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National conservatism

Topic: Social

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 20 min
Short description: Strand of conservatism

National conservatism is a nationalist variant of conservatism that concentrates on upholding national, cultural identity, communitarianism and the public role of religion (see religion in politics). It shares aspects of traditionalist conservatism and social conservatism, while departing from economic liberalism and libertarianism, as well as taking a more agnostic approach to regulatory economics and protectionism.[1][2][3][4][5][6] National conservatives usually combine conservatism with nationalist stances, emphasizing cultural conservatism, family values and opposition to illegal immigration or opposition to immigration per se.[5][6][7] National conservative parties often have roots in environments with a rural, traditionalist or peripheral basis, contrasting with the more urban support base of liberal conservative parties.[8]

In Europe, they usually embrace some form of Euroscepticism.[9][10] In post-communist central and eastern Europe specifically, most conservative parties since 1989 have followed a national conservative ideology.[11] Most notable is the government of Viktor Orbán in Hungary, who has explicitly described his party's ideology as being national conservative in character, and whose government is involved in the funding and spread of national conservative institutions across Europe and the United States, such as the Danube Institute, Mathias Corvinus Collegium, European Conservative magazine, and National Conservatism Conference.[12][13][14][15] In the United States , Trumpism can be considered a variety of national conservatism,[16][17] which also gives its name to the National Conservatism Conference, organised by the Edmund Burke Foundation.[18]

National conservatism was recently re-launced by Israeli-American political philosopher and Biblical scholar Yoram Hazony, with his 2022 book Conservatism: A Rediscovery.[19][20][21] Hazony has written that "In the political arena, conservatism refers to a standpoint that regards the recovery, restoration, elaboration, and repair of national and religious traditions as the key to maintaining a nation and strengthening it through time."[1]

Ideology

Social policies

Ideologically, national conservatism is not a uniform philosophy but adherents have broadly expressed support for nationalism, patriotism, assimilationism and monoculturalism. At the same time there is expressed opposition to internationalism, racial politics, multiculturalism and globalism.[22][23][24] National conservatives adhere to a form of cultural nationalism that emphasizes the preservation of national identity as well as cultural identity. As a result, many favor assimilation into the dominant culture, restrictions on immigration and strict law and order policies.[6][9][5]

National conservative parties are "socially traditional"[9] and support traditional family values, gender roles and the public role of religion,[5][25] being sometimes critical of separation of church and state. According to the Austrian political scientist Sieglinde Rosenberger, "national conservatism praises the family as a home and a center of identity, solidarity, and tradition".[25] National conservatives are thus social conservatives.

Economic policies

National conservative parties in different countries do not necessarily share a common position on economic policy. Their views may range from support of corporatism and mixed economy to a more laissez-faire approach. In the first, more common case, national conservatives can be distinguished from liberal conservatives,[26] for whom free market economic policies, deregulation and tight spending are the main priorities. Some commentators have indeed identified a growing gap between national and economic liberal conservatism: "Most parties of the Right [today] are run by economically liberal conservatives who, in varying degrees, have marginalised social, cultural and national conservatives."[26]

Foreign policy

National conservatives usually support a foreign policy that upholds the interests of their nation. They lean towards militarism, unilateralism and isolationism. They reject the internationalism and multilateralism that has characterized the modern global age.[27][28] They often have a negative view of the United Nations , feeling that its globalist agenda erodes their unique national identity,[27][28] as well as the European Union and other international organisations.

Regionalist varieties

Main page: Social:Regionalism (politics)

Regional parties can be nationalist or national-conservative, without aligning with the country to which the region belongs. South Tyrol is a notable example, as "national-conservative" parties there represent its German-speaking majority and identify with neighbouring Austria, with which South Tyrol shares cultural and historical ties.

List of national conservative political parties

Current national conservative parties, or parties with national conservative factions

The following political parties have been characterised as being ideologically influenced by national conservativism:

  • Albania: Democratic Party of Albania,[11] Republican Party of Albania[29]
  • Armenia: Conservative Party, Constitutional Rights Union, For Social Justice, Prosperous Armenia, Republican Party of Armenia,[30] Sasna Tsrer Pan-Armenian Party, 5165 National Conservative Movement Party
  • Austria: Freedom Party of Austria,[31] Alliance for the Future of Austria[32]
  • Australia: Pauline Hanson's One Nation[33]
  • Bangladesh: Bangladesh Nationalist Party [citation needed]
  • Belarus: BPF Party, Conservative Christian Party – BPF
  • Belgium: Flemish Interest[34]
  • Bosnia and Herzegovina: Party of Democratic Action,[35] Democratic People's Alliance,[36] Party of Democratic Progress[11]
  • Brazil: Liberal Party, Progressistas,[37] Brazilian Labour Party, Patriota
  • Bulgaria: GERB, Revival, VMRO – Bulgarian National Movement,[38] National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria, Union of Democratic Forces,[11] Democrats for a Strong Bulgaria,[11] Democratic Party[11]
  • Cambodia: Cambodian People's Party[39]
  • Canada: People's Party of Canada[40]
  • Chile: Republican Party (Chile, 2019)
  • Croatia: Homeland Movement,[41] Croatian Sovereignists[42] Croatian Democratic Union[43]
  • Cyprus: Solidarity Movement[44]
  • Czech Republic: Tricolour Citizens' Movement, Civic Democratic Party[45][46]
  • Denmark: Danish People's Party,[47] The New Right,[48] Denmark Democrats
  • Estonia: Conservative People's Party of Estonia,[49] Isamaa[11]
  • Finland: Finns Party[50][51]
  • France: National Rally,[52] France Arise,[53] Movement for France,[54] Action Française,[55] Reconquête
  • Georgia: Conservative Party of Georgia, Alliance of Patriots of Georgia, Georgian Dream
  • Germany: Alternative for Germany,[56] The Republicans,[57] German Social Union[58]
  • Greece: Independent Greeks,[59] Greek Solution,[60] Golden Dawn,[61] New Right[62]
  • Hungary: Fidesz,[11][63][64] Christian Democratic People's Party,[65] Independent Smallholders Party,[65] Jobbik[66]
  • India: Bharatiya Janata Party,[67] Hindu Mahasabha[68]
  • Indonesia: Great Indonesia Movement Party,[69] Golkar[70]
  • Ireland: Fianna Fáil[71]
  • Israel: Likud,[72][73] Yamina
  • Italy: Brothers of Italy,[74] Forza Italia (faction – Protagonist Italy), [Citizens' Union for South Tyrol,[75] South Tyrolean Freedom[75][76] (regionalist)]
  • Japan: Liberal Democratic Party[77][78]
  • Kenya: Jubilee Party
  • Latvia: National Alliance[79]
  • Liechtenstein: Progressive Citizens' Party[80]
  • Lithuania: Homeland Union,[11] Order and Justice[81]
  • Luxembourg: Alternative Democratic Reform Party[82]
  • Malaysia: United Malays National Organisation[83]
  • Montenegro: New Serb Democracy,[84] Patriotic Komitas Union of Montenegro
  • Myanmar: Union Solidarity and Development Party[85]
  • Nepal: Rastriya Prajatantra Party
  • Netherlands: Forum for Democracy,[86] JA21
  • North Macedonia: VMRO-DPMNE,[11][87] VMRO – People's Party[88]
  • Norway: Progress Party,[89] The Democrats[90]
  • Pakistan: Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz[91]
  • Panama: Panameñista Party[92]
  • Paraguay: Colorado Party[93]
  • Philippines: Nacionalista Party[94]
  • Poland: United Right, (Law and Justice[11][95] and United Poland[96]), Confederation Liberty and Independence (factions,[97][98] mainly National Movement[99]), Right Wing of the Republic[99]
  • Portugal: CDS – People's Party,[100] Enough[101]
  • Romania: National Identity Bloc in Europe (Greater Romania Party[102] and United Romania Party), Alliance for the Union of Romanians,[103][104] People's Movement Party[105][106][107][108][109][110]
  • Russia: All-Russia People's Front[111][112] (United Russia[113] and Rodina[114]), Great Russia, Russian All-People's Union[115]
  • Serbia: Democratic Party of Serbia,[11][116] Serbian Radical Party, Serbian Patriotic Alliance,[117] United Serbia, Serbian People's Party, People's Peasant Party, New Serbia, Better Serbia, Fatherland, People's Freedom Movement, Serbian Party Oathkeepers, Serbian Right, Obraz, Movement for the Restoration of the Kingdom of Serbia
  • Singapore: People's Action Party[118]
  • Slovakia: Slovak National Party,[9] We Are Family[119]
  • Slovenia: Slovenian Democratic Party[11]
  • South Korea: People Power Party[120]
  • Spain: Vox[121]
  • Sweden: Sweden Democrats[122]
  • Switzerland: Swiss People's Party,[123] Federal Democratic Union[124]
  • Taiwan: Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party),[125] New Party, Taiwan Solidarity Union
  • Thailand: Palang Pracharath Party,[126] United Thai Nation Party[127]
  • Turkey: People's Alliance[128] (Justice and Development Party[129] and Nationalist Movement Party[130]), Nation Alliance (factions, mainly Good Party[136]) and Homeland Party
  • Ukraine: Congress of Ukrainian Nationalists, People's Front,[137] Svoboda,[138] National Corps, Right Sector[139]
  • United Kingdom: Democratic Unionist Party,[140] Traditional Unionist Voice,[141] UK Independence Party,[142] British Democrats, Reform UK, Conservative Party (UK) (faction)
  • United States: Republican Party (factions),[143] American Freedom Party

Defunct or formerly national conservative parties, or parties with national conservative factions

  • Armenia: Law and Unity
  • Austria: Fatherland Front
  • Australia: Fraser Anning's Conservative National Party
  • Belgium: Rexist Party,[144] Vlaams Blok[145]
  • Brazil: Brazilian Integralist Action[146]
  • Canada: Union Nationale[147]
  • Czech Republic: Realists
  • Czechoslovakia: Czechoslovak National Democracy,[148] Party of National Unity[149]
  • France: Rally for the Republic[71]
  • Germany: German National People's Party,[150] Deutsche Rechtspartei,[151] The Blue Party,[152] German People's Union[153]
  • Hungary: Hungarian Democratic Forum,[64][65] Unity Party[154]
  • India: Bharatiya Jana Sangh[155]
  • Iran: Rastakhiz Party[156][failed verification]
  • Israel: National Union (Hatikva), Union of Right-Wing Parties
  • Italy: National Fascist Party,[157] Italian Nationalist Association,[158] Italian Social Movement, National Alliance,[159][160] The Right[161]
  • Moldova: Șor Party
  • Norway: Fatherland League[162]
  • Poland: National Democracy,[163] League of Polish Families,[164][165] Kukiz'15[166]
  • Portugal: National Union[167]
  • Romania: Conservative Party,[11][168][169][170][171][172][173]
  • Slovakia: Slovak People's Party,[174] Slovak National Party, People's Party – Movement for a Democratic Slovakia, Conservative Democrats of Slovakia[175]
  • South Africa: National Party[176]
  • South Korea: Democratic Republican Party[177] Democratic Justice Party, New Korea Party, Liberty Korea Party[178]
  • Spain: FET y de las JONS,[167] CEDA,[179] People's Alliance[180]
  • Yugoslavia: Yugoslav Radical Union, Yugoslav National Movement[181]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Hazony, Yoram (2022). Conservatism: A Rediscovery. Forum. ISBN 978-1800752337. 
  2. ↑ ANDREW., HEYWOOD (2018). ESSENTIALS OF POLITICAL IDEAS : for a level.. [S.l.]: PALGRAVE. ISBN 978-1137611673. OCLC 1005867754. 
  3. ↑ Berkowitz, Peter, ed (2004). Varieties of conservatism in America. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press. ISBN 0817945725. OCLC 839305105. https://archive.org/details/varietiesofconse00pete. 
  4. ↑ Dahms, Harry F., ed (7 November 2014). Mediations of social life in the 21st century. Bingle, UK. ISBN 9781784412227. OCLC 896728569. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Sibarium, Aaron (2019-08-15). "National Conservatism: A Guide for the Perplexed". https://www.the-american-interest.com/2019/08/15/national-conservatism-a-guide-for-the-perplexed/. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Gallagher, Brenden (2019-08-11). "The national conservatism movement just began—does it have a future?". https://www.dailydot.com/debug/national-conservatism/. 
  7. ↑ Littlejohn, Brad (Summer 2023). "National Conservatism, Then and Now". https://www.nationalaffairs.com/publications/detail/national-conservatism-then-and-now. 
  8. ↑ Vít Hloušek; Lubomír Kopecek (2010). Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties: East-Central and Western Europe Compared. Routledge. p. 178. ISBN 978-1-317-08503-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=zMsoDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA178. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Nordsieck, Wolfram. "Parties and Elections in Europe". Parties-and-elections.eu. http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/content.html. 
  10. ↑ Traynor, Ian, The EU's weary travellers The Guardian , 4 April 2006
  11. ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 Bakke, Elisabeth (2010), "Central and East European party systems since 1989", Central and Southeast European Politics Since 1989 (Cambridge University Press): p. 79 
  12. ↑ Ferraresi, Mattia (2024-01-29). "Nationalists Claim They Want to Redefine Conservatism, but They’re Not Sure What It Is" (in en-US). https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/04/10/nationalism-conservatism-hungary-viktor-orban/. 
  13. ↑ O'Sullivan, John (2018-04-09). "Hungary Embraces National Conservatism" (in en-US). https://www.nationalreview.com/2018/04/hungary-embraces-national-conservatism/. 
  14. ↑ Chotiner, Isaac (2021-08-10). "Why Conservatives Around the World Have Embraced Hungary’s Viktor Orbán" (in en-US). The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. https://www.newyorker.com/news/q-and-a/why-conservatives-around-the-world-have-embraced-hungarys-viktor-orban. 
  15. ↑ O'Sullivan, John (2018-04-09). "Hungary Embraces National Conservatism - Danube Institute" (in en). https://danubeinstitute.hu/en/research/hungary-embraces-national-conservatism. 
  16. ↑ Meaney, Thomas. "Trumpism After Trump: Will the movement outlive the man?" (in en). Harper's Magazine February 2020. ISSN 0017-789X. https://harpers.org/archive/2020/02/trumpism-after-trump/. 
  17. ↑ Beauchamp, Zack (2019-07-17). "Trump and the dead end of conservative nationalism" (in en). https://www.vox.com/2019/7/17/20696543/national-conservatism-conference-2019-trump. 
  18. ↑ "Overview". https://nationalconservatism.org/about. 
  19. ↑ Luban, Daniel (2019-07-26). "The Man Behind National Conservatism: Yoram Hazony has written the closest thing to a manifesto for intellectuals on the right.". The New Republic. ISSN 0028-6583. https://newrepublic.com/article/154531/man-behind-national-conservatism. 
  20. ↑ Robinson, Peter M. (2022-06-22). "Yoram Hazony Rediscovers Conservatism" (in en). https://www.hoover.org/research/yoram-hazony-rediscovers-conservatism. 
  21. ↑ Baker, Gerard (2024-01-18). "Yoram Hazony and the Future of Conservatism - Opinion: Free Expression - WSJ Podcasts" (in en). https://www.wsj.com/podcasts/opinion-free-expression/yoram-hazony-and-the-future-of-conservatism/608f3665-664f-4e01-b2e8-268c7b636ab5. 
  22. ↑ Ferraresi, Mattia (April 10, 2020). "Nationalists Claim They Want to Redefine Conservatism, but They're Not Sure What It Is". Foreign Policy (Washington, D.C.: Graham Holdings Company). https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/04/10/nationalism-conservatism-hungary-viktor-orban/. "standing "in stark opposition to political theories grounded in race." Thus, in addition to formulating their political theses around ideas of nationality and values, the national conservatives also include ideas about race, culture, and religion to define their outlooks.". 
  23. ↑ Franklin, Peter (9 March 2023). "National conservatism has a future in Britain". UnHerd (London). https://unherd.com/thepost/national-conservatism-has-a-future-in-britain/. 
  24. ↑ MacDougald, Park (July 19, 2019). "What the Hell Is 'National Conservatism' Anyway?". New York Magazine (New York City: New York Media). https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2019/07/what-the-hell-is-national-conservativism-anyway.html. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Rosenberger, Sieglinde, Europe is swinging towards the right - What are the effects on women? , University of Vienna, 2002. Retrieved 6 December 2010.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 National Questions, National Review, Vol. 49, Issue 12, 30 June 1997, pp. 16-17
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Littlejohn, Brad. "National Conservatism, Then and Now". National Affairs (United States: National Affairs, Inc.). https://www.nationalaffairs.com/publications/detail/national-conservatism-then-and-now. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Dueck, Colin (January 22, 2021). "Conservative Nationalism and US Foreign Policy". American Enterprise Institute. https://www.aei.org/articles/conservative-nationalism-and-us-foreign-policy/. 
  29. ↑ Wolfram Nordsieck. "Parties and Elections in Europe". Parties-and-elections.eu. http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/albania.html. 
  30. ↑ Provisions of RPA Program , Republican Party of Armenia, 2008.
  31. ↑ Gerard Braunthal (2009). Right-Wing Extremism in Contemporary Germany. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-230-25116-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=1iOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA158. 
  32. ↑ Oliver Rathkolb (2010). The Paradoxical Republic: Austria 1945-2005. Berghahn Books. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-78238-396-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=a1jCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR11. 
  33. ↑ "Archived copy". http://www.tai.org.au/sites/defualt/files/P317%20Far-right%20American%20origins%20of%20One%20Nation's%20views%20on%20Islam.pdf. 
  34. ↑ Thompson, Wayne C. (2008). Western Europe 2008. Stryker Post Pubns. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-887985-98-7. https://archive.org/details/westerneurope20000wayn. 
  35. ↑ "A State of Division". Jacobin. 8 November 2018. https://jacobinmag.com/2018/11/bosnia-herzegovina-elections-nationalism. 
  36. ↑ Nordsieck, Wolfram (2018). "Bosnia-Herzegovina". http://parties-and-elections.eu/bosnia-herzegovina.html. 
  37. ↑ "Partido progressista afirma que quer atrair eleitor conservador". https://politica.estadao.com.br/noticias/eleicoes,partido-progressista-afirma-que-quer-atrair-eleitor-conservador-imp-,1116839. 
  38. ↑ Wolfram Nordsieck. "Parties and Elections in Europe". Parties-and-elections.eu. http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/bulgaria.html. 
  39. ↑ Aflaki, Inga N. (2016). Entrepreneurship in the Polis. Routledge. 
  40. ↑ Justin Ling (20 October 2019). "How Maxime Bernier Lost His Seat: Canada's nationalist People's Party has run a familiar populist playbook — and ended up a joke". Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/10/20/canada-maxime-bernier-populism-peoples-party/. 
  41. ↑ Nordsieck, Wolfram (2020). "Croatia". http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/croatia.html. 
  42. ↑ Wolfram Nordsieck (2021). Parliamentary Elections and Governments since 1945, European Parliament Elections, Political Orientation and History of Parties. BoD - Books on Demand. pp. 92. ISBN 9783754355848. https://books.google.com/books?id=04tTEAAAQBAJ&dq=croatian+sovereignists+national+conservative&pg=PA92. 
  43. ↑ Tomic, Caroline (2018). Remigration to Post-Socialist Europe. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 116. 
  44. ↑ Wolfram Nordsieck. "Parties and Elections in Europe". Parties-and-elections.eu. http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/cyprus.html. 
  45. ↑ "Détails ODS - Election(s)Meter". http://fr.electionsmeter.com/d%C3%A9tail/ODS-id236. 
  46. ↑ Pehe, Jiří. "Má liberalismus v České republice šanci? — Jiří Pehe". http://www.pehe.cz/Members/redaktor/ma-liberalismus-v-ceske-republice-sanci. 
  47. ↑ Moreau, Patrick (2011). "The Victorious Parties - Unity in Diversity?". in Uwe Backes, Patrick Moreau. The Extreme Right in Europe: Current Trends and Perspectives. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 101. ISBN 9783647369228. https://books.google.com/books?id=uMkEZnJQHksC&pg=PA101. 
  48. ↑ "New antimuslim party heading for Danish parliament while neofascists and anti-Semites take it to the streets". 13 March 2019. https://redox.dk/nyheder/new-antimuslim-party-heading-for-danish-parliament-while-neofascists-and-anti-semites-take-it-to-the-streets/. 
  49. ↑ Wolfram Nordsieck. "Parties and Elections in Europe". Parties-and-elections.eu. http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/estonia.html. 
  50. ↑ Wolfram Nordsieck. "Parties and Elections in Europe". Parties-and-elections.eu. http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/finland.html. 
  51. ↑ Siitonen, Aaretti (2009), "Flags and hymns are not for Finns: An analysis of the European elections in Finland before the fact", The Finnish Institute of International Affairs: p. 4, http://www.fiia.fi/assets/events/UPI_Briefing_Paper_32_2009.pdf 
  52. ↑ "Jean-Yves Camus". Lefigaro.fr. 13 April 2015. http://www.lefigaro.fr/vox/politique/2015/04/13/31001-20150413ARTFIG00155-jean-yves-camus-marion-le-pen-incarne-la-ligne-nationale-conservatrice-du-fn.php. 
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  54. ↑ Nordsieck, Wolfram (2012). "France". http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/france.html. 
  55. ↑ Mayeur, Jean-Marie (1987). The Third Republic from Its Origins to the Great War, 1871-1914. Cambridge University Press. p. 298. 
  56. ↑ Simon Franzmann (2015). "The Failed Struggle for Office Instead of Votes". Germany After the 2013 Elections: Breaking the Mould of Post-Unification Politics?. Ashgate. pp. 166–167. ISBN 978-1-4724-4439-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=_mLBCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA166. 
  57. ↑ Baumgartl, Bernd (1995). New Xenophobia in Europe. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 139. 
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  61. ↑ O'Reilly, Gerry (2019). Aligning Geopolitics, Humanitarian Action and Geography in Times of Conflict. Springer. p. 47. 
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  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Vít Hloušek; Lubomír Kopecek (2010). Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties: East-Central and Western Europe Compared. Routledge. p. 171. ISBN 978-1-317-08503-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=zMsoDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA171. 
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 65.2 András Körösényi (1999). Government and Politics in Hungary. Central European University Press. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-963-9116-76-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=GXpRQNITwV0C&pg=PA31. 
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  67. ↑ Bonikowska, Monika (2014). "India After The Elections". Centre for International Relations (6): 2. http://www.csm.org.pl/en/analysis/category/53-2014%3Fdownload%3D617:m-bonikowska-india-after-the-elections-inspirations-for-europe-vi-2014-eng. Retrieved 13 May 2018. 
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  69. ↑ Lee, Doreen (2016). Activist Archives: Youth Culture and the Political Past in Indonesia. Duke University Press. 
  70. ↑ Hitchcock, Michael (1997). Images of Malay-Indonesian Identity. OUP. p. 101. 
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Gary Marks; Carole Wilson (2005). "National parties and the contestation of Europe". Legitimacy and the European Union: The Contested Polity. Routledge. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-134-67560-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=ul7SZILT6-8C&pg=PA130. 
  72. ↑ "The short life of the "National Unity Government"". Konrad Adenauer Foundation. July 2012. p. 1. http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_31738-544-2-30.pdf?120730082726. 
  73. ↑ Watzal, Ludwig (1999). Peace enemies: the past and present conflict between Israel and Palestine. PASSIA. p. 28. 
  74. ↑ Wolfram Nordsieck. "Parties and Elections in Europe". Parties-and-elections.eu. http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/italy.html. 
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Parties and Elections in Europe: The database about parliamentary elections and political parties in Europe, by Wolfram Nordsieck
  76. ↑ Andrea Carla (2016). "Tensions and Challenges between New and Old minorities: Political Party Discourses on Migration in South Tyrol". Pro-independence Movements and Immigration: Discourse, Policy and Practice. BRILL. p. 70. ISBN 978-90-04-29439-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=szHFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70. 
  77. ↑ "Japan's ruling conservatives have been returned to power, but amid voter frustration, challenges lurk for Kishida". The Conversation. 1 November 2021. https://theconversation.com/japans-ruling-conservatives-have-been-returned-to-power-but-amid-voter-frustration-challenges-lurk-for-kishida-170561. "Japan’s ruling conservative nationalist Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) will remain comfortably in power under its new prime minister Fumio Kishida, after the weekend’s national election." 
  78. ↑ Ganesan (2015). Bilateral Legacies in East and Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 67. 
  79. ↑ Wolfram Nordsieck. "Parties and Elections in Europe". Parties-and-elections.eu. http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/latvia.html. 
  80. ↑ Stefanini, Sara (5 February 2017). "Liechtenstein's Populists Gain Ground". Politico. http://www.politico.eu/article/liechtensteins-populists-gain-ground/. 
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  85. ↑ Haynes, Jeffrey (2019). The Routledge Handbook to Religion and Political Parties. Routledge. 
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  118. ↑ Berger, Mark (2014). Rethinking the Third World. Macmillan. p. 98. 
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