolivia LGBT people can serve
 Bosnia and Herzegovina Only LGB
 Botswana Only LGB
 Brazil LGBT people can serve
 Brunei Prohibited
 Bulgaria Only LGB
 Burkina Faso Unknown or unclear
 Burundi Prohibited
 Cambodia Unknown or unclear
 Cameroon Prohibited
 Canada LGBT people can serve[82][80]
 Cape Verde Unknown or unclear
 Central African Republic Unknown or unclear
 Chad Prohibited
 Chile LGBT people can serve
 China Prohibited
 Colombia Only LGB
 Comoros Prohibited
 Congo Unknown or unclear
 Costa Rica No Standing Military
 Croatia Only LGB
 Cuba LGBT people can serve
 Cyprus Only LGB
 Czech Republic LGBT people can serve[80]
 Democratic Republic of the Congo Unknown or unclear
 Denmark LGBT people can serve[80]
 Dominica Prohibited
 Dominican Republic Prohibited
 Djibouti Unknown or unclear
 East Timor Unknown or unclear
 Ecuador Unknown or unclear
 Egypt Prohibited
 El Salvador Only LGB[83][84]
 Equatorial Guinea Unknown or unclear
 Eritrea Prohibited
 Estonia LGBT people can serve[80]
 Eswatini Prohibited
 Ethiopia Prohibited
 Fiji Unknown or unclear
 Finland LGBT people can serve[80]
 France LGBT people can serve
 Gabon Prohibited
 Gambia Prohibited
 Georgia Unknown or unclear
 Germany LGBT people can serve[80]
 Ghana Prohibited
 Greece Only LGB
 Grenada No Military
 Guatemala Unknown or unclear
 Guinea Prohibited
 Guinea-Bissau Unknown or unclear
 Guyana Only LGB
 Haiti No Standing Military
 Honduras Prohibited
 Hungary Only LGB
 Iceland No Standing Military
 India Prohibited
 Indonesia Prohibited
 Iran Prohibited
 Iraq Prohibited
 Ireland LGBT people can serve
 Israel LGBT people can serve
 Italy Only LGB
 Ivory Coast Unknown or unclear
 Jamaica Prohibited
 Japan Only LGB
 Jordan Unknown or unclear
 Kazakhstan Only LGB[85]
 Kenya Prohibited
 Kiribati No Military
 Kosovo Only LGB
 Kuwait Prohibited
 Kyrgyzstan Unknown or unclear
 Laos Unknown or unclear
 Latvia Only LGB[86]
 Lebanon Prohibited
 Lesotho Unknown or unclear
 Liberia Prohibited
 Libya Prohibited
 Liechtenstein No Military
 Lithuania Only LGB
 Luxembourg LGBT people can serve
 Madagascar Unknown or unclear
 Malawi Prohibited
 Malaysia Prohibited
 Maldives Prohibited
 Mali Prohibited
 Malta LGBT people can serve
 Marshall Islands No Military
 Mauritania Prohibited
 Mauritius Unknown or unclear
 Mexico Only LGB (Legal Limbo)
 Micronesia No Military
 Moldova Only LGB
 Monaco LGBT people can serve (France responsible for Defense)
 Mongolia Unknown or unclear
 Montenegro Only LGB
 Morocco Prohibited
 Mozambique Prohibited
 Myanmar Prohibited
 Namibia Prohibited
 Nauru No Military
   Nepal Only LGB
 Netherlands LGBT people can serve
 New Zealand LGBT people can serve
 Nicaragua Unknown or unclear
 Niger Unknown or unclear
 Nigeria Prohibited
 Northern Cyprus Prohibited
 North Korea Prohibited
 North Macedonia Only LGB
 Norway LGBT people can serve[80]
 Oman Prohibited
 Pakistan Prohibited
 Palau No Military
 Palestine Prohibited
 Panama No Standing Military
 Papua New Guinea Prohibited
 Paraguay Only LGB
 Peru Only LGB
 Philippines LGBT people can serve (Gender expression is restricted to gender stated in certificate of live birth)[87]
 Poland Only LGB
 Portugal Only LGB
 Qatar Prohibited
 Romania Only LGB
 Russia Prohibited
 Rwanda Unknown or unclear
 Saint Kitts and Nevis Prohibited
 Saint Lucia No Military
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines No Military
Template:Country data São Tomé and Principe Unknown or unclear
 Samoa No Military
 San Marino Unknown or unclear
 Saudi Arabia Prohibited
 Senegal Prohibited
 Serbia Only LGB
 Seychelles Unknown or unclear
 Sierra Leone Prohibited
 Singapore Only LGB
 Slovakia Only LGB
 Slovenia Only LGB
 Solomon Islands Prohibited
 Somalia Prohibited
 Somaliland Prohibited
 South Africa Only LGB
 South Korea Prohibited
 South Ossetia Unknown or unclear
 South Sudan Prohibited
 Spain LGBT people can serve[80]
 Sri Lanka Prohibited
 Sudan Prohibited
 Suriname Unknown or unclear
 Sweden LGBT people can serve[88][80]
  Switzerland LGBT people can serve[89]
 Syria Prohibited
 Taiwan Only LGB
 Tajikistan Unknown or unclear
 Tanzania Prohibited
 Thailand LGBT people can serve
 Togo Prohibited
 Tonga Prohibited
 Transnistria Unknown or unclear
 Trinidad and Tobago Prohibited
 Tunisia Prohibited
 Turkey Prohibited
 Turkmenistan Prohibited
 Tuvalu No Military
 Uganda Prohibited
 Ukraine Only LGB[90][91]
 United Arab Emirates Prohibited
 United Kingdom LGBT people can serve
 United States LGBT people can serve
 Uruguay Only LGB
 Uzbekistan Prohibited
 Vanuatu Unknown or unclear
  Vatican City No Military
 Venezuela Only LGB
 Vietnam Only LGB
 Western Sahara Prohibited
 Yemen Prohibited
 Zambia Prohibited
 Zimbabwe Prohibited

See also

  • LGBT healthcare in the United States Veterans Health Administration

References

  1. ↑ "Chile's National Military Announce a Milestone in Sexual Orientation". http://www.ilovechile.cl/chiles-national-military-announce-milestone-sexual-orientation/. 
  2. ↑ "Gay rights group lauds efforts to make Chilean military more inclusive". The Santiago Times. http://santiagotimes.cl/gay-rights-group-lauds-efforts-make-chilean-military-inclusive/. 
  3. ↑ Frank, Nathaniel. "How Gay Soldiers Serve Openly Around the World". NPR. https://www.npr.org/2010/12/07/131857684/how-gay-soldiers-serve-openly-around-the-world. 
  4. ↑ "The Global Divide on Homosexuality Greater Acceptance in More Secular and Affluent Countries". Pew Research Center. 2013-06-04. http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/the-global-divide-on-homosexuality/. 
  5. ↑ Yaron, Oded (2013-12-12). "Israeli LGBTQ activists mobilize online after gay rights bill fails". Haaretz. http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/.premium-1.563186. 
  6. ↑ Sherwood, Harriet (2012-06-13). "Israeli military accused of staging gay pride photo". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/13/israeli-military-gay-pride-photo. 
  7. ↑ Bacon, Perry (2010-05-28). "House votes to end 'don't ask, don't tell' policy". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/27/AR2010052704540.html. 
  8. ↑ Homosexuality in Greece and Rome , 2.14 Plutarch, Pelopidas 18-19
  9. ↑ Love of the Samurai: A Thousand Years of Japanese Homosexuality , Tsuneo Watanabe and Junʼichi Iwata, 1989.
  10. ↑ Brief History of Gays in the Military
  11. ↑ European Court of Human Rights Overturns British Ban on Gays in Military , Richard Kamm, Human Rights Brief 7, no. 3, 2000, p. 18-20
  12. ↑ Sundevall, Fia; Persson, Alma (2016). "LGBT in the Military: Policy Development in Sweden 1944–2014". Sexuality Research and Social Policy 13 (2): 119–129. doi:10.1007/s13178-015-0217-6. PMID 27195050. 
  13. ↑ Homosexuals in the U.S. Military: Open Integration and Combat Effectiveness , By Elizabeth Kier, International Security 23, no.2, MIT Press, 1998, p. 5-39
  14. ↑ "GAYS IN FOREIGN MILITARIES 2010: A GLOBAL PRIMER". 2010. http://www.palmcenter.org/files/FOREIGNMILITARIESPRIMER2010FINAL.pdf. 
  15. ↑ Countries Where Gays Do Serve Openly In The Military , May 25, 2011 Retrieved 2013-15-11
  16. ↑ 'Don't ask, don't tell' ban on openly gay troops overturned, Senate passes bill 65-31 , Dec 18, 2010, Retrieved 2013-15-11
  17. ↑ Geidner, Chris (November 24, 2013). "After Repeal Of "Don't Ask, Don't Tell," Pockets Of Difficulty For Equality". BuzzFeed. https://www.buzzfeed.com/chrisgeidner/after-repeal-of-dont-ask-dont-tell-equalitys-sticking-points. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Moradi, Bonnie (2009). "Sexual Orientation Disclosure, Concealment, Harassment, and Military Cohesion: Perceptions of LGBT Military Veterans". Military Psychology 21 (4): 513–533. doi:10.1080/08995600903206453. 
  19. ↑ Croteau, J.M. (1996). "Research on the work experience of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people: An integrative review of methodology and findings". Journal of Vocational Behavior 48 (2): 195–209. doi:10.1006/jvbe.1996.0018. 
  20. ↑ Griffith, James (2002). "Multilevel analysis of cohesion's relation to stress, well-being, identification, disintegration, and perceived combat readiness". Military Psychology 14 (3): 217–239. doi:10.1207/s15327876mp1403_3. 
  21. ↑ Griffith, James; Mark Vaitkus (1999). "Relating cohesion to stress, strain, disintegration, and performance: An organizing framework". Military Psychology 11: 27–55. doi:10.1207/s15327876mp1101_3. 
  22. ↑ Sinclair, James; Venessa Tucker (2006). "Stress-CARE: An integrated model of individual differences in soldier performance under stress". Military Life: The Psychology of Serving in Peace and Combat 1: 202–231. 
  23. ↑ "Freedom to Serve: The Definitive Guide to LGBT Military Service". OutServe SLDN. Service Members Legal Defense Network. July 27, 2011. p. 3. http://www.sldn.org/page/-/Website/The%20Law/Freedom%20To%20Serve%20Guide%20-%20July%202011.pdf. 
  24. ↑ Cochran, Bryan; Kimberly Balsam; Annese Flentje; Carol A. Malte; Tracy Simpson (2013). "Mental Health Characteristics of Sexual Minority Veterans". Journal of Homosexuality 60 (1–2): 419–435. doi:10.1080/00918369.2013.744932. PMID 23414280. 
  25. ↑ Flanagan, Jack (March 1, 2013). "Closeted gay soldiers more likely to attempt suicide". Gay Star News. http://www.gaystarnews.com/article/closeted-gay-soldiers-more-likely-commit-suicide010313. 
  26. ↑ Swarns, Rachel (November 16, 2012). "Out of the Closet and Into a Uniform". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/18/fashion/military-academies-adjusting-to-repeal-of-dont-ask-dont-tell.html?adxnnl=1&ref=dontaskdonttell&adxnnlx=1387392755-Q7Oxdf0e5iVZ+s6U1EtrHA. 
  27. ↑ Frosch, Dan (June 29, 2013). "In Support Groups for Gay Military Members, Plenty of Asking and Telling". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/30/us/in-support-groups-for-gay-military-members-plenty-of-asking-and-telling.html?ref=dontaskdonttell&_r=0. 
  28. ↑ OPPEL, Richard A. Jr. (2013-11-10). "Texas and 5 Other States Resist Processing Benefits for Gay Couples". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/11/us/texas-and-5-other-states-resist-processing-benefits-for-gay-couples.html?_r=0. 
  29. ↑ "US extends federal marriage benefits to gay couples in all states" (in en-gb). 2015-07-10. https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/federal-marriage-benefits-extended-to-gay-couples-across-us/. 
  30. ↑ Dao, James (January 4, 2013). "How Defense Act Addresses Military Suicides and Issues of Conscience". The New York Times. http://atwar.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/04/how-defense-act-addresses-military-suicides-and-issues-of-conscience/?ref=dontaskdonttell. 
  31. ↑ "Trump bans transgender people in military" (in en-GB). 2017-07-26. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-40729996. 
  32. ↑ Bromwich, Jonah Engel (2017-07-26). "How U.S. Military Policy on Transgender Personnel Changed Under Obama" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/26/us/politics/trans-military-trump-timeline.html. 
  33. ↑ Guardian Staff; agencies (2019-04-13). "Trans troops return to era of 'don't ask, don't tell' as Trump policy takes effect" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/apr/12/transgender-ban-military-trump-take-effect-dont-ask-dont-tell. 
  34. ↑ Grant, Jaime M. (2011-01-10). "Injustice at Every Turn: A Report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey". National Center for Transgender Equality, National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. http://www.thetaskforce.org/downloads/reports/reports/ntds_full.pdf. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Rostker, Bernard D. (2010). "Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy: An Update of RAND's 1993 Study". RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2010/RAND_MG1056.pdf. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Bateman, Geoffrey W.; Assistant Director for the Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military, University of California, Santa Barbara (2004-06-23). "Military Culture: European". glbtq: An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture. http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/military_culture_eur,2.html. 
  37. ↑ RAND Corporation report (1993). "Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy: Options and Assessment". RAND Corporation, National Defense Research Institute. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/2009/RAND_MR323.sum.pdf. 
  38. ↑ Hansen, Hans Henrik (2010-01-20). "Seksuel orienteringsdiskriminering - et studie af seks homoseksuelle mænds oplevelser og erfaringer i det danske Forsvar". Nordic School of Public Health. http://www.nhv.se/customer/templates/NewsPage.aspx?epslanguage=EN&id=2041. 
  39. ↑ Katz, Yaakov (2012-12-06). "Does viral IDF Gay Pride photo show full picture?". JPost.com. http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Does-viral-IDF-Gay-Pride-photo-show-full-picture. 
  40. ↑ "2012 Workplace and Gender Relations Survey of Active Duty Members". Sexual Assault Prevention and Response Office - US. 2013-03-15. http://www.sapr.mil/public/docs/research/2012_Workplace_and_Gender_Relations_Survey_of_Active_Duty_Members-Survey_Note_and_Briefing.pdf. 
  41. ↑ Belkin, Aaron; McNichol, Jason (2010-09-10). "The Effects Of Including Gay And Lesbian Soldiers In The Australian Defence Forces: Appraising The Evidence". Palm Center White Paper. http://www.palmcenter.org/publications/dadt/the_effects_of_including_gay_and_lesbian_soldiers_in_the_australian_defence_forces_appraising_the_evidence. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 Schuyler, Ashley C.; Klemmer, Cary; Mamey, Mary Rose; Schrager, Sheree M.; Goldbach, Jeremy T.; Holloway, Ian W.; Castro, Carl Andrew (June 2020). "Experiences of Sexual Harassment, Stalking, and Sexual Assault During Military Service Among LGBT and Non‐LGBT Service Members" (in en). Journal of Traumatic Stress 33 (3): 257–266. doi:10.1002/jts.22506. ISSN 0894-9867. PMID 32216140. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jts.22506. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 Matarazzo, Bridget B.; Barnes, Sean M.; Pease, James L.; Russell, Leah M.; Hanson, Jetta E.; Soberay, Kelly A.; Gutierrez, Peter M. (April 2014). "Suicide Risk among Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Military Personnel and Veterans: What Does the Literature Tell Us?" (in en). Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 44 (2): 200–217. doi:10.1111/sltb.12073. PMID 24494604. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/sltb.12073. 
  44. ↑ Goldbach, Jeremy T.; Castro, Carl Andrew (2016-04-16). "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) Service Members: Life After Don't Ask, Don't Tell" (in en). Current Psychiatry Reports 18 (6): 56. doi:10.1007/s11920-016-0695-0. ISSN 1535-1645. PMID 27086317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-016-0695-0. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Byne, William; Wise, Joseph (2020-07-01). "Toward Optimizing Mental Health Care for Sexual and Gender Minority Veterans". FOCUS 18 (3): 289–295. doi:10.1176/appi.focus.20200009. ISSN 1541-4094. PMID 33162866. 
  46. ↑ Herek, Gregory (2006). "Sexual Orientation and Military Service: Prospects for Organizational and Individual Change in the United States". http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/Military_05_pre.PDF. 
  47. ↑ "FOREIGN MILITARIES PRIMER 2010". http://www.palmcenter.org/files/FOREIGNMILITARIESPRIMER2010FINAL.pdf. 
  48. ↑ "Lesbian, gay, and bisexual men and women in the US military: Updated estimates". The Williams Institute. 2010. http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Gates-GLBmilitaryUpdate-May-20101.pdfformat=PDF. [yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
  49. ↑ [1] , Gays in Foreign Militaries 2010: A Global Primer.
  50. ↑ U.S. allies say integrating gays in military was nonissue , May 20, 2010, Retrieved 2013-15-11
  51. ↑ Frank, Nathaniel. "How Gay Soldiers Serve Openly Around The World". NPR. https://www.npr.org/2010/12/07/131857684/how-gay-soldiers-serve-openly-around-the-world. 
  52. ↑ "Sexual Orientation and US Military Personnel Policy". RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2010/RAND_MG1056.pdf. 
  53. ↑ "One Year Out: An Assessment of DADT Repeal's Impact on Military Readiness". Palm Center. http://www.palmcenter.org/files/One%20Year%20Out_0.pdf. 
  54. ↑ "Readiness, Retention, Recruitment: Repeal of "Don't Ask, Don't Tell"". House Republicans. https://www.gop.gov/policy-news/10/05/26/readiness-retention-recruitment. 
  55. ↑ Belkin, Aaron. "Don't Ask, Don't Tell: Is the Gay Ban Based on Military Necessity?". Strategic Studies Institute. http://strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/parameters/articles/03summer/belkin.pdf. 
  56. ↑ Joshua Polchar et al., LGBT Military Personnel; A Strategic Vision for Inclusion (The Hague, the Netherlands: The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies, 2014)
  57. ↑ Elders et al, "Medical Aspects of Transgender Military Service" Armed Forces & Society (2014) vol. 41 no. 2 pp 199-220
  58. ↑ Halloran, Liz (20 September 2011). "With Repeal Of 'Don't Ask, Don't Tell,' An Era Ends". National Public Radio. https://www.npr.org/2011/09/20/140605121/with-repeal-of-dont-ask-dont-tell-an-era-ends. 
  59. ↑ "Medical Standards for Military Service: Appointment, Enlistment, or Induction". U.S. Department of Defense. 2022-06-06. https://www.esd.whs.mil/Portals/54/Documents/DD/issuances/dodi/613003_v1p.PDF. 
  60. ↑ "Medical Standards for Appointment, Enlistment, or Induction in the Military Services". Department of Defense. http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/613003p.pdf. 
  61. ↑ Harrison-Quintana, Jack; Jody L. Herman (2013). "Still Serving in Silence: Transgender Service Members and Veterans in the National Transgender Discrimination Survey". LGBTQ Policy Journal 3. http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Harrison-Quintana-Herman-LGBTQ-Policy-Journal-2013.pdf. Retrieved 17 November 2013. 
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Brydum, Sunnivie (1 August 2013). "Trans Americans Twice As Likely to Serve in Military, Study Reveals". The Advocate. http://www.advocate.com/politics/transgender/2013/08/01/trans-americans-twice-likely-serve-military-study-reveals. 
  63. ↑ Srinivasan, Rajiv (November 11, 2013). "How to Really Honor Veterans: Extend Benefits to Transgender Vets". Time. http://ideas.time.com/2013/11/11/how-to-really-honor-veterans-extend-benefits-to-transgender-vets/. 
  64. ↑ "Gender, Sexuality and Joining the Military". 2010-02-10. https://www.voiceofsandiego.org/fact/gender-sexuality-and-joining-the-military/. 
  65. ↑ "The great hermaphrodites-in-the-military debate". 3 February 2010. https://www.politico.com/blogs/ben-smith/2010/02/the-great-hermaphrodites-in-the-military-debate-024794. 
  66. ↑ "DADT: And then They Came for the Hermaphrodites". https://www.theawl.com/2010/02/dadt-and-then-they-came-for-the-hermaphrodites/. 
  67. ↑ Marom, T.; Itskoviz, D.; Ostfeld, I. (2008). "Intersex patients in military service". Military Medicine 173 (11): 1132–5. doi:10.7205/MILMED.173.11.1132. PMID 19055190. 
  68. ↑ "Does VA distinguish between transsexual gender-confirmation surgery and intersex surgery?". http://transveteran.org/faq/va-distinguish-transsexual-gender-confirmation-surgery-intersex-surgery/. 
  69. ↑ "VHA Issues New Directive on Trans and Intersex Veteran Health Care". https://www.care2.com/causes/va-issues-new-directive-on-trans-and-intersex-veteran-health-care.html. 
  70. ↑ Danon, Limor Meoded (2015). "The Body/Secret Dynamic". SAGE Open 5 (2): 215824401558037. doi:10.1177/2158244015580370. 
  71. ↑ Marom, Tal; Itskoviz, David; Ostfeld, Ishay (2008). "Intersex Patients in Military Service". Military Medicine 173 (11): 1132–1135. doi:10.7205/MILMED.173.11.1132. PMID 19055190. 
  72. ↑ "Witch-hunts and surveillance: The hidden lives of LGBTI people in the military". 2017-04-25. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-04-25/anzac-day-hidden-lives-of-lgbti-people-in-the-military/8467806. 
  73. ↑ "Celebrating 25 years of diversity in the armed forces". 2017-09-24. https://www.humanrights.gov.au/news/stories/celebrating-25-years-diversity-armed-forces. 
  74. ↑ Serving in Silence?: Australian LGBT servicemen and women Foreword
  75. ↑ "What is gender X and why it matters to government and Defence". 2017-09-26. https://www.themandarin.com.au/83991-what-is-gender-x/. 
  76. ↑ Ed Pilkington (2014-02-20). "US ranks low in first-ever global index of LGBT inclusion in armed forces". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/20/us-ranks-low-global-index-lgbt-inclusion-armed-forces. 
  77. ↑ "LGBT Military Index - News - HCSS Center for Strategic Studies". HCSS Centre for Strategic Studies. http://www.hcss.nl/news/lgbt-military-index/873/. 
  78. ↑ "LGBT Military Index - Monitor". hcss.nl. http://projects.hcss.nl/monitor/88/. 
  79. ↑ "Armenia: Gays live with threats of violence, abuse". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 30 March 2010. Retrieved 8 June 2012.
  80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 80.2 80.3 80.4 80.5 80.6 80.7 80.8 80.9 Sweijs, Tim. "LGBT Military Personnel: a Strategic Vision for Inclusion". hcss.nl. The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies. Retrieved 4 November 2020.
  81. ↑ "Belarus: Attitude towards homosexuals and lesbians in Belarus; state protection available to non-heterosexuals in Belarus with special attention to Minsk (2000–2005)". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 17 January 2006. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
  82. ↑ "Canadian Armed Forces". The Canadian Lesbian & Gay Archives. Retrieved 30 September 2010.
  83. ↑ Asociación Salvadoreña de Derechos Humanos “Entre Amigos” (2010). HUMAN RIGHTS SITUATION OF LESBIAN, GAY, BISEXUAL AND TRANSGENDER PERSONS IN EL SALVADOR: Shadow Report submitted to the United Nations Human Rights Committee. San Salvador. http://www.iglhrc.org/binary-data/ATTACHMENT/file/000/000/439-1.pdf. Retrieved 2023-10-19. 
  84. ↑ "Consulta Nacional sobre realidades LGBTI en El Salvador". Dirección de Diversidad Sexual (in español). 2012.
  85. ↑ Script error: No such module "Cite news".
  86. ↑ Script error: No such module "Cite news".
  87. ↑ Mangosing, Frances (15 February 2017). "'LGBT hopefuls welcome; must wear uniform based on gender at birth'" (in en). Philippine Daily Inquirer. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/871823/lgbt-hopefuls-welcome-must-wear-uniform-based-on-gender-at-birth. 
  88. ↑ Fia Sundevall & Alma Persson (2016) "LGBT in the Military: Policy Development in Sweden 1944–2014", Sexuality Research and Social Policy, June 2016, Volume 13, Issue 2, pp 119-129, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13178-015-0217-6/fulltext.html
  89. ↑ Schelhammer, Christoph R. "Diversité : « La société est tout sauf homogène. »". Swiss Army. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
  90. ↑ Garcia, Horaci (31 May 2022). "Ukraine's 'unicorn' LGBTQ soldiers head for war". https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukraines-unicorn-lgbtq-soldiers-head-war-2022-05-31/. 
  91. ↑ "Ukraine's gay soldiers fight Russia—and for their rights". The Economist. 5 April 2023. https://www.economist.com/europe/2023/04/05/ukraines-gay-soldiers-fight-russia-and-for-their-rights. 

Sources

  • Shilts, Randy (1994/1997/2005). Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the US Military. ISBN:5-551-97352-2 / ISBN:0-312-34264-0.

Further reading

  • Belkin, Aaron (2013). "Readiness and DADT Repeal: Has the New Policy of Open Service Undermined the Military?". Armed Forces & Society 39 (4): 587–601. doi:10.1177/0095327x12466248. 
  • Berube, A. (2010). Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War II (2nd ed., p. 416). The University of North Carolina Press.
  • Belkin, Aaron; Levitt, Melissa (2001). "Homosexuality and the Israel Defense Forces: Did Lifting the Gay Ban Undermine Military Performance?". Armed Forces & Society 27 (4): 541–565. doi:10.1177/0095327x0102700403. PMID 17514841. 
  • Burg, B. R. (2002) Gay Warriors: A Documentary History from the Ancient World to the Present (New York University Press, 2002)
  • De Angelis, Karin, et al. (2013) "Sexuality in the military." in International Handbook on the Demography of Sexuality (Springer Netherlands, 2013) pp 363–381.
  • Frank, Nathaniel, ed. (2010) Gays in foreign militaries 2010: A global primer online
  • Frank, Nathaniel. (2013) "The President's Pleasant Surprise: How LGBT Advocates Ended Don't Ask, Don't Tell," Journal of homosexuality 60, no. 2-3 (2013): 159–213.
  • Frank, Nathaniel. (2009) Unfriendly Fire: How the Gay Ban Undermines the Military and Weakens America
  • Okros, Alan, and Denise Scott. (2014) "Gender Identity in the Canadian Forces A Review of Possible Impacts on Operational Effectiveness." Armed Forces & Society 0095327X14535371.
  • Polchar, Joshua, et al. (2014) LGBT Military: A Strategic Vision for Inclusion (The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies, 2014)
  • Oblea, Pedro N.; Adams, Ashley R.; Nguyen-Wu, Elizabeth D.; Hawley-Molloy, Joshua S.; Balsam, Kimberly; Badger, Terry A.; Witwer, Amanda R.; Cartwright, Joel (2022). "Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender and Queer Health-Care Experiences in a Military Population". Journal of Homosexuality 70 (6): 1098–1118. doi:10.1080/00918369.2021.2015952. PMID 35007488. 

External links



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