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Self-censorship

Topic: Social

 From HandWiki - Reading time: 18 min
Short description: Act of censoring or classifying one's own discourse

Self-censorship is the act of censoring or classifying one's own discourse. This is done out of fear of, or deference to, the sensibilities or preferences (actual or perceived) of others and without overt pressure from any specific party or institution of authority. Self-censorship is often practiced by film producers, film directors, publishers, news anchors, journalists, musicians, and other kinds of authors including individuals who use social media. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights guarantees freedom of speech from all forms of censorship. Article 19 explicitly states that "everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers."[1]

The practice of self-censorship, like that of censorship itself, has a long history.[2][3][4]

Reasons for self-censorship

Psychological

People often communicate to affirm their identity and sense of belonging.  People may express their opinions or withhold their opinions due to the fear of exclusion or unpopularity. Shared social norms and beliefs create a sense of belonging, but they can also create a suppression of expression in order to comply or belong. People may adjust their beliefs or opinions to go along with the majority attitude. There are different factors that contribute to self-censorship, such as gender, age, education, political interests, and media exposure. For some, the reason for their change in beliefs and opinions is rooted in fear of isolation and exclusion. For these people, the expression of their own beliefs is less important than the fear of negative reactions of others to the expression of those beliefs.[5][6]

According to a 2019 German survey on self-censorship conducted by the Institut für Demoskopie Allensbach for the newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (FAZ), 59% of respondents said they can express their views among friends, but only 18% believe the same is possible in public. Only 17% of respondents express themselves freely on the Internet.[7][8]

Religious affiliation is a topic in which many occupational fields and areas may be a source of self-censorship. One particular area is psychology. From the origins of psychology, the field has frequently viewed religion with distrust. Psychologists and therapists often refrain from claiming to be part of any religion believing in the possibility that any expressions of any devout faith may be viewed as markers for mental illness or distress. A 2013 survey from the American Psychological Association (APA) found that “relative to the general population, psychologists were more than twice likely to claim no religion, three times more likely to describe religion as unimportant in their lives, and five times more likely to deny belief in God.”[9]

Regarding a religious movement it is more common among fundamentalist believers like Wahhabism, Islamism, Calvinism, and Hasidic Judaism.[10][page needed]

Economic

Self-censorship can also occur in order to conform to the expectations of the market. For example, the editor of a periodical may consciously or unconsciously avoid topics that will anger advertisers, customers, or the owners in order to protect their livelihood either directly (i.e., fear of losing their job) or indirectly (e.g., a belief that a book will be more profitable if it does not contain offensive material).[11][12][13] This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as soft censorship.

Legal

In authoritarian countries, creators of artworks may remove material that their government might find controversial for fear of sanction by their governments.[14][15][16]

Taste and decency

Taste and decency are other areas in which questions are often raised regarding self-censorship. Art or journalism involving images or footage of murder, terrorism, war and massacres may cause complaints as to the purpose to which they are put. Curators and editors will frequently censor these images to avoid charges of prurience, shock tactics or invasion of privacy.[17] Concepts like political correctness and spiral of silence have been found to contribute to the existence of self-censorship.[18][19][20]

Products intended for children and youthful audiences, such as young adult literature, can be affected by self-censorship in this context.[21]

When the director of the Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art was interviewed regarding his decision to whitewash an antiwar mural showing dollar-draped military coffins, he speculated that the mural would have offended the community in which it was placed. He then added that "there were zero complaints, because I took care of it right away,".[22]

As a form of preference falsification

Self-censorship is a form of preference falsification, though the concepts are not identical.  Self-censorship is a passive act. It amounts to the suppression of potentially objectionable beliefs, opinions, and preferences. Thus, it amounts to self-silencing; it is an act of passivity. Preference falsification is the misrepresentation of one’s preferences under perceived social pressures.[23] It is often performative, as it can involve the active manipulation of one’s preferences to impress an audience or avoid its wrath.  

For an illustration, consider a discussion on a controversial subject. We are among the participants. If we keep quiet, that is self-censorship. Insofar as our silence conveys agreement with a position that we actually dislike, our self-censorship amounts also to preference falsification. If instead of keeping quiet, we speak up during the discussion in favor of position A, when we actually favor B, that is preference falsification but not self-censorship. In pretending to like A, we have gone beyond self-censorship. We have deliberately projected a contrived opinion.

In a nutshell, preference falsification is the broader concept. Whereas all self-censorship falsifies a preference through the signals it sends, preference falsification need not take the form of self-censorship.

In media

Journalists often censor themselves due to threats against them or their interests from another party,[24] editorial instructions from their supervisor[s], perceived conflicts of interest with a media organization's economic sponsors, advertisers or shareholders,[25] etc.). Self-censorship of journalists is most pervasive in societies where governments have official media censorship policies and where journalists will be jailed, fined, or simply lose their job if they do not follow the censorship rules.[citation needed] Organizations such as Media Matters for America,[26] Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting,[27] Democracy Now! and the American Civil Liberties Union have raised concerns about news broadcasting stations, particularly Fox News, censoring their own content to be less controversial when reporting on certain types of issues such as the War on Terror.

In their book Manufacturing Consent (1988), Noam Chomsky and Edward S. Herman argue that corporate ownership of news media very strongly encourages systematic self-censorship owing to market forces.[25] In this argument, even with supposedly liberal media, bias and (often unconscious) self-censorship is evident in the selection and omission of news stories, and the framing of acceptable discussion, in line with the interests of the corporations owning those media.

The journalists have actively sought censorship advice from military authorities in order to prevent the inadvertent revelation of military secrets. In 2009, The New York Times succeeded in suppressing news of a reporter's abduction by militants in Afghanistan for seven months until his escape from captivity in order to "reduce danger to the reporter and other hostages".[28]

Journalists have sometimes self-censored publications of news stories out of concern for the safety of people involved. Jean Pelletier, the Washington D.C. correspondent for the Montreal La Presse newspaper, uncovered a covert attempt by the Canadian government to smuggle US diplomats out of Iran during the Iranian hostage crisis before the "Canadian Caper" had reached its conclusion. In order to preserve the safety of those involved, he refused to allow the paper to publish the story until the hostages had left Iran, despite the considerable news value to the paper and writer.[citation needed]

Self-censorship by journalists has been described as a form of a survival strategy, allowing journalists to report on some issues rather than going too far and risking a more complete crackdown by the authorities, resulting in even less independent reporting.[29][30]

In science

Self-censorship in a Chinese academic journal: an editor asks the article's author to remove a sentence about blocking of Wikipedia in mainland China as it could cause trouble with the "authorities".

Self-censorship is found in the world of academia in a number of contexts.[31] Self-censorship in scientific publications that have been criticized as politically motivated include scientists under the Third Reich withholding findings that disagreed with the commonly held beliefs in differences between races, or the refusal of these scientists under Hitler to support General Relativity (which got the reputation as "Jewish science"). More recently, certain scientists have withheld their findings related to climate changes caused by pollution and to endangered species.[32][33][34]

Professor Heinz Klatt argues that hate laws, speech codes, cowardice, and political correctness have resulted in an intellectually repressive atmosphere in modern-day academic circles, with widespread self-censorship on topics like homosexuality, (learning) disabilities, Islam, and genetic differences between human races and sexes.[35]

Risks from scientific publications

In the early days of atomic physics, it was realized that discoveries regarding nuclear fission and the chain reaction might be used for both beneficial and harmful purposes - on the one hand, such discoveries could have important applications for medicine and energy production, however on the other hand, they might also lead to the production of unprecedented weapons of mass destruction.[36] Leo Szilard argues that if dangerous discoveries were kept secret, the development and use of such weapons might be avoided.[37][38] Similarly, findings in the field of medicine and biotechnology could facilitate production of biological weapons of mass destruction.[39][40][41] In 2003 members of the Journal Editors and Authors Group, 32 leading journal editors, perceived the threat from biological warfare as sufficiently high to warrant a system of self-censorship on the public dissemination of certain aspects of their community's research. The statement agreed on declared:[42]

We recognize that the prospect of bioterrorism has raised legitimate concerns about the potential abuse of published information... We are committed to dealing responsibly and effectively with safety and security issues that may be raised by papers submitted for publication, and to increasing our capacity to identify such issues as they arise...[O]n occasions an editor may conclude that the potential harm of publication outweighs the potential societal benefits... the paper should be modified, or not be published...

By region

Africa

Self-censorship has been found to affect journalists in a number of less-democratic African states, such as Ethiopia, Uganda and Zambia.[29][43][44][45][46]

Central Asia

Widespread practice of self-censorship has been described as significantly detrimental to the development of independent journalism in Central Asia.[47]

China

In China, the media and citizens have to go to even greater extents to censor much of the material that they would post online.[48][49][50][51][52][53][54] Many companies[who?] have been shut down by government because of the content that they have published. Nearly 10,000 social media accounts in October 2018 were shut down that published entertainment and celebrity news.[55] As well as 370 different streaming apps that were pulled off of the app stores for non-compliance.[56] Due to these high numbers of government interference, the companies and networks that publish on the internet are now employing people and utilizing sophisticated programs to find videos and pictures that are offensive to remove before the government can get them in trouble.[57][58]

Self-censorship by Western[clarification needed] companies trying to appease Chinese authorities has also affected the quality of content available to the citizens in other countries.[59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66] It increasingly affects video games, including those by Western developers who want to sell their products to Chinese gamers as well.[67]

Colombia

Self-censorship has been found to affect Colombian journalism.[68]

Europe

Examples of self-censorship have been found in a number of European countries in different contexts.[69][70]

European Union officials have been accused of self-censorship on topics deemed sensitive by China, in order to avoid diplomatic rifts between China and EU.[71][72]

Threats to media freedom have shown a significant increase in recent years in Europe. Journalists and whistleblowers have experienced physical and psychological intimidation and threats. Self-censorship is one of the major consequences of such circumstances.[73][74]

A study published in 2017 by the Council of Europe found that in the period 2014-2016 that 40% of journalists involved in the survey experienced some kind of unwarranted interference, in particular psychological violence, including slandering and smear campaigning, cyberbullying. Other forms of unwarranted interference include intimidation by interest groups, threats with force, intimidation by political groups, targeted surveillance, intimidation by the police, etc. In terms of geography, cases of physical assault were more common in the South Caucasus, followed by Turkey, but were present in other regions as well.[74]

Indonesia

In the early 2010s, self-censorship was studied in the context of professional practice of many Indonesian newspaper journalists.[75]

Palestine

Self-censorship was found in Israeli media during the Second Lebanon War.[76] It has also been found to affect a number of debates related to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.[77][78]

Pakistan

Self-censorship practices have been studied in the context of the Pakistani media in 2000s.[79][80]

Russia

Self-censorship existed in Russia for a long time.[81] After a brief relaxation following the fall of communism in the 1990s, self-censorship once again became a quite frequent practice in Russia after 2000's government take-overs and consolidation of media, further deepened after 2014-2015 laws on 'undesirable organisations'.[82][83][84][85][86][87]

Turkey

Self-censorship has increased in Turkey as press freedoms declined under the Justice and Development Party (AKP) government in the late 2000s.[88][89][90] Affected areas include among others the discussion of the Armenian genocide.[91]

United States

According to AmeriSpeak survey, 40% of Americans did not feel free to speak their mind in 2019. About 60% of college students reported that they did not feel comfortable expressing their views of campus.[92] According to an article published by political scientists James L. Gibson and Joseph L. Sutherland, rates of self-censorship in America in 2020 had increased to 46%, up from 13% in 1954.[93]

See also

References

  1. ↑ University of Salzburg, Journalism Self-Censorship, Global Self-Censorship Struggles: Lebanon, Mexico, China, Hong Kong and Slovakia
  2. ↑ Baltussen, Han; Davis, Peter J. (2015-07-27) (in en). The Art of Veiled Speech: Self-Censorship from Aristophanes to Hobbes. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-9163-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=fm49CgAAQBAJ&q=Self-censorship&pg=PP1. 
  3. ↑ Baltussen, Han; Davis, Peter J. (2015-07-27) (in en). The Art of Veiled Speech: Self-Censorship from Aristophanes to Hobbes. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-9163-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=fm49CgAAQBAJ&q=Self-censorship&pg=PA18. 
  4. ↑ Richard L. Williams (2016). "Censorship and Self-censorship in Late Sixteenth-century English Book Illustration". in Michael Hunter (in en). Printed Images in Early Modern Britain Essays in Interpretation. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315246048. ISBN 978-1-315-24604-8. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315246048-12/censorship-self-censorship-late-sixteenth-century-english-book-illustration-richard-williams. 
  5. ↑ Bar-Tal, Daniel (2017). "Self-Censorship as a Socio-Political-Psychological Phenomenon: Conception and Research" (in en). Political Psychology 38 (S1): 37–65. doi:10.1111/pops.12391. ISSN 1467-9221. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/pops.12391. 
  6. ↑ Detert, James R.; Edmondson, Amy C. (2011-06-01). "Implicit Voice Theories: Taken-for-Granted Rules of Self-Censorship at Work". Academy of Management Journal 54 (3): 461–488. doi:10.5465/amj.2011.61967925. ISSN 0001-4273. https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/amj.2011.61967925. 
  7. ↑ Köcher, Renate (22 May 2019). "Immer mehr Tabuthemen". Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/allensbach-umfrage-ueber-meinungsfreiheit-und-kritische-themen-16200724.html. 
  8. ↑ "Mehrheit der Deutschen äußert sich in der Öffentlichkeit nur vorsichtig". Die Welt. 22 May 2019. https://www.welt.de/politik/article193977845/Deutsche-sehen-Meinungsfreiheit-in-der-Oeffentlichkeit-eingeschraenkt.html. 
  9. ↑ Rosik, Christopher H.; Teraoka, Nicole A.; Moretto, James D (2016). "Religiously-based prejudice and self-censorship: Perceptions and experiences among Christian therapists and educators". Journal of Psychology and Christianity: 52–67. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2016-26648-006. 
  10. ↑ Habermas, Jurgen (2006). "Religion in the Public Sphere". European Journal of Philosophy 14: 1–25. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0378.2006.00241.x. 
  11. ↑ Germano, Fabrizio; Meier, Martin (2013-01-01). "Concentration and self-censorship in commercial media" (in en). Journal of Public Economics 97: 117–130. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2012.09.009. ISSN 0047-2727. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047272712001089. 
  12. ↑ Gray, Garry C.; Kendzia, Victoria Bishop (2009). "Organizational Self-Censorship: Corporate Sponsorship, Nonprofit Funding, and the Educational Experience*" (in en). Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue Canadienne de Sociologie 46 (2): 161–177. doi:10.1111/j.1755-618X.2009.01209.x. ISSN 1755-618X. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1755-618X.2009.01209.x. 
  13. ↑ Hassid, Jonathan (2020-06-01). "Censorship, the Media, and the Market in China" (in en). Journal of Chinese Political Science 25 (2): 285–309. doi:10.1007/s11366-020-09660-0. ISSN 1874-6357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11366-020-09660-0. 
  14. ↑ Shen, Xiaoxiao; Truex, Rory (2021). "In Search of Self-Censorship" (in en). British Journal of Political Science 51 (4): 1672–1684. doi:10.1017/S0007123419000735. ISSN 0007-1234. 
  15. ↑ Tannenberg, Marcus (2017-06-01) (in en). The Autocratic Trust Bias: Politically Sensitive Survey Items and Self-Censorship. Rochester, NY. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2980727. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2980727. 
  16. ↑ Robinson, Darrel; Tannenberg, Marcus (2018-04-01) (in en). Self-Censorship in Authoritarian States: Response Bias in Measures of Popular Support in China. Rochester, NY. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3161915. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3161915. 
  17. ↑ Cook, Philip; Heilmann, Conrad (2013-03-01). "Two Types of Self-Censorship: Public and Private" (in en). Political Studies 61 (1): 178–196. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9248.2012.00957.x. ISSN 0032-3217. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2012.00957.x. 
  18. ↑ LOURY, GLENN C. (1994-10-01). "Self-Censorship in Public Discourse: A Theory of "Political Correctness" and Related Phenomena" (in en). Rationality and Society 6 (4): 428–461. doi:10.1177/1043463194006004002. ISSN 1043-4631. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043463194006004002. 
  19. ↑ Kwon, K. Hazel; Moon, Shin-Il; Stefanone, Michael A. (2015-07-01). "Unspeaking on Facebook? Testing network effects on self-censorship of political expressions in social network sites" (in en). Quality & Quantity 49 (4): 1417–1435. doi:10.1007/s11135-014-0078-8. ISSN 1573-7845. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-014-0078-8. 
  20. ↑ Hoffmann, Christian Pieter; Lutz, Christoph (2017-07-28). "Spiral of Silence 2.0". Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Social Media & Society - #SMSociety17. Toronto, ON, Canada: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 1–12. doi:10.1145/3097286.3097296. ISBN 978-1-4503-4847-8. https://doi.org/10.1145/3097286.3097296. 
  21. ↑ Freedman, Lauren; Johnson, Holly (2000). "Who's Protecting Whom? "I Hadn't Meant to Tell You This", a Case in Point in Confronting Self-Censorship in the Choice of Young Adult Literature". Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 44 (4): 356–369. ISSN 1081-3004. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40015350. 
  22. ↑ Finkel, Jori (2010-12-15). "Museum of Contemporary Art commissions, then paints over, artwork". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/la-et-1214-moca-mural-20101214,0,4436829.story. 
  23. ↑ Kuran, Timur (1997) (in en). Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-70758-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=HlKBaiCpSxYC&dq=private+truth+public+lies&pg=PR9. 
  24. ↑ Jeanne Meserve (June 29, 2005). "Milk-threat study issued over objections". CNN.com. http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/06/29/milk.security/index.html. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, Vintage, 1994, ISBN:0-09-953311-1
  26. ↑ Media Matters for America: 33 internal Fox editorial memos reviewed by MMFA reveal
  27. ↑ FAIR: Censorship
  28. ↑ JASON STRAZIUSO (June 20, 2005). "New York Times reporter escapes Taliban captivity". Associated Press. https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20090620/ap_on_re_as/as_afghan_nyt_reporter. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Walulya, Gerald; Nassanga, Goretti L. (2020-02-25). "Democracy at Stake: Self-Censorship as a Self-Defence Strategy for Journalists" (in en). Media and Communication 8 (1): 5–14. doi:10.17645/mac.v8i1.2512. ISSN 2183-2439. https://www.cogitatiopress.com/mediaandcommunication/article/view/2512. 
  30. ↑ Larsen, Anna Grøndahl; Fadnes, Ingrid; Krøvel, Roy (2020-07-08) (in en). Journalist Safety and Self-Censorship. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-07487-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=q6HsDwAAQBAJ&q=Self-censorship&pg=PT11. 
  31. ↑ Chamlee-Wright, Emily (2019-12-01). "Self-Censorship and Associational Life in the Liberal Academy" (in en). Society 56 (6): 538–549. doi:10.1007/s12115-019-00413-1. ISSN 1936-4725. 
  32. ↑ Ayaz Nanji (February 11, 2005). "Scientific Method: Self-Censorship, Study Finds Researchers Shy Away From Controversial Projects". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/02/11/tech/main673232.shtml. 
  33. ↑ Julie Cart (February 10, 2005). "U.S. Scientists Say They Are Told to Alter Findings". Los Angeles Times: p. A-13. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-scientists10feb10,0,4954654.story?coll=la-home-nation. 
  34. ↑ Daniel Schorn (July 30, 2006). "Rewriting The Science, Scientist Says Politicians Edit Global Warming Research". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/03/17/60minutes/main1415985.shtml. 
  35. ↑ Heinz Klatt (October 27, 2006). "Self-censorship the bane of academic life". The Gazette (University of Western Ontario). http://www.gazette.uwo.ca/article.cfm?section=Opinions&articleID=1099. 
  36. ↑ Schweber, Silvan S. (2007-01-07). In the Shadow of the Bomb: Oppenheimer, Bethe, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691127859. 
  37. ↑ Selgelid, Michael J. (2009). "Governance of dual-use research: an ethical dilemma". Bulletin of the World Health Organization (World health Organization) 87 (9): 720–3. doi:10.2471/blt.08.051383. PMID 19784453. PMC 2739909. https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/87/9/08-051383/en/. Retrieved 15 February 2016. 
  38. ↑ Pelopidas, Benoît (2016-11-01). "Nuclear Weapons Scholarship as a Case of Self-Censorship in Security Studies". Journal of Global Security Studies 1 (4): 326–336. doi:10.1093/jogss/ogw017. ISSN 2057-3170. https://doi.org/10.1093/jogss/ogw017. 
  39. ↑ "The darker bioweapons future". Central Intelligence Agency. November 3, 2003. https://fas.org/irp/cia/product/bw1103.pdf. 
  40. ↑ Broad, William J. (November 1, 2003). "Bioterror Researchers Build A More Lethal Mousepox". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/01/us/bioterror-researchers-build-a-more-lethal-mousepox.html. 
  41. ↑ Nowak, Rachel (10 January 2001). "Killer mousepox virus raises bioterror fears". New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn311-killer-mousepox-virus-raises-bioterror-fears/. Retrieved 15 February 2016. 
  42. ↑ McLeish, C.A. (2003). "Reactions to Self-censorship". pp. 1. http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Units/spru/hsp/documents/Reactions%20to%20Selfcensorship.pdf. 
  43. ↑ Skjerdal, Terje (2010-12-18) (in en). Justifying Self-Censorship: A Perspective from Ethiopia. Rochester, NY. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1742843. 
  44. ↑ Moges, Mulatu Alemayehu (2017). "Ethiopian Journalism from Self-Censoring to Silence: A Case of Reporting on Internal Conflict" (in English). ESSACHESS - Journal for Communication Studies X (1): 111–128. ISSN 2066-5083. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=555106. 
  45. ↑ Parks, Lisa; Mukherjee, Rahul (2017-07-03). "From platform jumping to self-censorship: internet freedom, social media, and circumvention practices in Zambia". Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies 14 (3): 221–237. doi:10.1080/14791420.2017.1290262. ISSN 1479-1420. https://nca.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14791420.2017.1290262. 
  46. ↑ Jaygbay, Jacob. "Self-censorship in African scholarship and scholarly publishing." Journal of scholarly publishing 29, no. 2 (1998): 112.
  47. ↑ Kenny, Timothy; Gross, Peter (2008-10-01). "Journalism in Central Asia: A Victim of Politics, Economics, and Widespread Self-censorship" (in en). The International Journal of Press/Politics 13 (4): 515–525. doi:10.1177/1940161208324644. ISSN 1940-1612. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161208324644. 
  48. ↑ Lee, Francis L.F.; Chan, Joseph (2009-01-01). "Organizational Production of Self-Censorship in the Hong Kong Media" (in en). The International Journal of Press/Politics 14 (1): 112–133. doi:10.1177/1940161208326598. ISSN 1940-1612. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161208326598. 
  49. ↑ Tong, Jingrong (2009-09-01). "Press self-censorship in China: a case study in the transformation of discourse" (in en). Discourse & Society 20 (5): 593–612. doi:10.1177/0957926509106412. ISSN 0957-9265. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926509106412. 
  50. ↑ Lee, Chin-Chuan (1998-03-01). "Press Self-Censorship and Political Transition in Hong Kong" (in en). Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 3 (2): 55–73. doi:10.1177/1081180X98003002005. ISSN 1081-180X. https://doi.org/10.1177/1081180X98003002005. 
  51. ↑ Zhong, Zhi-Jin; Wang, Tongchen; Huang, Minting (2017-01-01). "Does the Great Fire Wall cause self-censorship? The effects of perceived internet regulation and the justification of regulation". Internet Research 27 (4): 974–990. doi:10.1108/IntR-07-2016-0204. ISSN 1066-2243. https://doi.org/10.1108/IntR-07-2016-0204. 
  52. ↑ Robinson, Darrel; Tannenberg, Marcus (2019-07-01). "Self-censorship of regime support in authoritarian states: Evidence from list experiments in China" (in en). Research & Politics 6 (3): 2053168019856449. doi:10.1177/2053168019856449. ISSN 2053-1680. 
  53. ↑ Lee, Francis L.F.; Lin, Angel M.Y. (2006-05-01). "Newspaper editorial discourse and the politics of self-censorship in Hong Kong" (in en). Discourse & Society 17 (3): 331–358. doi:10.1177/0957926506062371. ISSN 0957-9265. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926506062371. 
  54. ↑ Wang, Natasha Khan and Joyu (2020-07-02). "Hong Kong's Security Law Scares Citizens Into Scrubbing Social Media, Self-Censorship" (in en-US). Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. https://www.wsj.com/articles/hong-kongers-self-censor-as-security-law-bites-11593696720. 
  55. ↑ Kuo, Lily (2018-12-31). "From 'rice bunny' to 'back up the car': China's year of censorship" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/dec/31/from-rice-bunny-to-back-up-the-car-chinas-year-of-censorship. 
  56. ↑ "In China, a circle of online self-censorship; Threat of being shut down for violating laws pushes internet firms to police their networks." Globe & Mail [Toronto, Canada], 5 June 2018, p. A1. World History in Context, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A541400341/WHIC?u=mcc_pv&sid=WHIC&xid=61681362. Accessed 11 Apr. 2019.
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  61. ↑ Siegel, Tatiana (2020-08-05). "Hollywood Is "Increasingly Normalizing" Self-Censorship for China, Report Finds" (in en-US). https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/hollywood-is-increasingly-normalizing-censorship-china-report-finds-1305935/. 
  62. ↑ The Editorial Board (2019-10-19). "Opinion | The Chinese Threat to American Speech" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/19/opinion/sunday/china-nba.html. 
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  64. ↑ "Made in Hollywood, Censored by Beijing" (in en). 2020-08-05. https://pen.org/report/made-in-hollywood-censored-by-beijing/. 
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  70. ↑ Iordanidou, Sofia; Takas, Emmanouil; Vatikiotis, Leonidas; García, Pedro (2020-02-25). "Constructing Silence: Processes of Journalistic (Self-)Censorship during Memoranda in Greece, Cyprus, and Spain" (in en). Media and Communication 8 (1): 15–26. doi:10.17645/mac.v8i1.2634. ISSN 2183-2439. https://www.cogitatiopress.com/mediaandcommunication/article/view/2634. 
  71. ↑ Taylor, Max Roger (May 26, 2020). "China-EU relations: self-censorship by EU diplomats is commonplace" (in en). http://theconversation.com/china-eu-relations-self-censorship-by-eu-diplomats-is-commonplace-138181. 
  72. ↑ "EU diplomats face the enemy within" (in en-US). 2020-05-13. https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-china-diplomatic-problem-eeas/. 
  73. ↑ "New study on intimidation of journalists and self-censorship in Europe". Council of Europe. Newsroom. 20 April 2017. https://www.coe.int/en/web/human-rights-rule-of-law/-/new-study-on-intimidation-of-journalists-and-self-censorship-in-europe?desktop=false. 
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  75. ↑ Tapsell, Ross (2012-06-01). "Old Tricks in a New Era: Self-Censorship in Indonesian Journalism". Asian Studies Review 36 (2): 227–245. doi:10.1080/10357823.2012.685926. ISSN 1035-7823. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357823.2012.685926. 
  76. ↑ Elbaz, Sagi, and Daniel Bar-Tal. "Voluntary silence: Israeli media self-censorship during the Second Lebanon War." Conflict & communication 18, no. 2 (2019).
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  79. ↑ Nadadur, Ramanujan D. (2007-06-01). "Self-Censorship In The Pakistani Print Media" (in en). South Asian Survey 14 (1): 45–63. doi:10.1177/097152310701400105. ISSN 0971-5231. https://doi.org/10.1177/097152310701400105. 
  80. ↑ (in en) Red lines of journalism : Digital surveillance, safety risks and journalists' self-censorship in Pakistan. Routledge. 2020-07-08. doi:10.4324/9780367810139-3. ISBN 978-0-367-81013-9. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780367810139-3/red-lines-journalism-sadia-jamil. 
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  82. ↑ "Russia's 'Undesirables' Law Expected to Boost Media Self-Censorship | News". http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/russias-undesirables-law-expected-to-boost-media-self-censorship/522228.html. 
  83. ↑ "Newspaper censors its own interview with Russian opposition leader, removing criticism of Putin and others". https://meduza.io/en/news/2015/09/07/newspaper-censors-its-own-interview-with-russian-opposition-leader-removing-criticism-of-putin-and-others. 
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  88. ↑ Yesil, Bilge (2014-06-01). "Press Censorship in Turkey: Networks of State Power, Commercial Pressures, and Self-Censorship". Communication, Culture and Critique 7 (2): 154–173. doi:10.1111/cccr.12049. ISSN 1753-9129. https://doi.org/10.1111/cccr.12049. 
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  90. ↑ Aktas, Vezir; Nilsson, Marco; Borell, Klas (2019-04-03). "Social scientists under threat: Resistance and self-censorship in Turkish academia". British Journal of Educational Studies 67 (2): 169–186. doi:10.1080/00071005.2018.1502872. ISSN 0007-1005. 
  91. ↑ Maksudyan, Nazan (2009-11-01). "Walls of Silence: Translating the Armenian Genocide into Turkish and Self-Censorship". Critique 37 (4): 635–649. doi:10.1080/03017600903205781. ISSN 0301-7605. https://doi.org/10.1080/03017600903205781. 
  92. ↑ Jussim, Lee (June 1, 2021). "Why Americans Don't Feel Free to Speak Their Minds". Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/rabble-rouser/202106/why-americans-dont-feel-free-speak-their-minds. 
  93. ↑ Gibson, James L.; Sutherland, Joseph L. (2023). "Keeping Your Mouth Shut: Spiraling Self-Censorship in the United States". Political Science Quarterly 138 (3): 361–376. doi:10.1093/psquar/qqad037. https://academic.oup.com/psq/article/138/3/361/7192889. Retrieved Dec 12, 2023. 

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