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Personal relationships of James VI and I

Topic: Social

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Portraits of James and his favourites, L to R: James VI & I, Esme Stewart, Robert Carr, George Villiers.

From the age of thirteen until his death, the life of King James VI of Scotland and I of England (1566–1625) was characterised by close relationships with a series of male favourites.

The influence James' favourites had on politics, and the resentment at the wealth they acquired, became major political issues during his reign. The extent to which the King's relationships with the men was sexual was a topic of bawdy contemporary speculation.

James VI and I certainly enjoyed the company of handsome young men, sometimes shared his bed with his favourites and was often passionate in his expressions of love for them.[1] James was married to Anne of Denmark, with whom he fathered eight children. He railed fiercely against sodomy.[2]:49

Today, many historians and commentators affirm that – given the evidence – James's relationships with his favourites clearly were sexual. Others regard the evidence as more ambiguous, and needing to be understood in terms of 17th-century forms of masculinity which were very different to today's.

The question of James' sexuality might be considered of only prurient interest, and certainly less important than the political consequences of the power and status he granted his favourites.[3] However, particularly since the late twentieth century, historical analysis and commentary on James's personal life has raised important questions about how early modern same-sex relationships (whether sexual or friendship-based) were structured and understood, and the extent to which modern categories of sexuality can be applied to historical figures.

Views on James' sexual behaviour

Insinuations about James's sexual acts with other men followed him throughout his life.[1]:541[4] Some of these comments on James's sex life are coloured by various prejudices, and some are part of a literary convention attacking opponents by attributing evils to them; but, according to historian Michael B. Young, while any given comment on James and his favorites is suspect, "their totality is impressive." "[1]:546

Until the late twentieth century, historians accounts were often biased by prevailing negative social attitudes towards same-sex relationships, with historians from the 1960s to 80s still often avoiding or "fumbling" the subject of James's sexuality.[1]:546 By the late twentieth century the consensus was to see the relationships between James and his favourites as sexual.[1]:542, 546–547 However, a more recent counter-view argues that many of the key points of evidence cited in favour of the relationships being sexual - for example James's sharing a bed or exchanging kisses with his favourites - were behaviours that at the time were widely seen as public tokens of friendship.[5]:4

Contemporary views

James was ... the most prominent man in early modern Europe who was thought to engage in male-male sexual relationships. James's contemporaries arrived at this conclusion by observing a series of demonstrative, age-differentiated love affairs between the king and his so-called favourites.

It was generally believed by James's contemporaries that his relationships with his favourites were "homosexual"[6]:83[note 1] and "[t]he impression that James and his favorites were engaged in sex was widespread".[1]:543 [S]odomitical images of James I [were] promulgated in manuscript verse libels, mean-sirited memoirs, and political pamphlets written by disgruntled contemporaries".[7] Soon after James's marriage in 1589,[8] verses made reference to rumours about the King's sexual behaviour, calling James "a bougerer [that is, a buggerer], one that left his wife all night intactam [that is, untouched, a virgin]".[4][9][10][11] When James ascended the English throne in 1603, an epigram circulated in London: "Elizabeth was King: now James is Queen".[4] Later in James's life, according to historian Jonathan Healey, "it was widely held" by their contemporaries, both in England and abroad, that James and one of his court favourites, Buckingham, "were lovers".[12]:66-67 The Puritan diarist Simonds d'Ewes wrote in 1622 of his concern that 'the sin of sodomy' had become 'a sin in the prince as well as the people'.[12]:67 The following year, Huguenot poet Théophile de Viau observed from France that "it is well known that the king of England / fucks the Duke of Buckingham".[13][14] A poem called To Buckinghame references sodomy in its "buck-in-game" pun,[note 2] with one version proclaiming at the end of the poem that the king loves the favourite "Solely, for your looke".[15]

In 1627, Dominick Roche, an alderman of Limerick, said the King of Spain broke off the Spanish match when he discovered James and his son, Charles, committed "unnatural crimes" with Buckingham,[16] with the King of Spain "knowing them to be guilty of so foul a sin".[17]

It's possible comments were also made about the age differences between James and his favourites, Carr and Buckingham - there was at least 20 years between them. For instance, while it cannot be proved without doubt that it referred to James and his favourites, Thomas Carew wrote a masque celebrating the "conjugal affection" between James's son Charles I and Henrietta Maria of France, potentially contrasting it with James and his favourites, saying the example of Charles and Henrietta Maria's marriage inspired Jupiter to ban the love of boys from his heavemly court: "Ganimede is forbidden the Bedchamber. ... The Gods must keepe no Pages, nor Groomes of their Chamber under the age of 25". Michael B. Young comments, "Carr and Villiers, in their early twenties, would have been banished under this rule".[1]:541

Ganymede

Two poems that relate James and Buckingham's relationship to Ganymede, a mortal from Greek mythology with whom Zeus falls in love, are the poems that "most explicitly alleged a homosexual relationship between the King and his "Ganymede" favourite".[18] One of the poems, by Alexander Gill the Younger, asks God to save "my sovereign from a Ganymede / Whose Whorish breath hath power to lead / His Majesty which way it lists"[19] - the author rightly commented that the poem expressed what many thought.[20] The other poem depicts the, for the poet, dire consequences of the king's rumoured homosexual relationship with Buckingham through imagery of "the moral and political disorder that plagues the court of Jove, king of the gods, as a result of the King's sexual infatuation with the Trojan boy Ganymede".[21] With the poem's charge of sodomy, the other gods, at war with Jove (who "with Ganymede lies playing", oblivious to the impending punishment for "loving so 'gainst nature"[1]:544) "threaten without mercy / To have him burned / That so hath turned / Love's pleasure arsy versy"[16] (or "arse wise"[1]:544). Another poem portrays parliament as James's loyal wife and the King as her husband who's been unfaithful to her by being a Ganymede – the passive partner – to Buckingham, thereby leaving himself open to being sodomized by Spain and the Popery.[19][16]

James's condemnation of sodomy

James adopted a severe stance towards sodomy in his book on kingship, Basilikón Dōron, and gave guidance to judges that pardons should not be given to such "horrible crimes."[2]:49

In King James and the History of Homosexuality, Michael B. Young comments that James was "a notorious hypocrite where swearing and drinking were concerned; he could simply have been the same where sodomy was concerned";[2]:50 or, in fact, that James might not have seen a hypocrisy because of his position as king: "he may simply have taken for granted that he could enter into sexual relations with younger men in his court as a perogative of his age and power ... Sex with subordinates was a prerogative of patriarchy, and James was the chief patriarch of the whole realm";[2]:48-49 or, further, that he "could have been perfectly earnest in condemning sodomy while simultaneously engaging in what we today would call homosexual behaviour" because the "legal definition [of sodomy] was extremely narrow. It specified only one sex act between men, anal intercourse, and excluded all other genital sex acts - masturbation, oral sex, and intracrural or intrafemoral intercourse. Men rubbing their bodies together or mutually masturbating were not comitting sodomy".[2]:49-50

Views of modern historians

Giving an overview of the views of scholars working from the 1960s to 2012, Michael B. Young said earlier histories about James "fumbled the subject of James's sexuality ... mak[ing] light of it, express[ed] disapproval (even repugnance), or dodged the subject altogether".[1]:546 Of this type, he cites, for example, David Matthew's James I (1967), Gordon Donaldson's Scotland: James V to James VII (1971). Views were often biased by prevailing negative social attitudes towards same-sex relationships.[1]:546 Donaldson, for example, wrote that James's affair with Esme Stuart had "a physical, but not necessarily gross, side to it".[1]:546 Some historians of this time advanced the surprising view that James's public displays of affection for his favourites were proof that there was not sexual activity in private.[2]:42[3]

Antonia Fraser's 1975 popular biography of the King took an opposing and famously pragmatic view:

In sexual matters ... it is generally better to assume the obvious unless there is some very good reason to think otherwise.[3]

(Less widely cited is Fraser's next sentence, where she affirms that the matter is only of "academic" interest.)[3]

Maurice Lee Jr (Great Britain's Solomon: James VI and I in His Three Kingdoms (1990)) continued the older habit of giving an "asexual view of James's relationships".[1]:546However, by the end of the twentieth century a short-lived consensus formed that "James and his favourites were sexual partners".[1]:542 Examples Young gives of those making the consensus include Caroline Bingham's James I of England (1981), Roger Lockyer's Buckingham (1981), David M. Bergeron's Royal Family, Royal Lovers (1991), Kevin Sharpe's contribution to the Oxford Illustrated History of Tudor and Stuart Britain (1996) and Pauline Croft's King James (2003).[1]:547-549

The consensus, Young says, was replaced in the late 20th and early 21st century "with renewed equivocation and ambiguity" over the issue,[1]:542 including by some, like Lockyer, who had previously been unambiguous that James and his favourites had sex.[1]:550 Young sees as instrumental in this shift a "misguided desire to protect [James's] reputation" and the influence of Alan Bray's essay 'Homosexuality and the Signs of Male Friendship in Elizabethan England' (1990) and book The Friend (2003) - a book about (largely, male) friendship that, when discussing James's relationship with favourites, reverted to the older, asexual picture (he argued that the signs of male friendship could be mistaken for sodomy[1]:567).[1]:556-559 Young, writing in 2012, was hopeful, however, that opinion might shift to again recognise James's relationships with his favourites as sexual. He pointed to the work of Randolph Trumbach ('Renaissance Sodomy, 1500-1700' (2007)), which demonstrated a wider, contemporary, European context of "Renaissance Sodomy" of which James's relationships and his favourites were prime examples.[1]:564-565

In 2017, social historian Emma Dabiri stated that "few [historians and biographers] now doubt that [James] was either gay or bisexual".[22] John Matusiak's 2015 biography James I: Scotland's King of England views James as "homosexual",[23] although is unsure about the "precise extent of the king's sexual involvement with Lennox".[24] Keith Coleman's 2023 biography James VI and I: The King Who United Scotland and England see James's relationships with Somerset and Buckingham as sexual, adding that his relationship with Lennox probably also was.[9] Steven Veerapen, author of 2023's The Wisest Fool: The Lavish Life of James VI and I, also views James's relationships with his favourites as sexual, describing the king as, in modern terms, bisexual,[25][26][27][28] with a "strong preference for men".[29]:130 Reviewing James's letters and poems and focusing on desire rather than actions, David Bergeron see James's relationships with Lennox, Somerset and Buckingham comprising a "special intimacy, including, but not restricted to, homoerotic desire",[30]:vii-viii with James's letters to his male favouites as "signs of erotic desire [and] same-sex love".[30]:30

Relationships with women

Wife: Anne of Denmark

James married Anne of Denmark in 1589 to establish a strong Protestant alliance in Continental Europe, a policy he continued by marrying his daughter to the future King of Bohemia. James was initially said to be infatuated with his wife and gallantly crossed the North Sea with a royal retinue to collect her after Anne's initial efforts to sail to England were thwarted by storms.[31]:24

Some years passed after the marriage before James and Anne's first child, Prince Henry, was born in 1594. In July 1592, James Halkerston was suspected of writing verses that suggested King James was homosexual and left his wife a virgin.[10] The claimed extra-marital attachment of the King to Anne Murray (see below) may have been promulgated to scotch such rumours.[4]

The marriage later cooled and was marked by several marital frictions. Queen Anne was particularly upset with James placing the infant Prince Henry in the custody of John Erskine, Earl of Mar at Stirling Castle, in keeping with Scottish royal tradition.[31]:24 In the course of the marriage, Anne's relationship with her husband alternated between affection and estrangement.[31]:24 The two had eight children, with the last being born during 1607, although some sources cite that by 1606 they had already started living in separate establishments.[32]:87 James lost interest in his wife and it was said that she led a sad, reclusive life afterward, appearing at court functions on occasion. Despite his neglect of Anne, James was affected by her death and was moved to compose a poem in her memory.[33][6]:179

'Mistress': Anne Murray

There is little evidence of a relationship between James and Anne Murray, later Lady Glamis.[34][35] The evidence comprises a letter, dated 10 May 1595, to Lord Burghley, in which Sir John Carey wrote of a "fair mistress Anne Murray, the king's mistress",[35] and a poem composed by James entitled A Dream on his Mistress my Ladie Glammes, which is thought to be about Murray,[34][36][37][38] in which James calls Glamis "my mistress and my love".[31]:24

Anne was the daughter of John Murray, 1st Earl of Tullibardine, master of the king's household.[37]:78-80[34] Pauline Croft dates a romantic relationship between the king and Murray between 1593 and 1595.[31]:24

Based on the "sparse though tantilising evidence",[35] some historians, like Coleman[34] and Matusiak, find it "difficult to avoid the impression" that James had "at least one extra-marital excursion with a member of the opposite sex".[35] For Allan F. Westcott, the paucity of evidence reflects that the relationship was a simply a "conventional, half literary, flirtation".[37]:80 Another possibility is that the king's mistress was "an exercise in political spin" to deflect rumours that James was a "buggerer": Murray arrived at around the same time rumours were circulating that the king had not conceived a child with his wife because he was attracted to men not women.[4]

Male favourites

... his persistent, foolhardy habit of falling head over heels for beautiful, arrogant, and reckless favourites ...

Esmé Stewart, 1st Duke of Lennox

Portrait by Nicholas Hilliard, 1603–1609.

At the age of 13, James made his formal entry into Edinburgh. Upon arriving he met his first cousin, the Franco-Scottish lord Esmé Stewart, about 24 years older than James,[1]:541 whom the Puritan leader Sir James Melville described as "of nature, upright, just, and gentle". Having arrived from France, Stewart was an exotic visitor who fascinated the young James.[39] The two became extremely close and it was said by an English observer that "from the time he was 14 years old and no more, that is, when the Lord Stuart came into Scotland [...] even then he began [...] to clasp some one in the embraces of his great love, above all others" and that James became "in such love with him as in the open sight of the people often he will clasp him about the neck with his arms and kiss him".

The King first made Aubigny a gentleman of the bedchamber. Later, he appointed him to the Privy Council and created him earl and finally duke of Lennox. In Presbyterian Scotland the thought of a Catholic duke irked many, and Lennox had to make a choice between his Catholic faith or his loyalty to James. In the end, Lennox chose James and the king taught him the doctrines of Calvinism. The Scottish Kirk remained suspicious of Lennox after his public conversion and took alarm when he had the earl of Morton tried and beheaded on charges of treason. The Scottish ministry was also warned that the duke sought to "draw the King to carnal lust".

In response the Scottish nobles plotted to oust Lennox. They did so by luring James to Ruthven Castle as a guest but then kept him as prisoner for ten months. The Lord Enterprisers forced him to banish Lennox. The duke journeyed back to France and kept a secret correspondence with James. Lennox in these letters says he gave up his family "to dedicate myself entirely to you"; he prayed to die for James to prove "the faithfulness which is engraved within my heart, which will last forever." The former duke wrote "Whatever might happen to me, I shall always be your faithful servant... you are alone in this world whom my heart is resolved to serve. And would to God that my breast might be split open so that it might be seen what is engraven therein."[30]:49

James was devastated by the loss of Lennox.[40]:384 In his return to France, Lennox had met a frosty reception as an apostate Catholic. The Scottish nobles had thought that they would be proven right in their convictions that Lennox's conversion was artificial when he returned to France. Instead the former duke remained Presbyterian and died shortly after, leaving James his embalmed heart.[40]:384 James had repeatedly vouched for Lennox's religious sincerity and memorialized him in a poem called Ane Tragedie of the Phoenix, which likened him to an exotic bird of unique beauty killed by envy.[40]:384

Richard Preston, 1st Earl of Desmond

Richard was born the third son of Richard Preston of Whitehill in Midlothian, near Edinburgh. His family was gentry of the Edinburgh area and owned Craigmillar Castle in the late 16th and early 17th century. His family placed Richard (the younger) as a page at the King's court in Edinburgh where he is mentioned in that capacity in 1591.[41]

Richard, the page, gained the king's special favour in the 1580s or 1590s after Lennox's departure. When James acceded the English throne as James I in 1603, Richard accompanied him to England and was knighted at the King's coronation in London on 25 July 1603 in the old elaborate ceremony that included the bathing of the new knight.[42] He then was made a groom of the privy chamber.[43] In 1607 Richard was appointed constable of Dingwall Castle in Scotland.[41] He bought the barony of Dingwall and on 8 June 1609 the King created him Lord Dingwall.[41] In London the King met in 1608 Robert Carr who became his favourite and seems to have supplanted Lord Dingwall, as he was now, in that role.

In 1609 Preston attended the Accession day tournament, and presented a pageant of an artificial elephant, designed by Inigo Jones, which made its way slowly around the tiltyard.[44]

Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset

A few years later after the controversy over his relationship with Lennox faded away he began a relationship with Robert Carr.[40]:386 In 1607, at a royal jousting contest, the 20-year-old Carr, the son of Sir Thomas Carr or Kerr of Ferniehirst, was knocked from a horse and broke his leg. According to Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk, James fell in love with the young man, and as the years progressed showered Carr with gifts.[45] James was 20 years older than Carr.[1]:541 Carr was made a gentleman of the bedchamber and he was noted for his handsome appearance as well as his limited intelligence; he was also made a Knight of the Garter, a Privy Counsellor and Viscount Rochester. His downfall came through Frances Howard, a beautiful young married woman. Upon Rochester's request, James stacked a court of bishops that would allow her to divorce her husband in order to marry Rochester. As a wedding present Rochester was created Earl of Somerset.

In 1615, James fell out with Somerset. In a letter James complained, among other matters, that Somerset had been "creeping back and withdrawing yourself from lying in my chamber, notwithstanding my many hundred times earnest soliciting you to the contrary" and that he rebuked James "more sharply and bitterly than ever my master Buchanan durst do".[40]:387

At this point public scandal erupted when the underkeeper of the tower revealed that Somerset's new wife had poisoned Sir Thomas Overbury, his best friend who had opposed the marriage. Though Somerset refused to admit any guilt, his wife confessed, and both were sentenced to death. The King commuted the sentence. Nevertheless, they were imprisoned in the Tower for seven years, after which they were pardoned and allowed to retire to a country estate.[46]

George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham

The last of James's favourites was George Villiers, the son of a Leicestershire knight. They had met in 1614, around the same time that the situation with Somerset was deteriorating. Buckingham, 22 years old to James' 48,[1]:541 was described as exceptionally handsome, intelligent and honest. In 1615 James knighted him and 8 years later he was the first commoner in more than a century to be elevated to a dukedom – as Duke of Buckingham – although he had first been raised in sequence as a Knight of the Garter and Viscount Villiers, as Earl of Buckingham then Marquess of Buckingham. Restoration of Apethorpe Hall, undertaken 2004–2008, revealed a previously unknown passage linking the bedchambers of James and Villiers.[47]

The King was blunt and unashamed in his avowal of love for Buckingham and compared it to Jesus' love of John:

I, James, am neither a god nor an angel, but a man like any other. Therefore I act like a man and confess to loving those dear to me more than other men. You may be sure that I love the Earl of Buckingham more than anyone else, and more than you who are here, assembled. I wish to speak in my own behalf and not to have it thought to be a defect, for Jesus Christ did the same, and therefore I cannot be blamed. Christ had John, and I have George.

17th century commentators, such as poet Théophile de Viau wrote plainly about the king's relationship. In his poem, Au marquis du Boukinquan, de Viau wrote: "Apollo with his songs / debauched young Hyacinthus, [...] And it is well known that the king of England / fucks the Duke of Buckingham."[13][14]

Buckingham became good friends with James's wife Anne of Denmark; she addressed him in affectionate letters begging him to be "always true" to her husband. In a letter to James, Buckingham said "sir, all the way hither I entertained myself, your unworthy servant, with this dispute, whether you loved me now... better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham, where the bed's head could not be found between the master and his dog".[30]:179 When James I died in March 1625, Buckingham was in France on a diplomatic mission but news of his death brought him to tears.[31]:128

Notes

  1. ↑ When reviewing opinions about King James's sexuality, Michael B. Young advised caution and forbearance because some historians anachronistically use "modern binary constructs for sexuality" - that is, for them, the question is whether James was homosexual - when the question should be "whether his sexual relations followed the pederastic or sodomitical patterns of his own day or, to be even more neutral, simply whether he engaged in sex with other males".[1]:547
  2. ↑ Early Stuart Libels says there are "hints of sodomy" in the pun;[15] Jonathan Healey calls it a "fairly explicit reference to anal sex".[12]:66

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 Young, Michael B. (2012). "James VI and I: Time for a Reconsideration?". Journal of British Studies 51 (3): 540–567. doi:10.1086/664955. .
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Young, Michael B. (22 September 1999) (in en). King James and the History of Homosexuality. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-230-51489-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=F5CDDAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 24 December 2023. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Fraser, Antonia (1975). King James VI of Scotland, I of England. Alfred A. Knopf. p. 126. https://archive.org/details/kingjamesviofsco00fras/. "James has had his defenders on the grounds that nothing was done in private just because there was so much pinching and fondling in public. In sexual matters, however, it is generally better to assume the obvious unless there is some very good reason to think otherwise. In any case, it is an academic argument, for the degree of their intimacy is less important than its political consequences." 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Ellis, Joe (7 June 2023). "'King James Did What?! With Who?!': Anne Murray, the mistress of James VI". The Court Observer (The Society for Court Studies). https://courtstudies.hypotheses.org/946. 
  5. ↑ Bray, Alan (1990). "Homosexuality and the Signs of Male Friendship in Elizabethan England". History Workshop 29. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4288956?origin=JSTOR-pdf. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Bingham, Caroline (1981). James I of England. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-77889-9. https://archive.org/details/jamesiofengland0000bing/. Retrieved 24 December 2023. 
  7. ↑ Perry, Curtis (2000). "The Politics of Access and Representations of the Sodomite King in Early Modern England". Renaissance Quarterly 53 (4): 1055. doi:10.2307/2901456. ISSN 0034-4338. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2901456. Retrieved 24 December 2023. 
  8. ↑ Buchan, James (15 February 2003). "United front". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/feb/15/featuresreviews.guardianreview12. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Coleman, Keith (30 June 2023). "Chapter 13: Solomon Weighed: Reputation and Legacy" (in en). James I: The King Who United Scotland and England. Pen and Sword History. ISBN 978-1-3990-9360-6. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Ny1EAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 24 December 2023. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Lyall, Roderick J. (2008). "Chapter 10: Kinship, Kingship and Latinity: The Surprising Career of James Halkerston". in Goodare, Julian; MacDonald, Alasdair A.. Sixteenth-Century Scotland: Essays in Honour of Michael Lynch. Brill. p. 247. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004168251.i-476.18. ISBN 9789047433736. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004168251.i-476.18. 
  11. ↑ Veerapen, Steven (7 September 2023). "Chapter 11: Toil and Trouble" (in en). The Wisest Fool: The Lavish Life of James VI and I. Birlinn. ISBN 978-1-78885-640-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=uL7BEAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 24 December 2023. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Healey, Jonathan (2 February 2023) (in en). The Blazing World: A New History of Revolutionary England. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5266-2167-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=Ubd5EAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 24 December 2023. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Gaudiani, Claire Lynn (1981). The Cabaret poetry of Théophile de Viau: Texts and Traditions. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. pp. 103–104. ISBN 978-3-87808-892-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=qzpkFJIo5GYC. Retrieved September 23, 2013. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Norton, Rictor (January 8, 2000). "Queen James and His Courtiers". Gay History and Literature. http://rictornorton.co.uk/jamesi.htm. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "L6 The Kinge loves you, you him". Early Modern Literary Studies. https://www.earlystuartlibels.net/htdocs/king_and_favorite_section/L6.html. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Holstun, James (5 May 2020). "Chapter 5: The Deference of John Felton" (in en). Ehud's Dagger: Class Struggle in the English Revolution. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78960-823-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=o1ycEAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 24 December 2023. 
  17. ↑ Mahaffy, Robert Pentland, ed (1900). Calendar of the State Papers relating to Ireland, of the reign of Charles I (1625-1632). Her Majesty's Stationery Office. p. 489. https://archive.org/details/cu31924091770879. Retrieved 24 December 2023. 
  18. ↑ "King and Favourite: James, Buckingham and the Villiers Clan (c.1617–1623) – Early Stuart Libels". Early Modern Literary Studies. https://www.earlystuartlibels.net/htdocs/king_and_favorite_section/L0.html. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Huw, Lemmey; Miller, Ben (9 April 2019). "Episode 4: James VI and I". Bad Gays (Podcast). Event occurs at 16:22. Retrieved 23 December 2023.
  20. ↑ Hill, Christopher (14 January 2020). "Chapter 3: Milton's apprenticeship" (in en). Milton and the English Revolution. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78873-684-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=D3HnDwAAQBAJ. Retrieved 24 December 2023. 
  21. ↑ "L7 Arme, arme, in heaven there is a faction". Early Modern Literary Studies. https://www.earlystuartlibels.net/htdocs/king_and_favorite_section/L7.html. 
  22. ↑ "Filled with 'a number of male lovelies': the surprising court of King James VI and I". BBC. 27 September 2017. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/4qVDwb2kBfd2G4Pkz3P88kZ/filled-with-a-number-of-male-lovelies-the-surprising-court-of-king-james-vi-and-i. 
  23. ↑ Matusiak, John (2015). "Chapter 3: Love and Liberation; Chapter 6: 'Cupide Blinde' and Wyches' Waies; Chapter 8: 'King and Sovereign Lord' of Scotland; Chapter 15: Favourite of Favourites" (in en). James I: Scotland's King of England. Stroud: History Press. ISBN 978-0-7509-8683-0. https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/James_I/HgfEswEACAAJ?hl=en. Retrieved 5 January 2024. 
  24. ↑ Matusiak, John (2018). "Chapter 3: Love and Liberation" (in en). James I: Scotland's King of England. Stroud: History Press. ISBN 978-0-7509-8683-0. https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/James_I/HgfEswEACAAJ?hl=en. Retrieved 5 January 2024. 
  25. ↑ Linklater, Magnus (5 January 2024). "Scotland's James VI – much more than 'the wisest fool'" (in en). The Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/james-vi-hero-or-fool-steven-veerapen-indepth-religion-witches-scotland-mkcpbdp6d. 
  26. ↑ Goring, Rosemary (20 October 2023). "The Wisest Fool: The Lavish Life of James VI and I by Steven Veerapen" (in en). The Herald. https://www.heraldscotland.com/life_style/arts_ents/23863372.wisest-fool-lavish-life-james-vi-steven-veerapen/. 
  27. ↑ Spowart, Nan (26 November 2023). "New book tackles Anglocentric view of King James VI of Scotland" (in en). The National. https://www.thenational.scot/culture/23948176.new-book-tackles-anglocentric-view-james-vi/. 
  28. ↑ Miranda Melcher (7 September 2023). "Steven Veerapen, "The Wisest Fool: The Life of James VI and I"". New Books in British Studies (Podcast). New Books Network. Event occurs at 6:58. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
  29. ↑ Veerapen, Steven (14 September 2023). "James I". in Dale, Iain (in en). Kings and Queens: 1200 Years of English and British Monarchs. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-1-5293-7949-5. https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Kings_and_Queens/cDW_EAAAQBAJ?hl=en. Retrieved 5 January 2024. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 Bergeron, David Moore (1999). King James and Letters of Homoerotic Desire. University of Iowa Press. ISBN 978-0-87745-669-8. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt20q1z4b. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 Croft, Pauline (2003). King James. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780333613962. https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/King_James/XBpHEAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 4 January 2024. 
  32. ↑ Sanders, Margaret (1957). Intimate Letters of England's Queens (2009 ed.). Gloucestershire: Amberley Publishing. ISBN 9781848682887. https://archive.org/details/intimateletterso0000sand/. 
  33. ↑ Willson, David Harris (1956). King James VI and I. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-60572-0. https://archive.org/details/bedfordhistorica0000unse. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Coleman, Keith (30 June 2023). "Chapter 8: The King at Leisure" (in en). James I: The King Who United Scotland and England. Pen and Sword History. ISBN 978-1-3990-9360-6. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Ny1EAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 5 January 2024. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 Matusiak, John (2018). "Chapter 6: 'Cupide Blinde' and Wyches' Waies" (in en). James I: Scotland's King of England. History Press Limited. ISBN 978-0-7509-8683-0. https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/James_I/HgfEswEACAAJ?hl=en. Retrieved 5 January 2024. 
  36. ↑ Dunnigan, Sarah M. (2002). "Discovering Desire in the Amatoria of James VI". in Fischlin, Daniel; Fortier, Mark (in en). Royal Subjects: Essays on the Writings of James VI and I. Wayne State University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-8143-2877-4. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-cF_UPxm84wC. Retrieved 5 January 2024. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Westcott, Allan F. (1911). New poems by James I of England. New York: Columbia University Press. https://archive.org/details/cu31924013121748. Retrieved 5 January 2024. 
  38. ↑ Shire, Helena (1969). Song, Dance and Poetry of the Court of Scotland Under King James VI. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 193. ISBN 9780521071819. 
  39. ↑ Cannon, John Ashton (2009) (in en). A Dictionary of British History. Oxford University Press. p. 392. ISBN 978-0-19-955038-8. https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofbrit0000unse_z4m5. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 Crompton, Louis (2003). Homosexuality and Civilization. Boston: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01197-7. https://archive.org/details/homosexualityciv00crom/page/381. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Paul, James Balfour, ed (1906). The Scots Peerage. Edinburgh: David Douglas. p. 121. https://archive.org/details/scotspeeragefoun03paul/. Retrieved 5 January 2024. 
  42. ↑ Cokayne, George Edward, ed (1890). The Complete Peerage. III. George Bell and Sons. p. 128. https://archive.org/details/completepeerage03cokahrish. Retrieved 5 January 2024. 
  43. ↑ Crawfurd, George (1716). The Peerage of Scotland. Edinburgh. p. 92. https://archive.org/details/peerageofscotlan00craw. Retrieved 5 January 2024. 
  44. ↑ Birch, Thomas (1848). Williams, Robert Folkestone. ed. The Court and times of James the First. I. London: Henry Colburn. p. 92. https://archive.org/details/courtandtimesja00willgoog. Retrieved 5 January 2024. 
  45. ↑ Bright, J. Franck (1878). A Hstory of England: Period II: Personal Monarchy: Henry VII to James II: 1485-1688. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company. p. 597. https://archive.org/details/ahistoryengland08briggoog. Retrieved 5 January 2024. "The first of [his favorites] was Robert Carr, for whom the King acquired a peculiar affection while he was lying wounded from an accident at a tournament. Carr had been his page in Scotland, and the King, feeling a natural interest in him, visited him and fell in love with his beauty. ... Already before the death of Cecil the presents he received to win the King's favour had made his fortune. His royal lover had made him Earl of Rochester and Knight of the Garter." 
  46. ↑ Hyde, H. Montgomery (1970), The Love That Dared not Speak its Name: A Candid History of Homosexuality in Britain, Boston: Little, Brown and Company, pp. 44, https://archive.org/details/lovethatdarednot0000hyde/ 
  47. ↑ Graham, Fiona (2008-06-05). "To the manor bought". BBC News Magazine (BBC). http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7436409.stm. 

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