Ali Khamenei as Supreme Leader

Ali Khamenei as Supreme Leader refers to the tenure of Ali Khamenei as the second Supreme Leader of Iran, the highest political and religious authority in the Islamic Republic of Iran. He assumed the position on 4 June 1989 following the death of revolutionary founder Ruhollah Khomeini and held the office for nearly thirty-seven years. Khamenei's leadership ended on 28 February 2026 when the United States and Israel launched coordinated missile strikes on Iranian leadership and military targets after weeks of unsuccessful negotiations over Iran's nuclear program. Iranian state media confirmed that Khamenei was killed during the strikes in Tehran, bringing an abrupt end to one of the longest continuous leadership periods in the modern history of the Middle East.^[1][2]

During his tenure, Khamenei exercised ultimate authority over Iran's political system, including command of the armed forces, oversight of the judiciary, and supervision of the country's strategic direction in domestic and foreign affairs. Over time he consolidated the power of the Supreme Leader's office through alliances with clerical institutions, ideological organizations that supported the Islamic Republic, and security forces including the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. His rule coincided with internal political unrest, disputes among factions within Iran's governing establishment, prolonged international sanctions related to Iran's nuclear program, and sustained criticism of Iran's record of human rights. Policies enforced under the Islamic Republic during his leadership included strict regulations on women's dress and conduct, enforcement of mandatory hijab laws, and the suppression of protest movements challenging those restrictions, including nationwide demonstrations following the death of Mahsa Amini in 2022, which triggered months of protests across Iran challenging mandatory hijab laws and broader restrictions on women's rights under the Islamic Republic.^[3][4]

In January 2026, nationwide demonstrations again erupted across Iran amid widespread opposition to the clerical government. Security forces under the authority of Khamenei responded with lethal force, deploying units of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps and the Basij militia against protesters in cities across the country. Independent investigations based on hospital records, eyewitness testimony, and burial data later concluded that tens of thousands of demonstrators were killed during the crackdown, with estimates exceeding 30,000 deaths nationwide. The violence represented one of the largest mass killings of protesters in the history of the Islamic Republic.^[5][6]

By the end of Khamenei's rule, the office of the Supreme Leader had become the dominant institution within Iran's political structure, exercising decisive influence over both elected and unelected branches of government. The succession process that followed his death was overseen by the Assembly of Experts, the clerical body responsible under Iran's constitution for selecting the Supreme Leader, raising significant questions regarding the future direction of the Islamic Republic after more than three decades under Khamenei's leadership.^[7][8]

Consolidation of authority[edit | edit source]

Khamenei assumed the position of Supreme Leader in June 1989 following the death of Ruhollah Khomeini, the founder of the Islamic Republic. His appointment occurred during a period of political uncertainty as Iran transitioned from the revolutionary era and the aftermath of the Iran–Iraq War. Constitutional amendments adopted later that year strengthened the authority of the Supreme Leader and removed the earlier requirement that the officeholder be recognized as a senior Shiite religious authority. These changes formalized the position as the central authority within the Iranian political system, granting the Supreme Leader command of the armed forces, influence over the judiciary, and supervisory authority over key state institutions.^[9][10]

During the early years of his leadership, Khamenei consolidated influence through alliances with clerical institutions and political networks that supported the ideological foundations of the Islamic Republic. Among the most significant of these organizations was the Society of the Militant Clergy of Tehran (JRM), a clerical political organization that had supported the revolutionary movement led by Khomeini and later became influential within Iran's governing institutions. Members of the organization held positions in parliament, the judiciary, and other key bodies of government, reinforcing the political role of clerical networks within the structure of the Islamic Republic.^[11][9]

A central pillar of Khamenei's authority was the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), which maintained direct allegiance to the Supreme Leader and expanded its influence across the military, political, and economic spheres of the Iranian state. Originally created to defend the revolutionary government after 1979, the IRGC developed into one of the most powerful institutions in the country, overseeing military operations, intelligence activities, and major economic projects. Its leadership answered directly to the Supreme Leader, reinforcing the institutional authority of Khamenei within the national security structure of Iran.^[12][9]

Control over institutions responsible for supervising elections further strengthened the authority of the Supreme Leader. Bodies such as the Guardian Council possessed the power to review legislation and approve or disqualify candidates seeking public office, allowing the political system to restrict participation by individuals considered incompatible with the ideological principles of the Islamic Republic. Through appointments to key government posts and influence over these oversight bodies, Khamenei consolidated a governing structure in which the Supreme Leader exercised decisive authority over both elected and unelected branches of the Iranian state.^[9][10]

Domestic policy[edit | edit source]

Domestic governance under Khamenei was shaped by the ideological framework of the Islamic Republic and the doctrine of clerical rule known as velayat-e faqih, which placed ultimate political authority in the hands of a senior Islamic jurist. Although Iran maintained elected institutions such as the presidency and parliament, the Supreme Leader exercised final authority over the armed forces, judiciary, state broadcasting system, and key supervisory bodies. This structure allowed the office of the Supreme Leader to influence both elected and unelected institutions of government and to shape the ideological direction of the state.^[13][14]

Social policy during Khamenei's leadership reflected the state's interpretation of Islamic law and the religious principles embedded in the constitution of the Islamic Republic. Laws regulating public behavior, gender interaction, and dress codes were enforced through state institutions including morality police units and security forces aligned with the government. Mandatory hijab requirements for women remained a central feature of these policies, and enforcement actions periodically led to public demonstrations and civil resistance movements across the country. In later years of Khamenei's rule, many Iranian women openly challenged compulsory dress laws despite the threat of arrest or prosecution.^[4][3]

The enforcement of social regulations and political restrictions frequently led to periods of unrest throughout Khamenei's tenure. Major protest movements occurred during the student demonstrations of the late 1990s, the disputed presidential election of 2009, and the nationwide protests that followed the death of Mahsa Amini in 2022. These movements were typically met with strong responses from security institutions including the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps and the Basij militia, both of which played key roles in suppressing demonstrations and maintaining internal security.^[13][3]

Large-scale demonstrations also erupted across Iran in January 2026, representing one of the most significant internal crises during the final months of Khamenei's leadership. Reports from medical personnel, hospital workers, and independent investigators indicated that security forces used live ammunition and other lethal force against protesters in multiple cities. Testimony compiled from networks of physicians across several provinces suggested that the number of people killed during the crackdown may have exceeded 30,000 nationwide, far surpassing official figures reported by Iranian authorities.^[15]

Economic influence[edit | edit source]

Economic institutions connected to the office of the Supreme Leader played an important role in Iran's political economy. Religious foundations and state-affiliated organizations controlled extensive financial assets and operated across sectors including construction, manufacturing, and infrastructure development. These entities were formally established to support charitable and social programs but also functioned as major economic actors within the Iranian economy.^[12][9]

The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps expanded its economic presence significantly during Khamenei's leadership. In addition to its military role, the organization became involved in major industrial and infrastructure projects and developed extensive holdings in sectors such as energy, transportation, and telecommunications. Analysts frequently described the Guard's economic activities as an important source of political influence within Iran, linking security institutions with economic power.^[12][10]

International sanctions related to Iran's nuclear program and regional activities had a substantial impact on the country's economy during Khamenei's rule. Sanctions targeting Iran's financial system, oil exports, and banking sector contributed to inflation, currency instability, and economic hardship for many Iranian citizens. Iranian authorities promoted domestic economic initiatives designed to reduce reliance on foreign trade, while negotiations with international partners periodically sought relief from sanctions imposed by Western governments.^[16][9]

Foreign policy[edit | edit source]

Foreign policy under Khamenei was shaped by the ideological principles of the Islamic Republic and by the doctrine that the Iranian revolution represented a broader movement intended to resist Western political influence in the Middle East. The constitution of the Islamic Republic states that the country’s foreign policy should support what it describes as the struggles of oppressed peoples against domination and preserve the independence of Muslim societies. During Khamenei’s leadership this framework translated into a strategy that emphasized opposition to the United States and Israel, the expansion of Iran’s regional influence, and support for allied movements across the Middle East.^[14][13]

A central instrument of this policy was the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), particularly its external operations branch known as the Quds Force. The organization played a major role in coordinating Iranian influence beyond the country’s borders and supported armed groups and allied political movements in several regional conflicts. Analysts and Western governments frequently described Iran’s network of regional partners as an important element of its strategic influence, while Iranian officials characterized these relationships as part of a defensive alliance intended to deter foreign intervention and protect allied governments.^[12][10]

Relations between Iran and Israel remained among the most contentious aspects of Khamenei’s foreign policy. Iranian leaders repeatedly expressed opposition to the existence of the Israeli state and supported organizations that opposed Israeli policies in the region. Israeli officials and Western governments frequently accused Iran of sponsoring armed groups and contributing to regional instability, while Iranian leaders argued that their policies represented support for resistance movements opposing occupation and foreign influence in the Middle East.^[14][17]

Tensions between Iran and the United States also remained a defining feature of the country’s foreign relations during Khamenei’s rule. The two countries severed diplomatic relations following the Iran hostage crisis of 1979, and subsequent decades were marked by economic sanctions, military confrontations, and disputes over Iran’s nuclear program. Negotiations between Iran and several world powers produced the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action in 2015, which limited aspects of Iran’s nuclear activities in exchange for sanctions relief. However, disagreements over regional policy, missile development, and nuclear activities continued to shape relations between Iran and Western governments throughout the final decades of Khamenei’s leadership.^[16][13]

Regional proxy network[edit | edit source]

During Khamenei’s leadership Iran developed a network of allied governments and armed organizations across the Middle East that expanded the country’s regional influence. The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, particularly its external operations branch known as the Quds Force, played a central role in coordinating these relationships. Analysts often described the network as part of Iran’s strategy of “forward defense,” which sought to deter adversaries and project power beyond Iran’s borders without relying solely on conventional military confrontation.^[12][14]

Among the most prominent organizations associated with Iran’s regional strategy were Hezbollah in Lebanon and several militant groups operating in the Palestinian territories. Iranian officials frequently described these relationships as support for “resistance movements,” while critics argued that Iranian backing for armed organizations contributed to instability in several regional conflicts. The IRGC and its allies were also involved in conflicts in Syria, Iraq, and Yemen during the 2010s and 2020s, where Iranian advisers and partner forces supported allied governments or movements aligned with Tehran’s strategic interests.^[12][18]

Relations with Israel[edit | edit source]

Relations between Iran and Israel remained among the most contentious elements of Khamenei’s foreign policy. Iranian leaders consistently expressed opposition to the Israeli state and supported organizations that opposed Israeli policies in the region. Khamenei repeatedly framed Israel as an illegitimate state and described the conflict with Israel as part of a broader struggle in the Middle East. Israeli officials and several Western governments accused Iran of sponsoring armed groups targeting Israel and destabilizing regional security.^[14][17]

Tensions periodically escalated through proxy confrontations and military incidents involving Iranian-backed forces and Israeli operations targeting Iranian assets in the region. Israeli authorities frequently cited Iran’s missile development and support for militant organizations as major security threats, while Iranian officials described their policies as resistance against occupation and Western influence. These competing narratives contributed to an enduring strategic rivalry between the two countries throughout Khamenei’s tenure.^[17][12]

Relations with the United States[edit | edit source]

Relations between Iran and the United States remained adversarial during Khamenei’s leadership. Diplomatic ties had been severed following the Iran hostage crisis of 1979, when Iranian militants seized the United States embassy in Tehran and held American diplomats hostage for 444 days. Although the crisis occurred before Khamenei became Supreme Leader, it shaped the political environment of the Islamic Republic and contributed to decades of distrust between the two countries.^[19][14]

Economic sanctions imposed by the United States became a defining feature of relations between the two countries during Khamenei’s rule. Sanctions targeting Iran’s banking sector, oil exports, and military programs significantly affected the Iranian economy and contributed to currency instability and inflation. Iranian leaders described the sanctions as economic warfare and sought to reduce dependence on foreign trade through domestic economic initiatives and closer ties with other international partners.^[20][13]

Nuclear program and strategic deterrence[edit | edit source]

Iran’s nuclear program became one of the most significant international issues during Khamenei’s leadership. Iranian authorities maintained that the program was intended for peaceful energy and scientific purposes, while several Western governments and international organizations expressed concern that the program could lead to the development of nuclear weapons capability. Negotiations between Iran and world powers produced the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action in 2015, an agreement that imposed restrictions on aspects of Iran’s nuclear activities in exchange for sanctions relief.^[16][13]

Khamenei publicly supported the negotiations while also maintaining that Iran would resist external pressure on its defense and security policies. Iranian officials frequently emphasized that the country would continue developing its missile capabilities and maintaining strategic alliances in the region regardless of diplomatic agreements related to nuclear activities.^[10]

Human rights controversies[edit | edit source]

Human rights conditions in Iran during Khamenei’s leadership were frequently criticized by international organizations, foreign governments, and human rights advocates. Reports documented restrictions on political dissent, limitations on freedom of expression, and the detention of journalists, activists, and political opponents. Iranian authorities argued that these measures were necessary to preserve national security and protect the political system established after the 1979 revolution.^[21][22]

Iranian law criminalized same-sex relationships and imposed severe penalties under the country’s penal code, which is based in part on interpretations of Islamic law. Human rights organizations reported that individuals accused of homosexuality faced imprisonment and, in some cases, capital punishment. Iranian authorities maintained that their legal system reflected religious and cultural values embedded in the Islamic Republic’s constitutional framework.^[21][22]

Restrictions on women’s rights also remained a major point of contention. Laws governing dress codes, family law, and public conduct limited aspects of women’s participation in public life, while activists inside and outside Iran criticized these policies as discriminatory. Protests over compulsory hijab rules and broader social restrictions became a recurring feature of domestic unrest during Khamenei’s leadership.^[4][3]

Large-scale protest movements periodically erupted throughout Khamenei’s tenure and were frequently met with strong responses from security institutions including the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps and the Basij militia. Demonstrations occurred in several waves, including the disputed presidential election protests of 2009 and nationwide protests following the death of Mahsa Amini in 2022. In January 2026, widespread demonstrations across Iran were suppressed by security forces in a crackdown that independent investigators and medical networks estimated may have resulted in tens of thousands of deaths nationwide.^[15][4]

Treatment of homosexuals[edit | edit source]

Iranian law criminalizes same-sex sexual relations under provisions of the Islamic Penal Code derived from interpretations of Islamic jurisprudence. The legal framework of the Islamic Republic classifies sexual relations between men as a serious criminal offense that may carry severe penalties, including corporal punishment and capital punishment in certain circumstances. Human rights organizations and international observers have reported that individuals accused of homosexual conduct have faced prosecution and imprisonment under these laws.^[23][24]

Executions related to charges involving same-sex conduct have been reported by human rights organizations and international media, although Iranian authorities often frame such prosecutions under broader criminal charges including rape or other sexual offenses. Critics argue that the legal structure allows authorities to impose severe punishments against individuals based on sexual orientation, while Iranian officials maintain that the laws reflect the country’s religious and cultural principles rooted in the legal framework of the Islamic Republic.^[24][23]

Iran has also attracted international attention for its unusual legal distinction between homosexuality and gender transition. While same-sex relationships are criminalized, gender reassignment surgery is legally permitted and in some cases subsidized by the state. Analysts and human rights advocates have argued that this policy has created pressure on some individuals to pursue gender transition in order to avoid criminal penalties associated with homosexual relationships.^[23][24]

Fatwas and religious rulings[edit | edit source]

As Supreme Leader, Khamenei exercised both political authority and religious authority within the Islamic Republic. In addition to directing state policy, he issued religious rulings known as fatwas, which are legal opinions under Islamic jurisprudence that guide the conduct of believers. Within Iran’s political system, such rulings could influence government policy when they addressed matters of national law, public morality, or security policy. Khamenei’s religious authority was therefore intertwined with the constitutional doctrine of velayat-e faqih, which places ultimate political authority in the hands of a senior Islamic jurist.^[25][13]

One of the most widely cited rulings attributed to Khamenei concerned nuclear weapons. Iranian officials repeatedly stated that the Supreme Leader had issued a religious ruling declaring the production and use of nuclear weapons forbidden under Islamic law. Iranian authorities cited this ruling as evidence that the country’s nuclear program was intended solely for civilian purposes. Western governments and analysts often questioned the legal status and practical implications of the ruling, noting that the fatwa was presented primarily through public statements rather than a formal written decree.^[26][13]

Khamenei also issued religious guidance concerning social conduct and public morality. Iranian law regulating dress codes, gender interaction, and social behavior reflected interpretations of Islamic jurisprudence endorsed by the clerical leadership of the Islamic Republic. These rulings were often enforced through state institutions including the judiciary and security forces responsible for implementing moral regulations and other provisions derived from the country’s legal framework.^[22][21]

Religious rulings issued by the Supreme Leader were also used to frame political issues within a broader ideological narrative. Statements from Khamenei frequently portrayed global political conflicts as struggles between Islamic societies and Western political dominance, reinforcing the ideological foundations of the Islamic Republic and its opposition to foreign influence in the region.^[14][22]

Political crises[edit | edit source]

Several major political crises occurred during Khamenei’s tenure as Supreme Leader, reflecting tensions between the governing structure of the Islamic Republic and segments of Iranian society seeking political reform or expanded civil liberties. These episodes often involved mass demonstrations and were typically met with strong responses from the country’s security institutions, including the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps and the Basij militia.^[13][12]

1999 student protests[edit | edit source]

One of the earliest major challenges to the government during Khamenei’s leadership occurred in 1999, when student demonstrations erupted in Tehran and several other cities following the closure of a reformist newspaper. The protests quickly expanded into broader demonstrations calling for political reform and greater civil liberties. Security forces responded by dispersing demonstrators and arresting large numbers of participants. The unrest marked one of the first significant confrontations between reform-oriented movements and the political structure of the Islamic Republic after the revolution.^[27][13]

2009 presidential election protests[edit | edit source]

The disputed Iranian presidential election of 2009 produced one of the largest protest movements since the 1979 revolution. Demonstrations began after opposition supporters alleged that the official results of the election had been manipulated. Millions of Iranians participated in demonstrations in Tehran and other cities, which became known internationally as the Green Movement. The government responded with mass arrests and security operations aimed at restoring control, and the protests were eventually suppressed.^[28][13]

Mahsa Amini protests[edit | edit source]

Nationwide demonstrations again erupted in 2022 following the death of Mahsa Amini, a young Iranian woman who had been detained by the country’s morality police for allegedly violating compulsory hijab regulations. The incident sparked widespread protests across Iran, with demonstrators calling for broader political and social reforms. The protests represented one of the most sustained challenges to the authority of the Islamic Republic during Khamenei’s rule.^[3][4]

Public diplomacy[edit | edit source]

Public messaging and ideological communication formed an important component of Khamenei’s leadership. As Supreme Leader he frequently delivered speeches addressing domestic audiences, religious gatherings, and international issues. These speeches were widely disseminated through Iran’s state broadcasting system and through official government media outlets. Khamenei’s public statements often framed political conflicts in ideological terms, presenting the Islamic Republic as part of a broader struggle against Western political influence and what he described as global injustice directed toward Muslim societies.^[14][29]

Khamenei also sought to cultivate support among audiences beyond Iran through statements directed at Muslim communities and political movements in other countries. Iranian officials described these efforts as part of the country’s broader foreign policy of supporting what they termed “resistance” against foreign domination. Critics, particularly in Western governments, argued that Iranian messaging often encouraged confrontation with Western political influence and reinforced ideological divisions within the region.^[12][17]

Iran’s state media system played a central role in amplifying these messages. Television networks, newspapers, and official online platforms regularly broadcast speeches and statements from the Supreme Leader. Through these channels, the government promoted narratives emphasizing national independence, resistance to foreign pressure, and the ideological foundations of the Islamic Republic.^[29][13]

Khamenei also used public appearances, religious sermons, and cultural messaging to reinforce the ideological identity of the Islamic Republic. These communications often connected contemporary political conflicts with historical narratives drawn from Islamic history and the Iranian revolution, portraying the state as part of a continuing struggle to defend religious governance and national sovereignty.^[14][29]

See also[edit | edit source]

• Ali Khamenei
• 1989 Iranian Supreme Leader election
• Supreme Leader of Iran
• Islamic Republic of Iran
• Iranian Revolution
• Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps
• Iran–Israel relations
• Iran–United States relations

References[edit | edit source]