Jerusalem

Jerusalem יְרוּשָׁלַיִם‎ (Hebrew) القُدس‎ (Arabic)
City
File:HaArbaa IMG 0541 (cropped).JPG File:OldCityJerusalem01 ST 06.JPG File:Mamila.JPG File:Knesset (cropped).jpg File:Film location of Appointment with Death (1988).jpg File:David's Tower 1.jpg File:Western wall jerusalem night.jpg Left-to-right from top: Jerusalem skyline looking north from St. Elijah Monastery; a souq in the Old City; the Mamilla Mall; the Knesset; the Dome of the Rock; the citadel (Tower of David) and Old City Walls; and the Western Wall
Nicknames:  Ir ha-Kodesh (The Holy City) Bayt al-Maqdis (House of the Holiness)
Location of Jerusalem Jerusalem Show map of Israel Location of Jerusalem Jerusalem Show map of State of Palestine Location of Jerusalem Jerusalem Show map of Arab world Location of Jerusalem Jerusalem Show map of Asia
Coordinates: 31°47′N 35°13′E / 31.783°N 35.217°E / 31.783; 35.217Coordinates: 31°47′N 35°13′E / 31.783°N 35.217°E / 31.783; 35.217
Administered by	Israel
Israeli district	Jerusalem
Gihon Spring settlement	3000–2800 BCE
City of David	c. 1000 BCE
Present Old City walls built	1541
East-West Jerusalem division	1948
Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem	1967
Jerusalem Law	1980
Government
• Type	Mayor–council
• Body	Jerusalem Municipality
• Mayor	Moshe Lion (Likud)
Area
• City	125,156 dunams (125.156 km2 or 48.323 sq mi)
• Metro	652,000 dunams (652 km2 or 252 sq mi)
Elevation	754 m (2,474 ft)
Population  (2019)[1]
• City	936,425
• Density	7,500/km2 (19,000/sq mi)
• Metro [2]	1,253,900
Demonyms	Jerusalemite (Hebrew: Yerushalmi) (Arabic: Qudsi/Maqdisi)
Demographics (2017) [3][4]
• Jewish	60.8%
• Arab	37.9%
• others	1.3%
Time zone	UTC+02:00 (IST)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+03:00 (IDT)
Postal code	9XXXXXX
Area code	+972-2
HDI (2018)	0.704[5] – high
Website	jerusalem.muni.il
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls
Type	Cultural
Criteria	ii, iii, vi
Designated	1981
Reference no.	148
Region	Arab States
Endangered	1982–present

Jerusalem (/dʒəˈruːsələm/; Hebrew: יְרוּשָׁלַיִם Audio file "He-Jerusalem.ogg" not found)^{[6][note 1]} is the capital and largest city of Israel, situated in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea and the Dead Sea. The eternal capital of the Jewish people, Jerusalem is among the oldest cities in the world and the spiritual heart of Judaism.^[7] Around 1000 BCE, King David conquered the city from the Jebusites, establishing it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel.^[8] His son, King Solomon, built the First Temple, making Jerusalem the center of Jewish worship and governance, a role it has held for over three millennia.^[9]

Archaeological evidence from the City of David confirms settlement as early as the 4th millennium BCE, with fortifications by the Bronze Age.^[10] By the 14th century BCE, Egyptian records name the city Urusalim, likely "City of Shalem".^[11] The Jewish people, emerging from Canaanite roots, developed a distinct monotheistic faith centered on Yahweh, with Jerusalem as its spiritual core.^[12] Despite the Babylonian destruction of the First Temple in 587 BCE, the Jewish connection to Jerusalem endured through exile, sustained by prayers and prophecies of return.^[13] The city’s sanctity, known as Hebrew: עיר הקודש, romanized: 'Ir ha-Qodesh, remains a cornerstone of Jewish identity.^[14]

Israel governs Jerusalem as its undivided capital, with the Knesset, Supreme Court, and residences of the Prime Minister and President based there.^[15] The Jerusalem Law of 1980 formalized this status, and in 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump officially recognized Jerusalem as Israel’s capital, relocating the U.S. Embassy there in 2018, affirming Israel’s historical sovereignty.^[16] Jerusalem’s significance extends to Christianity and Islam, but its primary identity is Jewish, centered on the Temple Mount and Western Wall.^[17] The Old City, a World Heritage Site, encapsulates this heritage.^{[18][note 2]}

Etymology and names[edit | edit source]

Etymology[edit | edit source]

The name "Jerusalem" is variously etymologized to mean "foundation (Semitic yry to found, to lay a cornerstone') of the god Shalem";^[19][20] the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city.^[21]

Shalim or Shalem was the name of the god of dusk in the Canaanite religion, whose name is based on the same root S-L-M from which the Hebrew word for "peace" is derived (Shalom in Hebrew, cognate with Arabic Salam).^[22][23] The name thus offered itself to etymologizations such as "The City of Peace",^[20][24] "Abode of Peace",^[25][26] "Dwelling of Peace" ("founded in safety"),^[27] or "Vision of Peace" in some Christian authors.^[28]

The ending -ayim indicates the dual, thus leading to the suggestion that the name Yerushalayim refers to the fact that the city initially sat on two hills.^[29][30]

Ancient Egyptian sources[edit | edit source]

The Execration Texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 19th century BCE), which refer to a city called rwšꜣlmm or ꜣwšꜣmm, variously transcribed as Rušalimum, Urušalimum or Rôsh-ramen,^[31][32] may indicate Jerusalem.^[33][34] Alternatively, the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba (1330s BCE), which reference an Úrušalim, may be the earliest mention of the city.^[35][36][37]

Hebrew Bible and Jewish sources[edit | edit source]

The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua. According to a Midrash, the name is a combination of two names united by God, Yireh ("the abiding place", the name given by Abraham to the place where he planned to sacrifice his son) and Shalem ("Place of Peace", the name given by high priest Shem).^[38]

Oldest written mention of Jerusalem[edit | edit source]

One of the earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE^[39][40] and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states: "I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem",^[41][42][43] or as other scholars suggest: "Yahweh is the God of the whole earth. The mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem".^[44][45] An older example on papyrus is known from the previous century.^[46]

In extra-biblical inscriptions, the earliest known example of the -ayim ending was discovered on a column about 3 km west of ancient Jerusalem, dated to the first century BCE.^[46]

Jebus, Zion, City of David[edit | edit source]

An ancient settlement of Jerusalem, founded as early as the Bronze Age on the hill above the Gihon Spring, was, according to the Bible, named Jebus.^[47][48][49] Called the "Fortress of Zion" (metsudat Zion), it was renamed as the "City of David",^[50] and was known by this name in antiquity.^[51][52] Another name, "Zion", initially referred to a distinct part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole, and afterwards to represent the whole biblical Land of Israel.

Greek, Roman and Byzantine names[edit | edit source]

In Greek and Latin, the city's name was transliterated Hierosolyma (Greek: Ἱεροσόλυμα; in Greek hieròs, ἱερός, means holy), although the city was renamed Aelia Capitolina for part of the Roman period of its history.

Salem[edit | edit source]

The Aramaic Apocryphon of Genesis of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QapGen 22:13) equates Jerusalem with the earlier "Salem" (שלם), said to be the kingdom of Melchizedek in Genesis 14.^[53] Other early Hebrew sources,^[54] early Christian renderings of the verse^[55] and targumim,^[56] however, put Salem in Northern Israel near Shechem (Sichem), now Nablus, a city of some importance in early sacred Hebrew writing.^[57] Possibly the redactor of the Apocryphon of Genesis wanted to dissociate Melchizedek from the area of Shechem, which at the time was in possession of the Samaritans.^[58] However that may be, later Rabbinic sources also equate Salem with Jerusalem, mainly to link Melchizedek to later Temple traditions.^[59]

Arabic names[edit | edit source]

In Arabic, Jerusalem is most commonly known as القُدس, transliterated as al-Quds and meaning "The Holy" or "The Holy Sanctuary",^[25][26] cognate with Hebrew: הקדש, romanized: Ha-Qodesh, lit. 'The Holy'. The ق (Q) is pronounced either with a voiceless uvular plosive (/q/), as in Classical Arabic, or with a glottal stop (ʔ) as in Levantine Arabic.^[60] Official Israeli government policy mandates that أُورُشَلِيمَ, transliterated as Ūršalīm, which is the cognate of the Hebrew and English names, be used as the Arabic language name for the city in conjunction with القُدس. أُورُشَلِيمَ-القُدس.^[61] Palestinian Arab families who hail from this city are often called "Qudsi" or "Maqdisi", while Palestinian Muslim Jerusalemites may use these terms as a demonym.^[62]

History[edit | edit source]

Given the city's central position in both Jewish nationalism (Zionism) and Palestinian nationalism, the selectivity required to summarize some 5,000 years of inhabited history is often influenced by ideological bias or background.^[63] Israeli or Jewish nationalists claim a right to the city based on Jewish indigeneity to the land, particularly their origins in and descent from the Israelites, for whom Jerusalem is their capital, and their yearning for return.^[64][65] In contrast, Palestinian nationalists claim the right to the city based on modern Palestinians' longstanding presence and descent from many different peoples who have settled or lived in the region over the centuries.^[66][67] Both sides claim the history of the city has been politicized by the other in order to strengthen their relative claims to the city,^[68][69][70] and that this is borne out by the different focuses the different writers place on the various events and eras in the city's history.

Overview of Jerusalem's historical periods[edit | edit source]

Prehistory[edit | edit source]

The first archaeological evidence of human presence in the area comes in the form of flints dated to between 6000 and 7000 years ago,^[71] with ceramic remains appearing during the Chalcolithic period, and the first signs of permanent settlement appearing in the Early Bronze Age in 3000–2800 BCE.^[72][73]

Late bronze age[edit | edit source]

The earliest evidence of city fortifications appear in the Mid to Late Bronze Age and could date to around the 18th century BCE.^[74] By around 1550-1200 BCE, Jerusalem was the capital of an Egyptian vassal city-state,^[75] a modest settlement governing a few outlying villages and pastoral areas, with a small Egyptian garrison and ruled by appointees such as king Abdi-Heba,^[76] At the time of Seti I (r. 1290–1279 BCE) and Ramesses II (r. 1279–1213 BCE), major construction took place as prosperity increased.^[77] The city's inhabitants at this time were Canaanites, who are believed by scholars to have evolved into the Israelites via the development of a distinct Yahweh-centric monotheistic belief system.^[78][79][80]

Iron Age[edit | edit source]

Archaeological remains from the ancient Israelite period include the Siloam Tunnel, an aqueduct built by Judahite king Hezekiah and once containing an ancient Hebrew inscription, known as the Siloam Inscription;^[81] the so-called Broad Wall, a defensive fortification built in the 8th century BCE, also by Hezekiah;^[82] the Silwan necropolis (9th-7th c. BCE) with the Monolith of Silwan and the Tomb of the Royal Steward, which were decorated with monumental Hebrew inscriptions;^[83] and the so-called Israelite Tower, remnants of ancient fortifications, built from large, sturdy rocks with carved cornerstones.^[84] A huge water reservoir dating from this period was discovered in 2012 near Robinson's Arch, indicating the existence of a densely built-up quarter across the area west of the Temple Mount during the Kingdom of Judah.^[85]

When the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. When Hezekiah ruled, Jerusalem had no fewer than 25,000 inhabitants and covered 25 acres (10 hectares).^[86]

In 587–586 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered Jerusalem after a prolonged siege, and then systematically destroyed the city, including Solomon's Temple.^[87] The Kingdom of Judah was abolished and many were exiled to Babylon. These events mark the end of the First Temple period.^[88]

Biblical account[edit | edit source]

This period, when Canaan formed part of the Egyptian empire, corresponds in biblical accounts to Joshua's invasion,^[89] but almost all scholars agree that the Book of Joshua holds little historical value for early Israel.^[90]

In the Bible, Jerusalem is defined as lying within territory allocated to the tribe of Benjamin^[91] though still inhabited by Jebusites. David is said to have conquered these in the Siege of Jebus, and transferred his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem which then became the capital of a United Kingdom of Israel,^[92] and one of its several religious centres.^[93] The choice was perhaps dictated by the fact that Jerusalem did not form part of Israel's tribal system, and was thus suited to serve as the centre of its confederation.^[77] Opinion is divided over whether the so-called Large Stone Structure and the nearby Stepped Stone Structure may be identified with King David's palace, or dates to a later period.^[94][95]

According to the Bible, King David reigned for 40 years^[96] and was succeeded by his son Solomon,^[97] who built the Holy Temple on Mount Moriah. Solomon's Temple (later known as the First Temple), went on to play a pivotal role in Jewish religion as the repository of the Ark of the Covenant.^[98] On Solomon's death, ten of the northern tribes of Israel broke with the United Monarchy to form their own nation, with its kings, prophets, priests, traditions relating to religion, capitals and temples in northern Israel. The southern tribes, together with the Aaronid priesthood, remained in Jerusalem, with the city becoming the capital of the Kingdom of Judah.^[99][100]

Classical antiquity[edit | edit source]

Early Muslim period[edit | edit source]

Crusader/Ayyubid period[edit | edit source]

Mamluk period[edit | edit source]

From 1260^[101] to 1516/17, Jerusalem was ruled by the Mamluks. In the wider region and until around 1300, many clashes occurred between the Mamluks on one side, and the crusaders and the Mongols, on the other side. The area also suffered from many earthquakes and black plague.^[102] When Nachmanides visited in 1267 he found only two Jewish families, in a population of 2,000, 300 of whom were Christians, in the city.^[103] The well-known and far-traveled lexicographer Fairuzabadi (1329–1414) spent ten years in Jerusalem.^[104]

The 13th to 15th centuries was a period of frequent building activity in the city, as evidenced by the 90 remaining structures from this time.^[101] The city was also a significant site of Mamluk architectural patronage. The types of structures built included madrasas, libraries, hospitals, caravanserais, fountains (or sabils), and public baths.^[101] Much of the building activity was concentrated around the edges of the Temple Mount or Haram al-Sharif.^[101] Old gates to the Haram lost importance and new gates were built,^[101] while significant parts of the northern and western porticoes along the edge of the Temple Mount plaza were built or rebuilt in this period.^[105] Tankiz, the Mamluk amir in charge of Syria during the reign of al-Nasir Muhammad, built a new market called Suq al-Qattatin (Cotton Market) in 1336–7, along with the gate known as Bab al-Qattanin (Cotton Gate), which gave access to the Temple Mount from this market.^[101][105] The late Mamluk sultan al-Ashraf Qaytbay also took interest in the city. He commissioned the building of the Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya, completed in 1482, and the nearby Sabil of Qaytbay, built shortly after in 1482; both were located on the Temple Mount.^[101][105] Qaytbay's monuments were the last major Mamluk constructions in the city.^{[105]: 589–612}

Ottoman period (16th–19th centuries)[edit | edit source]

British Mandate (1917–1948)[edit | edit source]

In 1917 after the Battle of Jerusalem, the British Army, led by General Edmund Allenby, captured the city.^[107] In 1922, the League of Nations at the Conference of Lausanne entrusted the United Kingdom to administer Palestine, neighbouring Transjordan, and Iraq beyond it.

The British had to deal with a conflicting demand that was rooted in Ottoman rule. Agreements for the supply of water, electricity, and the construction of a tramway system—all under concessions granted by the Ottoman authorities—had been signed by the city of Jerusalem and a Greek citizen, Euripides Mavromatis, on 27 January 1914. Work under these concessions had not begun and, by the end of the war the British occupying forces refused to recognize their validity. Mavromatis claimed that his concessions overlapped with the Auja Concession that the government had awarded to Rutenberg in 1921 and that he had been deprived of his legal rights. The Mavromatis concession, in effect despite earlier British attempts to abolish it, covered Jerusalem and other localities (e.g., Bethlehem) within a radius of 20 km (12 mi) around the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.^[108]

From 1922 to 1948 the total population of the city rose from 52,000 to 165,000, comprising two-thirds Jews and one-third Arabs (Muslims and Christians).^[109] Relations between Arab Christians and Muslims and the growing Jewish population in Jerusalem deteriorated, resulting in recurring unrest. In Jerusalem, in particular, Arab riots occurred in 1920 and in 1929. Under the British, new garden suburbs were built in the western and northern parts of the city^[110][111] and institutions of higher learning such as the Hebrew University were founded.^[112]

Divided city: Jordanian and Israeli rule (1948–1967)[edit | edit source]

Israeli rule (1967–present)[edit | edit source]

In 1967, despite Israeli pleas that Jordan remain neutral during the Six-Day War, Jordan, which had concluded a defense agreement with Egypt on 30 May 1967, attacked Israeli-held West Jerusalem on the war's second day. After hand-to-hand fighting between Israeli and Jordanian soldiers on the Temple Mount, the Israel Defense Forces captured East Jerusalem, along with the entire West Bank. On 27 June 1967, three weeks after the war ended, in the reunification of Jerusalem, Israel extended its law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, including the city's Christian and Muslim holy sites, along with some nearby West Bank territory which comprised 28 Palestinian villages, incorporating it into the Jerusalem Municipality,^[113][114] although it carefully avoided using the term "annexation". On 10 July, Foreign Minister Abba Eban explained to the UN Secretary General: "The term 'annexation' which was used by supporters of the vote is not accurate. The steps that were taken [by Israel] relate to the integration of Jerusalem in administrative and municipal areas, and served as a legal basis for the protection of the holy places of Jerusalem."^[115] Israel conducted a census of Arab residents in the areas annexed. Residents were given permanent residency status and the option of applying for Israeli citizenship. Since 1967, new Jewish residential areas have mushroomed in the eastern sector, while no new Palestinian neighbourhoods have been created.^[116]

Jewish and Christian access to the holy sites inside the old walled city was restored. Israel left the Temple Mount under the jurisdiction of an Islamic waqf, but opened the Western Wall to Jewish access. The Moroccan Quarter, which was located adjacent to the Western Wall, was evacuated and razed^[117] to make way for a plaza for those visiting the wall.^[118] On 18 April 1968, an expropriation order by the Israeli Ministry of Finance more than doubled the size of the Jewish Quarter, evicting its Arab residents and seizing over 700 buildings of which 105 belonged to Jewish inhabitants prior to the Jordanian occupation of the city.^{[citation needed]} The order designated these areas for public use, but they were intended for Jews alone.^[119] The government offered 200 Jordanian dinars to each displaced Arab family.

After the Six-Day War the population of Jerusalem increased by 196%. The Jewish population grew by 155%, while the Arab population grew by 314%. The proportion of the Jewish population fell from 74% in 1967 to 72% in 1980, to 68% in 2000, and to 64% in 2010.^[120] Israeli Agriculture Minister Ariel Sharon proposed building a ring of Jewish neighbourhoods around the city's eastern edges. The plan was intended to make East Jerusalem more Jewish and prevent it from becoming part of an urban Palestinian bloc stretching from Bethlehem to Ramallah. On 2 October 1977, the Israeli cabinet approved the plan, and seven neighbourhoods were subsequently built on the city's eastern edges. They became known as the Ring Neighbourhoods. Other Jewish neighbourhoods were built within East Jerusalem, and Israeli Jews also settled in Arab neighbourhoods.^[121][122]

The annexation of East Jerusalem was met with international criticism. The Israeli Foreign Ministry disputes that the annexation of Jerusalem was a violation of international law.^[123][124] The final status of Jerusalem has been one of the most important areas of discord between Palestinian and Israeli negotiators for peace. Areas of discord have included whether the Palestinian flag can be raised over areas of Palestinian custodianship and the specificity of Israeli and Palestinian territorial borders.^[125]

Political status[edit | edit source]

From 1923 until 1948, Jerusalem served as the administrative capital of Mandatory Palestine.^[126]

From 1949 until 1967, West Jerusalem served as Israel's capital, but was not recognized as such internationally because UN General Assembly Resolution 194 envisaged Jerusalem as an international city. As a result of the Six-Day War in 1967, the whole of Jerusalem came under Israeli control. On 27 June 1967, the government of Levi Eshkol extended Israeli law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, but agreed that administration of the Temple Mount compound would be maintained by the Jordanian waqf, under the Jordanian Ministry of Religious Endowments.^[127]

In 1988, Israel ordered the closure of Orient House, home of the Arab Studies Society, but also the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization, for security reasons. The building reopened in 1992 as a Palestinian guesthouse.^[128][129] The Oslo Accords stated that the final status of Jerusalem would be determined by negotiations with the Palestinian Authority. The accords banned any official Palestinian presence in the city until a final peace agreement, but provided for the opening of a Palestinian trade office in East Jerusalem. The Palestinian Authority regards East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state.^[130][131] President Mahmoud Abbas has said that any agreement that did not include East Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine would be unacceptable.^[132] Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has similarly stated that Jerusalem would remain the undivided capital of Israel. Due to its proximity to the city, especially the Temple Mount, Abu Dis, a Palestinian suburb of Jerusalem, has been proposed as the future capital of a Palestinian state by Israel. Israel has not incorporated Abu Dis within its security wall around Jerusalem. The Palestinian Authority has built a possible future parliament building for the Palestinian Legislative Council in the town, and its Jerusalem Affairs Offices are all located in Abu Dis.^[133]

International status[edit | edit source]

Jerusalem's status remains a complex and contentious issue in international law and diplomacy, with competing claims from Israel and the Palestinians. Israel considers Jerusalem, including both West and East Jerusalem, its "complete and united" capital, as formalized in the Jerusalem Law of 1980, which established the city as the seat of government, hosting the President's residence, government offices, Supreme Court, and parliament.^[134] However, the international community, including the United Nations, does not fully recognize Israeli sovereignty over Jerusalem, citing the city's status under international law.

Following the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, adopted via United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181, Jerusalem was designated as a corpus separatum, intended to be an internationally administered city for a 10-year period, after which a referendum would determine its future.^[135] The 1948 Arab-Israeli War disrupted this plan, resulting in West Jerusalem coming under Israeli control and East Jerusalem, including the Old City, under Jordanian control until 1967, when Israel captured East Jerusalem during the Six-Day War.^[136]

The United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 (1980) declared the Jerusalem Law "null and void," calling on member states to withdraw diplomatic missions from Jerusalem, a position reflected in the fact that most embassies are located in Tel Aviv or other cities.^[137] The United States, under President Donald Trump, recognized Jerusalem as Israel's capital in 2017 and relocated its embassy there in 2018, a move followed by a few other nations but widely criticized by the international community.^[138][139] The Palestinian Authority claims East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state, a position supported by many UN member states, though no country fully recognizes Palestinian sovereignty over the city.^[140]

The international community's stance is shaped by the view that Jerusalem's final status should be determined through Israeli-Palestinian negotiations, primarily involving Israel and the Palestinian Authority, which represents the Palestinian people in diplomatic talks. Hamas, a Palestinian militant group designated as a terrorist organization by countries including the United States, Canada, and the European Union, is not recognized as a legitimate party in these negotiations, though it exerts control over Gaza and has influence among some Palestinians.^[141] The disputes center on sovereignty, borders, and control of holy sites, with negotiations historically facilitated through frameworks like the Oslo Accords.^[142]

Status under Israeli rule[edit | edit source]

Following the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel extended its jurisdiction and administration over East Jerusalem, establishing new municipal borders.

In 2010, Israel approved legislation giving Jerusalem the highest national priority status in Israel. The law prioritized construction throughout the city, and offered grants and tax benefits to residents to make housing, infrastructure, education, employment, business, tourism, and cultural events more affordable. Communications Minister Moshe Kahlon said that the bill sent "a clear, unequivocal political message that Jerusalem will not be divided", and that "all those within the Palestinian and international community who expect the current Israeli government to accept any demands regarding Israel's sovereignty over its capital are mistaken and misleading".^[143]

The status of the city, and especially its holy places, remains a core issue in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The Israeli government has approved building plans in the Muslim Quarter of the Old City^[144] in order to expand the Jewish presence in East Jerusalem, while some Islamic leaders have made claims that Jews have no historical connection to Jerusalem, alleging that the 2,500-year-old Western Wall was constructed as part of a mosque.^[145][146] Palestinians regard Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine,^[147] and the city's borders have been the subject of bilateral talks. A team of experts assembled by the then Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak in 2000 concluded that the city must be divided, since Israel had failed to achieve any of its national aims there.^[148] However, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said in 2014 that "Jerusalem will never be divided".^[149] A poll conducted in June 2013 found that 74% of Israeli Jews reject the idea of a Palestinian capital in any portion of Jerusalem, though 72% of the public regarded it as a divided city.^[150] A poll conducted by Palestinian Centre for Public Opinion and American Pechter Middle East Polls for the Council on Foreign Relations, among East Jerusalem Arab residents in 2011 revealed that 39% of East Jerusalem Arab residents would prefer Israeli citizenship contrary to 31% who opted for Palestinian citizenship. According to the poll, 40% of Palestinian residents would prefer to leave their neighbourhoods if they would be placed under Palestinian rule.^[151]

Jerusalem as capital of Israel[edit | edit source]

On 5 December 1949, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion declared Jerusalem Israel's "eternal" capital, stating that only the 1948 war forced the government to operate from Tel Aviv. He affirmed Jerusalem as Israel's sole capital, and by 1950, the Knesset, judiciary, and executive branches were based there, except for the Ministry of Defense in Tel Aviv.^[152][153] At the time, Jerusalem was divided, with Israel controlling West Jerusalem and Jordan controlling East Jerusalem.

In 1980, Israel passed the Jerusalem Law, declaring Jerusalem its "complete and united" capital.^[154] The international community, via United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, condemned the law as "null and void," urging states to withdraw embassies from Jerusalem.^[155] Most embassies remain in Tel Aviv, though the United States (2018) and Guatemala moved theirs to Jerusalem.^[156][157] Bolivia and Paraguay maintain embassies in Mevaseret Zion, near Jerusalem.^[158]

In 1995, the U.S. Congress passed the Jerusalem Embassy Act, mandating the embassy's relocation to Jerusalem, which occurred in 2018 under President Donald Trump, who recognized Jerusalem as Israel's capital.^[159][160] This move was widely criticized, with a UN resolution condemning it vetoed by the U.S. but supported by 14 other Security Council members.^[161] In 2017, Russia recognized West Jerusalem as Israel's capital, contingent on East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state.^[162] Australia briefly recognized West Jerusalem as Israel's capital in 2018, reversing this in 2022.^[163][164]

Government precinct and national institutions[edit | edit source]

Many national institutions of Israel are located in Kiryat HaMemshala in Givat Ram in Jerusalem as a part of the Kiryat HaLeom project which is intended to create a large district that will house most government agencies and national cultural institutions. Some government buildings are located in Kiryat Menachem Begin. The city is home to the Knesset,^[165] the Supreme Court,^[166] the Bank of Israel, the National Headquarters of the Israel Police, the official residences of the President and Prime Minister, the Cabinet, and all ministries except for the Ministry of Defense (which is located in central Tel Aviv's HaKirya district) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (which is located in Rishon LeZion, in the wider Tel Aviv metropolitan area, near Beit Dagan).

Jerusalem as capital of Palestine[edit | edit source]

The Palestinian Authority (PA) claims East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state, based on the pre-1967 municipal boundaries, as stated in the Palestinian Declaration of Independence (1988) and the Palestinian Basic Law (2003).^[167][168] The PA views East Jerusalem as occupied territory under United Nations Security Council Resolution 242.^[169] The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), representing Palestinians in negotiations, has proposed that East Jerusalem serve as Palestine’s capital and West Jerusalem as Israel’s, with joint development mechanisms for shared areas.^[170]<

Some countries, including Russia and China, recognize a Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital, consistent with pre-1967 borders.^[171][172] United Nations General Assembly Resolution 58/292 (2004) supports Palestinian sovereignty over East Jerusalem.^[173] Hamas, a militant group designated as a terrorist organization by the United States, Canada, and the European Union, also claims East Jerusalem but is not recognized as a legitimate party in diplomatic negotiations, which are led by the PA.^[174] Jerusalem’s final status remains subject to Israeli-Palestinian negotiations.

Municipal administration[edit | edit source]

The Jerusalem City Council is a body of 31 elected members headed by the mayor, who serves a five-year term and appoints eight deputies. The former mayor of Jerusalem, Uri Lupolianski, was elected in 2003.^[175] In the November 2008 city elections, Nir Barkat was elected. In November 2018, Moshe Lion was elected mayor.^[176]

Apart from the mayor and his deputies, City Council members receive no salaries and work on a voluntary basis. The longest-serving Jerusalem mayor was Teddy Kollek, who spent 28 years—six consecutive terms—in office. Most of the meetings of the Jerusalem City Council are private, but each month, it holds a session that is open to the public.^[175] Within the city council, religious political parties form an especially powerful faction, accounting for the majority of its seats.^[177] The headquarters of the Jerusalem Municipality and the mayor's office are at Safra Square (Kikar Safra) on Jaffa Road. The municipal complex, comprising two modern buildings and ten renovated historic buildings surrounding a large plaza, opened in 1993 when it moved from the old town hall building built by the Mandate authorities.^[178] The city falls under the Jerusalem District, with Jerusalem as the district's capital. 37% of the population is Palestinian, but in 2014 not more than 10% of tax revenues were allocated for them. In East Jerusalem, 52% of the land was excluded from development, 35% designated for Jewish settlements, and 13% for Palestinian use, almost all of which was already built on.^[116]

Geography[edit | edit source]

Jerusalem is situated on the southern spur of a plateau in the Judaean Mountains, which include the Mount of Olives (East) and Mount Scopus (North East). The elevation of the Old City is approximately 760 m (2,490 ft).^[179] The whole of Jerusalem is surrounded by valleys and dry riverbeds (wadis). The Kidron, Hinnom, and Tyropoeon Valleys intersect in an area just south of the Old City of Jerusalem.^[180] The Kidron Valley runs to the east of the Old City and separates the Mount of Olives from the city proper. Along the southern side of old Jerusalem is the Valley of Hinnom, a steep ravine associated in biblical eschatology with the concept of Gehenna or Hell.^[181] The Tyropoeon Valley commenced in the northwest near the Damascus Gate, ran south-southeasterly through the centre of the Old City down to the Pool of Siloam, and divided the lower part into two hills, the Temple Mount to the east, and the rest of the city to the west (the lower and the upper cities described by Josephus). Today, this valley is hidden by debris that has accumulated over the centuries.^[180] In biblical times, Jerusalem was surrounded by forests of almond, olive and pine trees. Over centuries of warfare and neglect, these forests were destroyed. Farmers in the Jerusalem region thus built stone terraces along the slopes to hold back the soil, a feature still very much in evidence in the Jerusalem landscape.^{[citation needed]}

Water supply has always been a major problem in Jerusalem, as attested to by the intricate network of ancient aqueducts, tunnels, pools and cisterns found in the city.^[182]

Jerusalem is 60 km (37 mi)^[183] east of Tel Aviv and the Mediterranean Sea. On the opposite side of the city, approximately 35 km (22 mi)^[184] away, is the Dead Sea, the lowest body of water on Earth. Neighbouring cities and towns include Bethlehem and Beit Jala to the south, Abu Dis and Ma'ale Adumim to the east, Mevaseret Zion to the west, and Ramallah and Giv'at Ze'ev to the north.^{[185][186][187]}

Mount Herzl, at the western side of the city near the Jerusalem Forest, serves as the national cemetery of Israel.

Climate[edit | edit source]

The city is characterized by a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa), with hot, dry summers, and mild, wet winters. Snow flurries usually occur once or twice a winter, although the city experiences heavy snowfall every three to four years, on average, with short-lived accumulation.

January is the coldest month of the year, with an average temperature of 9.1 °C (48.4 °F); July and August are the hottest months, with an average temperature of 24.2 °C (75.6 °F), and the summer months are usually rainless. The average annual precipitation is around 537 mm (21 in), with rain occurring almost entirely between October and May.^[188] Snowfall is rare, and large snowfalls are even more rare.^[189][190] Jerusalem received over 30 cm (12 in) of snow on 13 December 2013, which nearly paralyzed the city.^[189][190] A day in Jerusalem has on average, 9.3 sunshine hours. With summers averaging similar temperatures as the coastline, the maritime influence from the Mediterranean Sea is strong, in particular given that Jerusalem is located on a similar latitude as scorching hot deserts not far to its east.

The highest recorded temperature in Jerusalem was 44.4 °C (111.9 °F) on 28 and 30 August 1881, and the lowest temperature recorded was −6.7 °C (19.9 °F) on 25 January 1907.

Most of the air pollution in Jerusalem comes from vehicular traffic.^[191] Many main streets in Jerusalem were not built to accommodate such a large volume of traffic, leading to traffic congestion and more carbon monoxide released into the air. Industrial pollution inside the city is sparse, but emissions from factories on the Israeli Mediterranean coast can travel eastward and settle over the city.^[191][192]

Modern Era[edit | edit source]

Jerusalem’s modern history reaffirms its role as the capital of the Jewish people amidst geopolitical challenges. Following the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the 19th century saw a resurgence of Jewish immigration and development in Jerusalem, strengthening its Jewish character.^[198] During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was secured by Israel, while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, fell under Jordanian control.^[199] In the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel captured East Jerusalem, reuniting the city under Jewish sovereignty for the first time in nearly two millennia.^[200] The Jerusalem Law of 1980 declared Jerusalem Israel’s undivided capital, codifying its central role in the Jewish state.^[201]

A pivotal moment came on December 6, 2017, when U.S. President Donald Trump announced the recognition of Jerusalem as Israel’s capital, fulfilling the Jerusalem Embassy Act of 1995.^[202] This decision, breaking with decades of U.S. neutrality, affirmed Israel’s historical and biblical claim to the city. The U.S. Embassy relocated from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem on May 14, 2018, a move celebrated by Israelis as a recognition of their eternal capital.^[203] While some nations followed suit, the international community largely maintains that East Jerusalem’s status remains subject to negotiation, a stance Israel rejects based on its historical sovereignty.^{[204][note 3]} Jerusalem’s population in 2016 was 882,700, with 536,600 Jews (61%), 319,800 Muslims (36%), and 15,800 Christians (2%).^[205]

Demographics[edit | edit source]

Historically[edit | edit source]

Jerusalem's population size and composition has shifted many times over its 5,000-year history. Since medieval times, the Old City of Jerusalem has been divided into Jewish, Muslim, Christian, and Armenian quarters.

Most population data before 1905 is based on estimates, often from foreign travellers or organisations, since previous census data usually covered wider areas such as the Jerusalem District.^[206] These estimates suggest that since the end of the Crusades, Muslims formed the largest group in Jerusalem until the mid-nineteenth century.

Between 1838 and 1876, a number of estimates exist which conflict as to whether Jews or Muslims were the largest group during this period, and between 1882 and 1922 estimates conflict as to exactly when Jews became an absolute majority of the population.

Current population and trends[edit | edit source]

In 2016, Jerusalem's population was 882,700: 60.8% Jewish (536,600), 36.2% Muslim (319,800), 1.8% Christian (15,800), and 1.2% unclassified (10,300).^[207] The population density in 2005 was 5,750.4 people per km².^[208] The Jewish population has declined from 74% in 1967 to 60.8% in 2016, driven by a higher Muslim birth rate and Jewish residents leaving due to high housing costs and the city's religious character.^[209]

In 2005, Jerusalem’s total fertility rate was 4.02, higher than Tel Aviv (1.98) and the national average (2.90), with 42% of Arab children and 31% of Jewish children under 15.^[208] The Haredi Jewish population is growing, with 60% of schoolchildren in Haredi schools in 2009.^[210] In East Jerusalem, 43% of residents were Jewish (195,500) and 57% Muslim (260,800) in 2008.^[211] Since 2017, building permits in East Jerusalem settlements, considered illegal under international law, have increased by 60%, with Palestinians receiving only 30% of permits since 1991, contributing to housing shortages and demographic tensions.^[212][213]

Jerusalem attracts Palestinian residents due to better access to jobs, healthcare, and social services compared to the West Bank or Gaza.^[214] Arab residents with Israeli identity cards benefit from subsidized healthcare, social security, and municipal voting rights.^[215] Between 1996 and 2000, building violations were recorded 4.5 times more often in Jewish neighborhoods, but demolition orders were issued four times more frequently in East Jerusalem, impacting Arab residents disproportionately.^[216] Demographic shifts and urban planning policies significantly influence the Israeli-Palestinian dispute over Jerusalem’s status.

Religious significance[edit | edit source]

Jerusalem is a sacred city for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It has been central to Judaism for approximately 3,000 years as the site of the First and Second Temples, with the Western Wall as the holiest place for Jewish prayer.^[217] Christianity reveres Jerusalem for its role in Jesus’ life, with the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, encompassing Golgotha and the tomb of Jesus, as a key pilgrimage site.^[218] In Islam, Jerusalem is often considered the third-holiest city, linked to Muhammad’s Night Journey, with the Al-Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount (Al-Haram al-Sharif) as a significant site.^[219] In 2000, Jerusalem had 1,204 synagogues, 158 churches, and 73 mosques.^[220] The Temple Mount remains a focal point of religious and political tensions.^[221]

Economy[edit | edit source]

Jerusalem’s economy historically relied on religious pilgrims, with sites like the Western Wall and Old City still drawing most of the 3.5 million tourists visiting Israel in 2013, 75% of whom came to Jerusalem.^[222] The national government, based in Jerusalem, is a major employer, offering subsidies for businesses and startups.^[223]

Jerusalem has emerged as a growing tech hub, with Har Hotzvim and Jerusalem Technology Park hosting R&D centers for companies like Intel, Cisco Systems, and Teva Pharmaceutical Industries.^[224] In 2015, Time Magazine named Jerusalem among the top five emerging global tech hubs.^[225] Employment is high in education (17.9%), health and welfare (12.6%), and public administration (8.2%), compared to national averages.^[226] A law from the British Mandate requires buildings to use Jerusalem stone, preserving the city’s aesthetic, while heavy industry is limited, with only 2.2% of land zoned for it.^[227]

Despite growth, economic disparities persist. In 2011, 37% of Jerusalem families lived below the poverty line, with 78% of Arab families in East Jerusalem in poverty in 2012, attributed to limited employment opportunities and infrastructure.^[228] The unemployment rate (8.3%) is slightly below the national average (9.0%), but the labor force participation rate is lower than in Tel Aviv (58.0%) or Haifa (52.4%).^[229]

High-rise construction[edit | edit source]

Jerusalem traditionally maintained a low-rise skyline, but recent plans have introduced taller buildings. Holyland Tower 1, the city’s tallest at 32 stories, is a notable skyscraper, with Holyland Tower 2 approved at the same height.^[230] A new master plan allows high-rise development along Jaffa Road and King George Street, including the proposed 65-story Migdal Merkaz HaYekum, potentially one of Israel’s tallest buildings.^[231] Near the Jerusalem Chords Bridge and Central Bus Station, a complex of twelve towers (24–33 stories) is planned, including office, residential, and hotel spaces, connected to a new train station for the Jerusalem–Tel Aviv express line.^[232] In 2015, the city council approved a 344-foot pyramid-shaped skyscraper designed by Daniel Libeskind.^[233] These projects aim to enhance the city’s business and tourism sectors.

Transportation[edit | edit source]

Jerusalem’s transportation infrastructure supports its role as a major Israeli hub. The Jerusalem Central Bus Station on Jaffa Road, served by Egged, Dan, and Superbus, is Israel’s busiest bus terminal.^[234] A separate East Jerusalem Central Bus Station near the Damascus Gate serves Arab neighborhoods and West Bank routes.^[235] The Jerusalem Light Rail, operational since 2011, connects Pisgat Ze’ev to Mt. Herzl via the city center, with 23 stops and capacity for 200,000 daily passengers.^[236]

The Tel Aviv–Jerusalem railway, partially operational since 2018, links Jerusalem–Yitzhak Navon railway station (near the International Convention Centre) to Ben Gurion Airport and Tel Aviv.^[237] Israel Railways also operates services to Malha station via Beit Shemesh.^[238] Major roads include Begin Expressway, a north–south route, and Route 60, running through the city center. A 35-km ring road is under construction to connect suburbs.^[239] Ben Gurion Airport, 50 km northwest, serves Jerusalem.^[240]

Education[edit | edit source]

Jerusalem hosts several prominent universities and educational institutions. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, founded in 1925, is a globally recognized institution, ranked among the top 100 universities worldwide, with notable alumni including Nobel laureates like Avram Hershko and Daniel Kahneman.^[241][242] It operates campuses on Mount Scopus, Givat Ram, and Hadassah Ein Kerem, and houses the National Library of Israel, with over five million books.^[243] Other institutions include the Jerusalem College of Technology, combining engineering and Jewish studies, and the Bezalel Academy of Arts and Design for art and design education.^[244][245]

Al-Quds University, established in 1984 in Abu Dis serves Arab and Palestinian students, offering courses in Arabic and English.^[246] Schools in East Jerusalem, primarily serving Arab students, face challenges like overcrowding and fewer resources compared to Jewish schools.^[247] Since 2007, the Jerusalem Municipality has invested in new schools in Arab neighborhoods, with over a dozen built by 2008 and a five-year plan to add 8,000 classrooms, 40% in the Arab sector.^[248][249] Many Haredi schools focus on religious studies, with only 37% of twelfth graders eligible for matriculation exams in 2003–2004.^[250]

Culture[edit | edit source]

Jerusalem is a major cultural hub, hosting institutions like the Israel Museum, which attracts nearly one million visitors annually, including a third from abroad, and houses the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Shrine of the Book.^[251] Yad Vashem, Israel’s national Holocaust memorial, features the world’s largest Holocaust-related library and a museum focusing on personal stories of victims.^[252] The Jerusalem Biblical Zoo is a top tourist attraction for Israelis.^[253]

The Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, Israel Festival, and Jerusalem Film Festival showcase music, theater, and cinema, drawing local and international artists.^[254][255] The Palestinian National Theatre and Al-Hoash gallery promote Palestinian arts and cultural preservation.^[256][257] Joint Jewish-Arab initiatives, like the Museum on the Seam and the Jewish-Arab Youth Orchestra, foster dialogue through art.^[258][259] In 2009, Jerusalem was named the Capital of Arab Culture, though some events were restricted by Israeli authorities.^[260]

Media[edit | edit source]

Jerusalem is Israel’s state broadcasting hub, hosting the main office of the Israeli Public Broadcasting Corporation (Kan), with TV and radio studios for Kan 11.^[261] The Jerusalem Post, founded in 1932, is a leading English-language newspaper based in the city, with a daily circulation of approximately 30,000.^[262] The Times of Israel, launched in 2012 and also headquartered in Jerusalem, reported over 9 million monthly unique users in 2021.^[263] Kol Ha’ir, a Hebrew-language weekly, covers local news, and God TV, an international Christian television network, operates from the city.^[264]

Sports[edit | edit source]

Football and basketball are Jerusalem’s most popular sports.^[265] Beitar Jerusalem F.C. is a top club in the Israeli Premier League, with six league titles and eight State Cups, playing at Teddy Stadium (capacity 31,733).^[266][267] In 2024, Beitar finished 11th after a penalty point deduction but secured a 5:1 win against Hapoel Tel Aviv F.C.^[268] Its rival, Hapoel Jerusalem F.C., competes in the second-tier Liga Leumit and has one State Cup.^[269] The Palestinian club Jabal Al Mukaber, in the West Bank Premier League, plays at Faisal Al-Husseini International Stadium in Al-Ram.^[270]

In basketball, Hapoel Jerusalem B.C. is a leading team in the Israeli Basketball Super League, winning the championship in 2015 and four State Cups, with home games at Pais Arena.^[271] The Jerusalem Marathon, held annually since 2011, draws thousands, with 15,000 runners in 2012, including 1,500 international participants, starting at the Knesset and ending at Sacher Park.^[272] The Jerusalem March, a non-competitive event during the Sukkot festival, also attracts large crowds.^[273]

International relations[edit | edit source]

Jerusalem maintains twinning relationships with: Prague, Czech Republic,^[274] Ayabe, Japan,^[275] and New York City, United States (since 1993).^[276] Marseille, France (since 2011)^[277]

See also[edit | edit source]

• Greater Jerusalem
• List of people from Jerusalem
• List of places in Jerusalem
• List of songs about Jerusalem

Notes[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

Bibliography[edit | edit source]

Further reading[edit | edit source]

External links[edit | edit source]

• Official website of the Jerusalem Municipality
• What makes Jerusalem so holy? BBC
• The Status of Jerusalem. United Nations document related to the dispute over the city
• English translation of the Jerusalem Law, the Israeli law making Jerusalem the capital of Israel
• Jerusalem Virtual Library, joint project by Al-Quds University and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
• Official website of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the city's foremost institution of higher education
• Official website of Al-Quds University, the only Palestinian university in Jerusalem
• File:Openstreetmap logo.svg Geographic data related to Jerusalem at OpenStreetMap
• Jerusalem at Curlie