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Artemis program

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Artemis program
File:Artemis program (original with wordmark).svg
Program overview
CountryUnited States
OrganizationNASA and partners: ESA, JAXA, DLR, UKSA, ASI, ISA, MBRSC, KARI, and CSA
PurposeSustainable crewed lunar exploration
StatusOngoing
Program history
CostUS$93 billion (2012–2025),
$53 billion in 2021–2025[1]
Durationsince 2017; 9 years ago (2017)[2]
First flightArtemis I (November 16, 2022)[3][4]
First crewed flightArtemis II (April 1, 2026)
Launch site(s)
Vehicle information
Crewed vehicle(s)
Crew capacity4[5]
Launch vehicle(s)
Part of a series on the
United States Space Program
File:NASA logo.svgFile:United States Space Force logo.svg
Human spaceflight programs
Robotic spaceflight programs
NASA Astronaut Corps
Spaceports
Eastern Range
Space launch vehicles
National security space
Civil space
Commercial space industry

The Artemis program is a Moon exploration program led by the United States' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), formally established in 2017 through Space Policy Directive 1. By 2028, the program aims to land humans on the Moon for the first time since Apollo 17 in 1972. It also intends to establish a permanent base on the Moon in the 2030s, as a stepping stone to human missions to deeper space.

Among the principal elements of the Artemis program are Space Shuttle–derived hardware, such as the Space Launch System's (SLS) core stage, its RS-25 engines, and solid rocket boosters, as well as systems originating in the canceled Constellation program, including the Orion spacecraft (now paired with the European Service Module instead of a U.S.–built module) and booster upgrades initially developed for Ares V. Other elements, such as the Human Landing System (HLS), are in development by private spaceflight companies under contract. International collaborations are bound by the Artemis Accords.

Artemis I saw an uncrewed Orion orbit the Moon in 2022. In 2026, Artemis II sent four astronauts on a lunar flyby, returning humans to deep space and the lunar neighborhood for the first time since Apollo 17. Artemis III, scheduled for 2027, is set to test an HLS lunar lander in Earth orbit; it was planned as the first lunar landing of the program until 2026, when the landing was pushed to Artemis IV, targeted for 2028. Afterward, NASA intends yearly lunar landings to develop a permanent lunar base.

Overview[edit | edit source]

The Artemis program is organized around a series of missions of increasing complexity, intended to be spaced about a year apart. NASA and its partners have planned missions Artemis I through Artemis V, with additional missions proposed. Each numbered mission centers on launching an SLS rocket carrying an Orion spacecraft. Missions after Artemis II will also rely on support missions by other organizations and spacecraft. Referred to under the name Lunar Codex, Artemis missions have also contemplated sending to the moon an archive of cultural works from creators across the globe.[9]

The core infrastructure of Artemis consists of SLS, Orion, and the HLS. Additional program elements include the Commercial Lunar Payload Services, Exploration Ground Systems, Artemis Base Camp, the Lunar Terrain Vehicle, and spacesuit development.[10][11][12] Certain program choices, including the use of a near-rectilinear halo orbit and long-term sustainability plans, have drawn criticism.

Orion's first launch on SLS, originally scheduled for 2016, was delayed repeatedly and ultimately flew on November 16, 2022, as Artemis I, carrying mannequins and robotic payloads. The crewed Artemis II (lunar fly-by) mission flew on April 1, 2026. The future Artemis III (Earth orbit) for mid-2027, Artemis IV (lunar landing) for early 2028 and Artemis V (lunar landing) for late 2028. NASA plans approximately annual lunar landings thereafter.[13]

SLS missions[edit | edit source]

  • Artemis I (November 16, 2022) was the first uncrewed test flight of the SLS, Orion, and ESM.[i] The mission sent Orion into a polar distant retrograde lunar orbit for about six days before returning to Earth, where the capsule re-entered the atmosphere and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean under parachutes.[14] Although the mission was successful overall, Orion's ablative heat shield experienced greater-than-expected erosion during reentry.[15]
  • Artemis II (April 1, 2026) is the first crewed test flight of SLS and the Orion spacecraft.[16] The four crew members will perform extensive testing in Earth orbit, and Orion will then be boosted into a free-return trajectory around the Moon, which will return Orion to Earth for re-entry and splashdown. The mission is comparable to Apollo 8, although Artemis II is planned to swing around the Moon at a much greater distance than the Apollo flights. Launch occurred on April 1, 2026.[16][17][18]
  • Artemis III (mid-2027) is planned to be the second crewed Artemis mission. The crew will launch aboard SLS/Orion and conduct rendezvous and docking tests in low Earth orbit with one or both commercially developed lunar landers launched separately—SpaceX's Starship HLS and Blue Origin's Blue Moon—as well as test the Axiom Extravehicular Mobility Unit (AxEMU) space suit.[13][19] The mission is comparable to Apollo 9.
  • Artemis IV (early 2028) is planned to be the first American crewed lunar landing since Apollo 17 in December 1972.[16] This mission will be the first to use a "standardized" configuration of the SLS rocket with a commercially developed upper stage replacing the ICPS. The mission depends on a prior support flight to place a lander in lunar orbit before the launch of SLS/Orion. After arrival, astronauts will transfer to the lander for descent to the lunar surface, conduct at least two extravehicular activities (EVAs), and then return to lunar orbit for rendezvous with Orion. Orion will subsequently return the four astronauts to Earth. Launch is scheduled for no earlier than early 2028.[13][20]
  • Artemis V (late 2028) is planned to be the second crewed lunar landing. This mission also is when NASA is expected to begin building its Moon base.[13]

Support missions[edit | edit source]

Support missions deliver robotic payloads, Gateway modules, HLS vehicles, and elements of the lunar base. Most are executed under NASA contracts with commercial providers.

Under the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program, robotic landers launched on commercial rockets deliver equipment to the lunar surface. CLPS flights began in 2024, initially carrying scientific instruments, and will continue throughout the Artemis program to support crewed operations, including the delivery of Moon base modules, lunar rovers, and other surface equipment.

The Human Landing System (HLS) vehicles—SpaceX's Starship HLS and Blue Origin's Blue Moon—both currently in development, are designed to transport astronauts from lunar orbit to the surface, support them during surface operations, and return them to lunar orbit. They will launch separately from Orion on commercial launch vehicles instead of SLS.

The Lunar Gateway space station was planned to support crewed Orion dockings, host logistics modules, and assist with lunar operations. The Lunar Gateway program was canceled in March 2026 and is no longer included in Artemis mission planning. Under earlier plans, the first two Gateway modules, the Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) and the Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO), were to be launched together on a Falcon Heavy. Additional modules were to be delivered on SLS launches alongside Orion, with resupply provided by the Dragon XL spacecraft.

History[edit | edit source]

File:Altair-orion.jpg
An artist's rendering of the lunar module (left) and Orion spacecraft envisioned during the Constellation program

Early history[edit | edit source]

The Artemis program incorporates several major components of previously cancelled NASA programs and missions, including the Constellation program and the Asteroid Redirect Mission.

Originally legislated by the NASA Authorization Act of 2005, as the retirement of the Space Shuttle drew near, the Constellation program included the development of the Ares I and Ares V rockets along with the Orion spacecraft.[21] In May 2009, U.S. president Barack Obama established the Augustine Committee to take into account several objectives including support for the International Space Station, development of missions beyond low Earth orbit (including the Moon, Mars, and near-Earth objects), and use of the commercial space industry within defined budget limits.[22] The committee concluded that the Constellation program was massively underfunded and that a 2020 Moon landing was impossible. Constellation was subsequently put on hold.[23]

On April 15, 2010, President Obama spoke at the Kennedy Space Center, announcing the administration's plans for NASA and cancelling the non-Orion elements of Constellation, saying that the program was not viable.[24] He instead proposed US$6 billion in additional funding and called for the development of a new heavy-lift rocket program to be ready for construction by 2015 with crewed missions to Mars orbit by the mid-2030s.[25]

On October 11, 2010, President Obama signed into law the NASA Authorization Act of 2010, which included requirements for the immediate development of the SLS rocket and the Orion spacecraft to support missions beyond low Earth orbit starting in 2016, while making use of the workforce, assets, and capabilities of the Space Shuttle program, Constellation program, and other NASA programs. The law also invested in space technologies and robotics capabilities tied to the overall space exploration framework, ensured continued support for Commercial Orbital Transportation Services, Commercial Resupply Services, and expanded the Commercial Crew Development program.[26]

On June 30, 2017, President Donald Trump signed an executive order to re-establish the National Space Council, chaired by Vice President Mike Pence. The administration's first budget request kept Obama-era human spaceflight programs in place: Commercial Resupply Services, Commercial Crew Development, the Space Launch System, and the Orion spacecraft for deep space missions, while reducing Earth science research and calling for the elimination of NASA's education office.[27]

Redefinition and naming as Artemis[edit | edit source]

On December 11, 2017, President Trump signed Space Policy Directive 1, calling for a U.S.-led program for a human return to the Moon, followed by missions to Mars and beyond. The policy calls for the NASA administrator to "lead an innovative and sustainable program of exploration with commercial and international partners to enable human expansion across the Solar System and to bring back to Earth new knowledge and opportunities". The effort intends to more effectively organize government, private industry, and international efforts toward returning humans to the Moon and working toward eventual human exploration of Mars.[28]

Space Policy Directive 1 authorized the lunar-focused campaign, later named Artemis, drawing upon legacy U.S. programs, including the Orion space capsule, the Lunar Gateway space station, and Commercial Lunar Payload Services, and created the new Human Landing System program. The Space Launch System was expected to serve as the primary launch vehicle for Orion, while commercial launch vehicles were to launch various other elements of the program.[29]

File:EFT-1 Orion recovery.5.jpg
The Orion capsule in the Pacific Ocean, following the Exploration Flight Test-1 mission

On March 26, 2019, Pence announced that NASA's Moon landing goal would be accelerated by four years with a planned landing in 2024.[30] On May 16, 2019, NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine announced that the new program would be named Artemis, after the goddess of the Moon in Greek mythology who is the twin sister of Apollo, after which NASA's 1960's moon landing program was named.[31][32] Mars missions by the 2030s were still intended as of May 2019.[2]

In mid-2019, NASA requested US$1.6 billion in additional funding for Artemis for fiscal year 2020,[33] while the Senate Appropriations Committee requested from NASA a five-year budget profile[34] which is needed for evaluation and approval by Congress.[35][36]

In February 2020, the White House requested a funding increase of 12% to cover the Artemis program as part of its fiscal year 2021 budget. The total budget would have been US$25.2 billion per year with US$3.7 billion dedicated toward a Human Landing System. NASA chief financial officer Jeff DeWit said he thought the agency had "a very good shot" to get this budget through Congress despite Democratic concerns around the program.[37] However, in July 2020, the House Appropriations Committee rejected the White House's requested funding increase.[38] The bill proposed in the House dedicated only US$700 million toward the Human Landing System, 81% (US$3 billion) short of the requested amount.[39]

In April 2020, NASA awarded funding to Blue Origin, Dynetics, and SpaceX for 10-month-long preliminary design studies for the HLS.[40][41][42]

On February 4, 2021, the Biden administration endorsed the Artemis program.[43] More specifically, White House Press Secretary Jen Psaki expressed the Biden administration's "support [for] this effort and endeavor".[44][45][46] However, throughout February 2021, Acting Administrator of NASA Steve Jurczyk reiterated those budget concerns when asked about the project's schedule,[47][48] clarifying that "The 2024 lunar landing goal may no longer be a realistic target [...]".[49]

On April 16, 2021, NASA contracted SpaceX to develop, manufacture, and fly two lunar landing flights with the Starship HLS lunar lander.[50] Blue Origin and Dynetics protested the award to the Government Accountability Office (GAO) on April 26.[51][52] After the GAO rejected the protests,[53] Blue Origin sued NASA over the award,[54][55] and NASA agreed to stop work on the contract until November 1 as the lawsuit proceeded. The judge dismissed the suit on November 4, and NASA resumed work with SpaceX.[56]

On November 15, 2021, an audit of NASA's Office of Inspector General estimated the true cost of the Artemis program at about $93 billion until 2025.[1]

In addition to the initial SpaceX contract, NASA awarded two rounds of separate contracts in May 2019[57] and September 2021,[58] on aspects of the HLS to encourage alternative designs, separately from the initial HLS development effort. It announced in March 2022 that it was developing new sustainability rules and pursuing both a Starship HLS upgrade (an option under the initial SpaceX contract) and new competing alternative designs. These came after criticism from members of Congress over the lack of redundancy and competition, and led NASA to ask for additional support.[59][60]

Missions[edit | edit source]

Main article: List of Artemis missions
Mission and patch Launch date Crew Lander vehicle Duration Goal Status
Artemis I
File:Artemis I Patch.svg 		November 16, 2022[61][4] — — 25 days[62] Uncrewed lunar orbit and return Success
Artemis II
File:Artemis II patch.svg 		April 1, 2026
— 10 days[63] Crewed lunar flyby Inbound to the Moon
Artemis III Mid-2027[13] TBA Blue Moon and/or Starship HLS TBA Crewed test of HLS in low Earth orbit Planned
Artemis IV Early 2028[13] TBA[ii] Blue Moon or Starship HLS ~30 days Lunar landing Planned
Artemis V Late 2028[13] TBA[iii] Blue Moon or Starship HLS ~30 days Lunar landing, begin moonbase construction Planned

Orion test flights[edit | edit source]

Further information: Orion (spacecraft) § Flights

A prototype version of the Orion Crew Module was launched on Exploration Flight Test-1 on December 5, 2014[66][67] atop a Delta IV Heavy rocket. Its reaction control system and other components were tested during two medium Earth orbits, reaching an apogee of 5,800 km (3,600 mi) and crossing the Van Allen radiation belts before making a high-energy re-entry at 32,000 km/h (20,000 mph).[68][69]

The Ascent Abort-2 test on July 2, 2019, tested the final iteration of the launch abort system on a 10,000 kg (22,000 lb) Orion boilerplate at maximum aerodynamic load,[70][71][72] using a custom Minotaur IV-derived launch vehicle built by Orbital ATK.[72][73]

Artemis I (2022)[edit | edit source]

Further information: Artemis I
File:Orion off the coast of Baja California.jpg
Orion shortly after splashdown in the Pacific Ocean on December 11, 2022.

Artemis I was originally scheduled for late 2016, and as delays accrued, eventually for late 2021, but the launch date was then pushed back to August 29, 2022.[74] Various delays related to final infrastructure repairs and weather pushed the launch date further out.[75]

In October 2022, NASA launch managers decided on a new launch date in November, which was again slightly delayed due to preparation and weather.[76][61][4] On November 16 at 01:47:44 EST (06:47:44 UTC), Artemis I successfully launched from the Kennedy Space Center.[77]

Artemis I was completed at 09:40 PST (17:40 UTC) on December 11, when the Orion spacecraft splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, west of Baja California, after a record-breaking mission, which saw Artemis travel more than 2.3 million kilometers (1.4 million miles) on a path around the Moon before returning safely to Earth. The splashdown occurred 50 years to the day since NASA's Apollo 17 Moon landing, the last human crewed mission to touch down on the lunar surface.[78]

Artemis II (2026)[edit | edit source]

Page 'Artemis II' not found

Artemis III (2027)[edit | edit source]

Page 'Artemis III' not found

Artemis IV (early 2028)[edit | edit source]

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Artemis 4.[edit]

Artemis 4 (officially Artemis IV) is planned to be the third crewed mission and first lunar landing of the NASA-led Artemis program, marking the first crewed landing on the Moon since Apollo 17 in 1972. It will be the first mission to use the standardized configuration of the Space Launch System (SLS), with a Centaur V upper stage in place of the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (ICPS) flown on the previous SLS launches.[79][80] The SLS will send an Orion spacecraft carrying the astronaut crew members to lunar orbit.

The mission depends on a prior support flight to place a lunar lander—either SpaceX's Starship HLS or Blue Origin's Blue Moon—into lunar orbit before the crew launch. When Orion docks with the lander the crew will transfer to it, descend to the lunar surface and conduct extravehicular activities (EVAs) there. They will then ascend back to the Orion waiting in lunar orbit, which will return the four astronauts to Earth. As of March 2026, launch is scheduled for May 2028.[79]

Before February 2026, Artemis IV was proposed as the program's second lunar landing mission, sending an Orion with four astronauts to the Lunar Gateway space station, where they would install the I-Hab module, before heading down to the lunar surface.

Artemis V (late 2028)[edit | edit source]

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Artemis 5.[edit]

Artemis 5 (officially Artemis V) is planned to be the fourth crewed mission and second lunar landing of the NASA-led Artemis program. The mission is expected to see the first efforts by NASA to begin building a permanent Moon base. As of March 2026, launch is scheduled for late 2028.[81]

Originally, Artemis V was proposed as the program's third lunar landing mission, sending an Orion spacecraft with four astronauts to the now-cancelled Lunar Gateway space station, where they would install two elements, before heading down to the Lunar surface.[82]

Supporting programs[edit | edit source]

Commercial Lunar Payload Services[edit | edit source]

This section is an excerpt from Commercial Lunar Payload Services.[edit]
File:NASA Selects First Commercial Moon Landing Services for Artemis Program (47974872533).jpg
Models of the first three commercial landers selected for the program. Left to right: Peregrine by Astrobotic Technology, Nova-C by Intuitive Machines, and Z-01 by OrbitBeyond.

Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) is a NASA program to contract transportation services able to send small robotic landers and rovers to the Moon's south polar region mostly[83][84] with the goals of scouting for lunar resources, testing in situ resource utilization (ISRU) concepts, and performing lunar science to support the Artemis lunar program. CLPS is intended to buy end-to-end payload services between Earth and the lunar surface using fixed priced contracts.[85][86] The program was extended to add support for large payloads starting after 2025.

NASA's Science Mission Directorate operates the CLPS program in conjunction with the Human Exploration and Operations and Space Technology Mission Directorates. NASA expects the contractors to provide all activities necessary to safely integrate, accommodate, transport, and operate NASA payloads, including launch vehicles, lunar lander spacecraft, lunar surface systems, Earth re-entry vehicles and associated resources.[86]

To date, eight missions have been contracted under the program (not counting one mission contract that was revoked after awarding).

Artemis Accords[edit | edit source]

This section is an excerpt from Artemis Accords.[edit]
File:ArtemisAccords-10-12-2021 (Crimea disputed).svg
Participation in the Artemis Accords

The Artemis Accords are a series of bilateral agreements between the United States government and other world governments participating in the Artemis Program, an American-led effort to return humans to the Moon by 2025, with the ultimate goal of expanding space exploration to Mars and beyond.[87] As of July 2022, 21 countries and one territory have signed the accords, including eight in Europe, seven in Asia, three in North America, two in Oceania and two in South America.

Drafted by NASA and the U.S. Department of State, the Accords establish a framework for cooperation in the civil exploration and peaceful use of the Moon, Mars, and other astronomical objects.[88] They are explicitly grounded in the United Nations Outer Space Treaty of 1967, which signatories are obliged to uphold, and cite most major U.N.-brokered conventions constituting space law.[89][90][91][92][93]

The Accords were signed on 13 October 2020 by representatives of the national space agencies of eight countries: Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the United States.[94] Additional signatories include Ukraine, South Korea, New Zealand, Brazil, Poland, Mexico, Israel, Romania, Bahrain, Singapore, Colombia, France and Saudi Arabia. The Accords remain open for signature indefinitely, as NASA anticipates other nations will join.[95] Additional signatories[clarification needed] to the Accords may not directly be involved in the Artemis Program, but have nevertheless committed to the principles set out in the Accords.

Exploration Ground Systems (EGS)[edit | edit source]

This section is an excerpt from Exploration Ground Systems.[edit]
File:EGSLogoTwitter.png
Exploration Ground Systems logo
NASA's Exploration Ground Systems (EGS) Program is one of three programs based at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida. EGS was established to develop and operate the systems and facilities necessary to process and launch rockets and spacecraft during assembly, transport and launch.[96] EGS is preparing the infrastructure to support NASA's Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and its payloads, such as the Orion spacecraft for Artemis I.[97][98] Artemis I is the first in a series of increasingly complex missions that will enable human exploration to the Moon and Mars.[99][100][101]

Supporting Earth-launch vehicles[edit | edit source]

As of the early mission concepts outlined by NASA in May 2020 and refined by the HLS contract award in July 2021, the primary Earth-launch vehicles planned to support the Artemis program will include the NASA Space Launch System for the Orion vehicle, the Falcon Heavy for various components of the Lunar Gateway,[102] and the Starship HLS configuration for the eventual delivery of the HLS vehicle. Other standard SpaceX Starships may be used later to meet other and yet to be determined crew and/or cargo handling mission needs.[103] Additional launch vehicles will also be employed later for CLPS cargo services. The European Ariane 6 has been proposed to be part of the program in July 2019.[104]

The Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) module and the Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO) of the Gateway, which were previously planned for the SLS Block 1B,[105] will now fly together on a Falcon Heavy in 2027.[106][107][108] The Gateway will be supported and resupplied by approximately 28 commercial cargo missions launched by undetermined commercial launch vehicles.[109] The Gateway Logistics Services (GLS) will be in charge of resupply missions.[109] GLS has also contracted for the construction of a resupply vehicle, Dragon XL, capable of remaining docked to the Gateway for one year of operations, providing and generating its own power while docked, and capable of autonomous disposal at the end of its mission.[109][110][111]

In May 2019, the plan was for components of a crewed lunar lander to be deployed to the Gateway on commercial launchers before the arrival of the first crewed mission, Artemis III.[112] An alternative approach where the HLS and Orion dock together directly was discussed.[113][114]

As late as mid-2019, NASA considered use of Delta IV Heavy and Falcon Heavy to launch a crewed Orion mission given SLS delays.[115] Given the complexity of conversion to a different vehicle, the agency ultimately decided to use only the SLS to launch astronauts.[8]

Launch vehicles
Launch
vehicle 		Missions Payload Estimated cost
per launch 		First launch
LEO TLI
Space Launch System Crew transportation 95 t 27 t US$2 billion November 16, 2022[4]
Starship Starship HLS 200 t[116] 200 t[a] US$2 million (goal)[117][b] April 20, 2023[118]
New Glenn Blue Moon 45 t 7 t $68 million January 16, 2025[119]
  1. ^ requires refueling in LEO
  2. ^ Per launch. May require refueling launches

LEO: Low Earth Orbit
TLI: Trans-Lunar Injection

Space Launch System[edit | edit source]

File:Artemis II Rollout (NHQ202601170047) (cropped).jpg
SLS Block 1B at Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B for Artemis II.
This section is an excerpt from Space Launch System.[edit]

The Space Launch System (abbreviated as SLS) is an American super heavy-lift expendable launch vehicle under development by NASA since 2011. The first launch, designated Artemis 1, is scheduled for 14 November 2022 from Kennedy Space Center.[120][121] It replaces the Ares I and Ares V launch vehicles, which were cancelled along with the rest of the Constellation program, a previous program aimed to return to the Moon.[122][123][124] The SLS is intended to become the successor to the retired Saturn V, and the primary launch vehicle of NASA's deep space exploration plans through the 2020s.[125][126][127] Crewed lunar flights are planned as part of the Artemis program, leading to a possible human mission to Mars.[128][129] The SLS is being developed in three major phases with increasing capabilities: Block 1, Block 1B, and Block 2.[130] As of August 2019, SLS Block 1 launch vehicles are to launch the first three Artemis missions and[131] five subsequent SLS flights are planned to use Block 1B, after which all flights will use Block 2.[132][129][133]

The SLS is planned to launch the Orion spacecraft as part of the Artemis program, making use of the ground operations and launch facilities at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Artemis is projected to use at most one SLS each year until at least 2030.[134] SLS will launch from LC-39B at the Kennedy Space Center.

The first launch was originally mandated by Congress for December 2016,[135] but it has been delayed by almost six years to the original six-year schedule.[note 1]

After the first four Artemis missions, NASA plans to transfer production and launching of the Space Launch System to Deep Space Transport LLC, a joint venture between Boeing and Northrop Grumman.[136]

SpaceX Starship[edit | edit source]

Main article: SpaceX Starship

The SpaceX Starship system is a fully-reusable super heavy-lift Earth-launch system which is under development. It consists of a first-stage booster named Super-Heavy and a second-stage space vehicle which is generally named Starship and which will have several variants. A Starship HLS mission will use three variants: a tanker, a propellant depot, and the Starship HLS itself which will be designed only for lunar landings and takeoffs, and not for Earth landings. Some variants will be able to return to Earth for reuse.

The second-stage Starships are fully self-contained spacecraft, complete with their own propulsion systems. The combined Starship system using standard Starship variants for its second-stage is planned to launch crews and cargo, which may then be used to support the various developmental needs of the Artemis program, and also to support the needs of other NASA and SpaceX programs.

The SpaceX Starship is also qualified to be bid for Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) launches, and in 2021 was the winning NASA bid for a crewed lunar landing.[137][138][139]

Space vehicles[edit | edit source]

Orion[edit | edit source]

Main article: Orion (spacecraft)
File:ArtemisI Orion EMI Feb.jpg
NASA's Orion spacecraft undergoing final tests

Orion is a class of partially reusable spacecraft to be used in the Artemis program. The spacecraft consists of a Crew Module (CM) space capsule designed by Lockheed Martin and the European Service Module (ESM) manufactured by Airbus Defence and Space. Capable of supporting a crew of six beyond low Earth orbit, Orion is equipped with solar panels, an automated docking system, and glass cockpit interfaces modeled after those used in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. It has a single AJ10 engine for primary propulsion, and others including reaction control system engines. Although designed to be compatible with other launch vehicles, Orion is primarily intended to launch atop a Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, with a tower launch escape system.

Orion was originally conceived by Lockheed Martin as a proposal for the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) to be used in NASA's Constellation program. Following the cancellation of the Constellation program in 2010, Orion was heavily redesigned for use in NASA's Journey to Mars initiative; later named Moon to Mars. The SLS replaced the Ares I as Orion's primary launch vehicle, and the service module was replaced with a design based on the European Space Agency's Automated Transfer Vehicle. A development version of Orion's CM was launched in 2014 during Exploration Flight Test-1, while at least four test articles were produced. By 2022, three flight-worthy Orion crew modules have been built, with an additional one ordered, for use in the Artemis program; the first of these was due to be launched on November 30, 2020, however, Artemis I did not launch until November 16, 2022.

Human Landing System (HLS)[edit | edit source]

This section is an excerpt from Artemis program.[edit]

The Artemis program is a Moon exploration program led by the United States' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), formally established in 2017 through Space Policy Directive 1. By 2028, the program aims to land humans on the Moon for the first time since Apollo 17 in 1972. It also intends to establish a permanent base on the Moon in the 2030s, as a stepping stone to human missions to deeper space.

Among the principal elements of the Artemis program are Space Shuttle–derived hardware, such as the Space Launch System's (SLS) core stage, its RS-25 engines, and solid rocket boosters, as well as systems originating in the canceled Constellation program, including the Orion spacecraft (now paired with the European Service Module instead of a U.S.–built module) and booster upgrades initially developed for Ares V. Other elements, such as the Human Landing System (HLS), are in development by private spaceflight companies under contract. International collaborations are bound by the Artemis Accords.

Artemis I saw an uncrewed Orion orbit the Moon in 2022. In 2026, Artemis II sent four astronauts on a lunar flyby, returning humans to deep space and the lunar neighborhood for the first time since Apollo 17. Artemis III, scheduled for 2027, is set to test an HLS lunar lander in Earth orbit; it was planned as the first lunar landing of the program until 2026, when the landing was pushed to Artemis IV, targeted for 2028. Afterward, NASA intends yearly lunar landings to develop a permanent lunar base.

Lunar Gateway (cancelled)[edit | edit source]

File:Lunar Gateway rendering 2.webp
Rendering of the assembled Lunar Gateway, 2024 design
File:Gateway Lunar Space Station Configuration (jsc2024e041788 (1)).jpg
Gateway design architecture in 2024
This section is an excerpt from Lunar Gateway.[edit]

The Lunar Gateway, or simply Gateway, is a planned small space station in lunar orbit intended to serve as a solar-powered communication hub, science laboratory, short-term habitation module for government-agency astronauts, as well as a holding area for rovers and other robots. It is a multinational collaborative project involving four of the International Space Station partner agencies: NASA, European Space Agency (ESA), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and Canadian Space Agency (CSA). It is planned to be both the first space station beyond low Earth orbit and the first space station to orbit the Moon.[140][141]

Formerly known as the Deep Space Gateway (DSG), the station was renamed Lunar Orbital Platform-Gateway (LOP-G) in NASA's 2018 proposal for the 2019 United States federal budget.[142][143] When the budgeting process was complete[when?], US$332 million had been committed by Congress to preliminary studies.[clarification needed][144][145][146]

The science disciplines to be studied on the Gateway are expected to include planetary science, astrophysics, Earth observation, heliophysics, fundamental space biology, and human health and performance.[147] Construction is planned to take place in the 2020s.[148][149][150] The International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG), which is composed of more than 14 space agencies including all the major ones, has concluded that Gateway will be critical in expanding human presence to the Moon, Mars, and deeper into the Solar System.[151]

The project is expected to play a major role in NASA's Artemis program, after 2024. While the project is led by NASA, the Gateway is meant to be developed, serviced, and utilized in collaboration with the CSA, ESA, JAXA, and commercial partners. It will serve as the staging point for both robotic and crewed exploration of the lunar south pole, and is the proposed staging point for NASA's Deep Space Transport concept for transport to Mars.[152][148][153]

Planned surface operations[edit | edit source]

File:Xemu-eva-Artemis.jpg
An artist's rendition of an Artemis astronaut wearing the xEMU spacesuit and xPLS life support backpack during an EVA on the Moon

The Artemis Base Camp will support missions of up to two months and will be used to study technologies to use on future Moon or Mars bases, and then future stationary modules may be used regularly for decades to come through both Government and commercial programs. Most probably it will be a site that has already been visited by prior robotic missions. It will consist of three main modules:

1. The Surface Habitat (SH) modules, which is the initial dwelling structure and a surface home base for the first residents of the Moon.

2. The Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV), which is an unpressurized rover cart for transporting suited astronauts and cargo around in the vicinity of the Base.

3. The Pressurized Rovers (PR), a pressurized vehicle complete with small backup habitation facilities, thus enabling multi-day and longer-range explorations tens of kilometers away from the Base.[154]

Transportation on the Moon[edit | edit source]

Landing zone[edit | edit source]

In 2022, NASA identified 13 candidate regions near the lunar South Pole for initial landing and inspection missions.[155]

Ground transportation development[edit | edit source]

Main article: Lunar Terrain Vehicle
File:NASA Lunar Terrain Vehicle.png
NASA's baseline Lunar Terrain Vehicle

In February 2020, NASA released two requests for information regarding both a crewed and uncrewed unpressurized surface rover. The latter, Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV) would be prepositioned by a CLPS vehicle before the Artemis III mission. It would be used to transport crews around the exploration site and serve a similar function to the Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle. In July 2020, NASA established a program office for the rover at the Johnson Space Center in Houston.[156]

NASA has specified its need for a Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV) that has a cargo capacity of 800 kg, traversal distances of up to 20 km without battery recharging, continuous operations for 8 hours within a 24-hour period, the ability to survive the lunar night, and the ability to traverse grades as steep as ±20 degrees.[154]

On April 3, 2024, NASA announced that Intuitive Machines, Lunar Outpost and Venturi Astrolab are the three companies developing the LTV in a 12-month feasibility and demo phase.[157] A source selection statement by NASA provided further details on cost and overall feasibility on April 9, 2024. The Intuitive Machines proposal was for $1.692 billion, Lunar Outpost for $1.727 billion and Astrolab for $1.928 billion to develop the vehicle.[158]

Shelter building construction[edit | edit source]

See also: NASA lunar outpost concepts and Moonbase
File:Artemis Base Camp.png
Artist's impression of Artemis Base Camp

The Artemis Base Camp is the proposed lunar base to be established at the end of the 2020s. The Base camp is to be located in the south pole region near the two adjacent Shackleton and de Gerlache craters,[159] due to this area's wide variety of lunar geography and also due to the abundance of water ice that is believed to exist in the lunar soils of the crater floors. The environs of these craters fall under the guidelines of the Outer Space Treaty.[156][160]

Foundational Surface Habitat[edit | edit source]

File:NASA Foundation Surface Habitat.png
A render of the Foundational Surface Habitat (stationary configuration)

Most of the information about the Surface Habitat (SH) modules comes from studies and launch manifests which include a reference to its launch. It will be commercially built and commercially launched in the early 2030s along with the Pressurized Vehicle (PV).[161] The SH was formerly referred to as the Artemis Surface Asset. Launch plans as of February 2020 showed that landing it on the surface would be similar to the HLS. The SH would be sent to the Gateway where it would then be attached to a descent stage and subsequently transported to the lunar surface with a commercial launcher and lander. It would use the same lunar transfer stage as used for the HLS. Other designs from 2019 envisioned it being launched from an SLS Block 1B as a single unit and landing directly on the surface. It would then be hooked up to a surface power system launched by a CLPS mission and tested by the Artemis VI crew.[156][162] The Italian Space Agency signed a contract with Thales Alenia Space in late 2023 for the Multi Purpose Habitation module, which may become the second module for the Artemis Base Camp.[163][164]

Resource prospecting and research programs[edit | edit source]

As of February 2020, a lunar stay during a Phase 1 Artemis mission will be about seven days and will have five extravehicular activities (EVA). A notional concept of operations, i.e., a hypothetical but possible plan, would include the following: On Day 1 of the stay, astronauts touchdown on the Moon but do not conduct an EVA. Instead, they prepare for the EVA scheduled for the next day, in what is referred to as "The Road to EVA".[165]

On Day 2, the astronauts open the hatch on the Human Landing System and embark on EVA 1, which will be six hours long. It will include collecting a contingency sample, conducting public affairs activities, deploying the experiment package, and acquiring samples. The astronauts will stay close to the landing site on this first EVA. EVA 2 begins on day 3. The astronauts characterize and collect samples from permanently shadowed regions. Unlike the previous EVA, the astronauts will go farther from the landing site, up to 2 kilometres (1.2 mi), and up and down slopes of 20°.[165]

Day 4 will not include an EVA, but Day 5 will. EVA 3 may include activities such as collecting samples from an ejecta blanket. Day 6 will have the two astronauts deploy a geotechnical instrument alongside an environmental monitoring station for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU). Day 7 will have the final and shortest EVA. This EVA will last one hour, rather than the others' six hours in duration from egress to ingress, and mostly comprises preparations for the lunar ascent, including jettisoning hardware. Once the final EVA is concluded, the astronauts will return to the Human Landing System and the vehicle will launch from the surface and join up with Orion/Gateway.[165]

Pressurized rover ("Mobile Habitat")[edit | edit source]

Main article: Lunar Cruiser
File:NASA Habitable Mobility Platform.png
NASA Habitable Mobility Platform based on the past Constellation Space Exploration Vehicle

The Pressurized Rover (PR) is a large, pressurized module used to enable crewed operation across large distances and live for multiple days. NASA had developed multiple pressurized rovers including what was formerly called the Space Exploration Vehicle (SEV). This rover was built for the Constellation program and was fabricated and then tested. In the 2020 flight manifest it was later referred to as the "Mobile Habitat" suggesting it could fill a similar role to the ILREC Lunar Bus. It would be ready for the crew to use on the surface but could also be autonomously controlled from the Gateway or other locations.

Mark Kirasich, who is the acting director of NASA's Advanced Exploration Systems, has stated that the current plan is to partner with JAXA and Toyota to develop a closed cabin rover to support crews for up to 14 days (currently known as Lunar Cruiser). "It's very important to our leadership at the moment to involve JAXA in a major surface element", he said. "... The Japanese, and their auto industry, have a very strong interest in rover-type things. So, there was an idea to—even though we have done a lot of work—to let the Japanese lead development of a pressurized rover. So right now, that's the direction we're heading in".

In regard to the PR, senior-lunar-scientist Clive Neal said "Under Constellation, NASA had a sophisticated rover put together. It's pretty sad if it's never going to get to the Moon". However Neal also said that he understands the different mission objectives between the Constellation Program and those of the Artemis Program, and the need of the Artemis Program to focus more on international collaboration.[156][166][167][168][169]

On April 9, 2024, it was announced that JAXA and NASA had signed an agreement stipulating that Japan would join the pressurized rover collaboration venture and would design, develop, and operate a rover for crewed and uncrewed exploration of the Moon. In return, NASA will provide the launch and delivery of the rover to the Moon, as well as providing seats for two Japanese astronaut missions to the lunar surface, with the goal of these astronauts being the first non-Americans to travel to the Moon's surface. The pressurized rover is planned to accommodate two astronauts for up to 30 days outside. NASA plans to use the pressurized rover from Artemis VII and subsequent missions, over an approximate 10 year lifespan.[170]

Spacesuits[edit | edit source]

File:Christina Koch in the Orion Crew Survival System suit.jpg
Christina Koch in the Orion Crew Survival System
File:Artemis III Lunar Spacesuit Testing (jsc2026e003928).jpg
Testing of the AxEMU (Axiom Extravehicular Mobility Unit)

The Artemis program will use two types of space suit first unveiled in October 2019: the Orion Crew Survival System (OCSS) for launch and entry,[171] and a next-generation extravehicular mobility unit (EMU).[172] On August 10, 2021, a NASA Office of Inspector General audit concluded that the Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit (xEMU) NASA was developing would not be ready until April 2025, likely delaying a lunar landing mission, then planned for late 2024.[173]

In response, NASA issued a request for proposals for commercially-developed lunar spacesuits.[174] On June 2, 2022, NASA selected Axiom Space and Collins Aerospace to develop suits under the new program.[175] In June 2024, Collins announced it would withdraw from the contract.[176] Development continued with Axiom's lunar suit, known as the AxEMU (Axiom Extravehicular Mobility Unit), which entered critical design review and testing phases in 2024.[177][178]

By February 2026, the AxEMU had passed internal reviews and was undergoing further evaluation by NASA, with assembly of the first flight unit underway following pressurized and underwater mobility testing.[179]

Criticism[edit | edit source]

The Artemis program has received criticism from several space professionals. Mark Whittington, who is a contributor to The Hill and an author of several space exploration studies, stated in an article that the "lunar orbit project doesn't help us get back to the Moon".[180] Whittington's comments echo the long-standing assertion that diverting to the Moon after the success of the Apollo Program in the 1960s and 1970s will divert from rather than enhance human-crewed space exploration.

Aerospace engineer, author, and Mars Society founder Robert Zubrin dislikes the Lunar Gateway component of Artemis. He presented an alternative approach to a 2024 crewed lander called "Moon Direct," a proposed successor to his Mars Direct. Zubrin envisions phasing out the SLS and Orion, replacing them with the SpaceX launch vehicles and the SpaceX Dragon 2. This would see ferry-lander refueling on the lunar surface via in situ resource utilization with crew transfer from LEO to the lunar surface. The concept resembles NASA's own Space Transportation System proposal from the 1970s.[181]

At least 15 launches will be required to refuel HLS in orbit per crewed mission.[182] In 2024, SpaceX's Jennifer Jensen stated on a call that Starship HLS will require ten launches.[183] Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin disagrees with NASA's lunar outpost plan. He questioned the benefit of "send[ing] a crew to an intermediate point in space, pick[ing] up a lander there and go[ing] down." Aldrin has expressed support for Zubrin's "Moon Direct."[184]

See also[edit | edit source]

Notes[edit | edit source]

  1. ^ An Orion capsule was flown in 2014, but not the entire Orion spacecraft.
  2. ^ Director General Josef Aschbacher stated one of the seats is reserved for the European Space Agency.[64][65]
  3. ^ Director General Josef Aschbacher stated two of the seats are reserved for the European Space Agency.[65][64]

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