Patients with cirrhosis have reduced liver blood flow, protein binding and hepatic enzyme capacity, leading to drug accumulation and increased vulnerability to developing opiate toxicity.
As per the guidelines by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and the American College of Gastroenterology, cirrhosis patients with proteinmalnutrition require multiple feedings per day with breakfast and a nightly snack.[10][11][8]
Low dose zinc supplementation could prevent deterioration of the clinical status of cirrhosis and prevent excess copper accumulation in non-alcoholic cirrhotic patients.
Zinc supplementation produces metabolic effects and trends towards improvements in liver function, hepatic encephalopathy, and nutritional status.[12]
Preferred regimen: 220 mg Zinc po q12h may improve dysgeusia and also helps in stimulating the patient's appetite.
Preferred regimen (1): Four week course of prednisolone (40 mg/day for 28 days), typically followed by discontinuation or a 2-week taper (if no contraindications for steroid use).
Preferred regimen (2):Pentoxifylline therapy (400 mg orally 3 times daily for 4 weeks) is an alternative in severe disease, especially if there are contraindications to steroid therapy
Preferred regimen (1): Peginterferon plus ribavirin for 48 weeks. The dose for peginterferon alfa-2a is 180 µg subcutaneously per week together with ribavirin using doses of 1,000 mg for those <75 kg in weight and 1,200 mg for those >75 kg; the dose for peginterferon alfa-2b is 1.5 µg/kg subcutaneously per week together with ribavirin using doses of 800 mg for those weighing <65 kg; 1,000 mg for those weighing >65 kg to 85 kg, 1,200 mg for >85 kg to 105 kg, and 1,400 mg for >105 kg.[19]
a.ALT greater than 2 times normal or moderate/severe hepatitis on biopsy, and HBV DNA >20,000 IU/mL - treatment may be initiated with any of the 7 approved antiviral medications, but pegIFN-α, tenofovir or entecavir are preferred.
b.ALT persistently normal or minimally elevated (<2 times normal) - should not be initiated on treatment.
c. Children with elevated ALT greater than 2 times normal - treatment may be initiated with IFN-α or lamivudine if ALT levels remain elevated at this level for longer than 6 months.
Patients with HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B (serum HBV DNA >20,000 IU/mL and elevated ALT >2 times normal) should be considered for treatment with pegIFN-α, tenofovir or entecavir.[32]
Immunosuppressive treatment based on serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), serum gamma-globulin levels, and histological features
Those not receiving beta blockers, should be followed up with EGD every 2 years
If the liver decompensates, EGD should be performed at that time and then annually
Those who recieve beta blockers may not require a regular follow up with EGD
Patients with medium/large varices that have not bled: [64][65]
Endoscopic variceal ligation or non-selective beta blockers may be used to prevent first variceal bleeding, as these patients are at a higher risk for bleeding with beta blockers being the first choice of treatment and endoscopic variceal ligation reserved for those who are unable to tolerate the drugs
Combination of endoscopic variceal ligation (EVL) and non-selective beta blockers
EVL should be repeated every 1-2 weeks until obliteration with first surveillance EVL performed 1-3 months and then every 6-12 months to check for recurrence
Dose of 400 mg taken orally 3 times a day was as effective as lactulose or lactilol at improving hepatic encephalopathy symptoms.[89] Similarly, rifaximin was as effective as neomycin and paromomycin.[90][91]
Patients with ascitic fluid PMN counts greater than or equal to 250 cells/mm3 (0.25 X 109/L) and clinical suspicion of SBP who also have a serum creatinine greater than 1 mg/dL, blood urea nitrogen greater than 30 mg/dL, or total bilirubin greater than 4 mg/dL should receive 1.5 g albumin per kg body weight within 6 hours of detection and 1.0 g/kg on day 3.
↑Garcia-Tsao G (2001). "Current management of the complications of cirrhosis and portal hypertension: variceal hemorrhage, ascites, and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis". Gastroenterology. 120 (3): 726–48. PMID11179247.
↑Tsochatzis EA, Bosch J, Burroughs AK (2012). "New therapeutic paradigm for patients with cirrhosis". Hepatology. 56 (5): 1983–92. doi:10.1002/hep.25915. PMID22729954.
↑Giouleme OI, Vyzantiadis TA, Nikolaidis NL; et al. (2006). "Pathogenesis of osteoporosis in liver cirrhosis". Hepatogastroenterology. 53 (72): 938–43. PMID17153457.CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link) CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
↑Kondrup J, Nielsen K, Hamberg O (1993). "[Nutritional therapy in patients with liver cirrhosis]". Ugeskr. Laeg. (in Danish). 155 (29): 2248–51. PMID8328092.CS1 maint: Unrecognized language (link)
↑ 8.08.1Plank LD, Gane EJ, Peng S, Muthu C, Mathur S, Gillanders L, McIlroy K, Donaghy AJ, McCall JL (2008). "Nocturnal nutritional supplementation improves total body protein status of patients with liver cirrhosis: a randomized 12-month trial". Hepatology. 48 (2): 557–66. doi:10.1002/hep.22367. PMID18627001.
↑Plauth M, Cabré E, Riggio O, Assis-Camilo M, Pirlich M, Kondrup J, Ferenci P, Holm E, Vom Dahl S, Müller MJ, Nolte W (2006). "ESPEN Guidelines on Enteral Nutrition: Liver disease". Clin Nutr. 25 (2): 285–94. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2006.01.018. PMID16707194.
↑O'Shea RS, Dasarathy S, McCullough AJ (2010). "Alcoholic liver disease". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 105 (1): 14–32, quiz 33. doi:10.1038/ajg.2009.593. PMID19904248.
↑Córdoba J, López-Hellín J, Planas M, Sabín P, Sanpedro F, Castro F, Esteban R, Guardia J (2004). "Normal protein diet for episodic hepatic encephalopathy: results of a randomized study". J. Hepatol. 41 (1): 38–43. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2004.03.023. PMID15246205.
↑Somi MH, Rezaeifar P, Ostad Rahimi A, Moshrefi B (2012). "Effects of Low Dose Zinc Supplementation on Biochemical Markers in Non-alcoholic Cirrhosis: A Randomized Clinical Trial". Arch Iran Med. 15 (8): 472–6. PMID22827782.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
↑Lai MY, Kao JH, Yang PM, Wang JT, Chen PJ, Chan KW, Chu JS, Chen DS (1996). "Long-term efficacy of ribavirin plus interferon alfa in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C". Gastroenterology. 111 (5): 1307–12. PMID8898645.
↑Poynard T, McHutchison J, Manns M, Trepo C, Lindsay K, Goodman Z, Ling MH, Albrecht J (2002). "Impact of pegylated interferon alfa-2b and ribavirin on liver fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C". Gastroenterology. 122 (5): 1303–13. PMID11984517.
↑Poynard T, McHutchison J, Manns M, Myers RP, Albrecht J (2003). "Biochemical surrogate markers of liver fibrosis and activity in a randomized trial of peginterferon alfa-2b and ribavirin". Hepatology. 38 (2): 481–92. doi:10.1053/jhep.2003.50319. PMID12883493.
↑McHutchison JG, Everson GT, Gordon SC, Jacobson IM, Sulkowski M, Kauffman R, McNair L, Alam J, Muir AJ (2009). "Telaprevir with peginterferon and ribavirin for chronic HCV genotype 1 infection". N. Engl. J. Med. 360 (18): 1827–38. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0806104. PMID19403902.
↑Perrillo RP (1990). "Factors influencing response to interferon in chronic hepatitis B: implications for Asian and western populations". Hepatology. 12 (6): 1433–5. PMID1701755.
↑Dienstag JL, Perrillo RP, Schiff ER, Bartholomew M, Vicary C, Rubin M (1995). "A preliminary trial of lamivudine for chronic hepatitis B infection". N. Engl. J. Med. 333 (25): 1657–61. doi:10.1056/NEJM199512213332501. PMID7477217.
↑Dienstag JL, Goldin RD, Heathcote EJ, Hann HW, Woessner M, Stephenson SL, Gardner S, Gray DF, Schiff ER (2003). "Histological outcome during long-term lamivudine therapy". Gastroenterology. 124 (1): 105–17. doi:10.1053/gast.2003.50013. PMID12512035.
↑ 25.025.1Liaw YF, Sung JJ, Chow WC, Farrell G, Lee CZ, Yuen H, Tanwandee T, Tao QM, Shue K, Keene ON, Dixon JS, Gray DF, Sabbat J (2004). "Lamivudine for patients with chronic hepatitis B and advanced liver disease". N. Engl. J. Med. 351 (15): 1521–31. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa033364. PMID15470215.
↑Hadziyannis SJ, Tassopoulos NC, Heathcote EJ, Chang TT, Kitis G, Rizzetto M, Marcellin P, Lim SG, Goodman Z, Ma J, Arterburn S, Xiong S, Currie G, Brosgart CL (2005). "Long-term therapy with adefovir dipivoxil for HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B". N. Engl. J. Med. 352 (26): 2673–81. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa042957. PMID15987916.
↑Chang TT, Gish RG, Hadziyannis SJ, Cianciara J, Rizzetto M, Schiff ER, Pastore G, Bacon BR, Poynard T, Joshi S, Klesczewski KS, Thiry A, Rose RE, Colonno RJ, Hindes RG (2005). "A dose-ranging study of the efficacy and tolerability of entecavir in Lamivudine-refractory chronic hepatitis B patients". Gastroenterology. 129 (4): 1198–209. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2005.06.055. PMID16230074.
↑Schiff ER, Lai CL, Hadziyannis S, Neuhaus P, Terrault N, Colombo M, Tillmann HL, Samuel D, Zeuzem S, Lilly L, Rendina M, Villeneuve JP, Lama N, James C, Wulfsohn MS, Namini H, Westland C, Xiong S, Choy GS, Van Doren S, Fry J, Brosgart CL (2003). "Adefovir dipivoxil therapy for lamivudine-resistant hepatitis B in pre- and post-liver transplantation patients". Hepatology. 38 (6): 1419–27. doi:10.1016/j.hep.2003.09.040. PMID14647053.
↑Lai CL, Leung N, Teo EK, Tong M, Wong F, Hann HW, Han S, Poynard T, Myers M, Chao G, Lloyd D, Brown NA (2005). "A 1-year trial of telbivudine, lamivudine, and the combination in patients with hepatitis B e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B". Gastroenterology. 129 (2): 528–36. doi:10.1016/j.gastro.2005.05.053. PMID16083710.
↑Manolakopoulos S, Triantos C, Theodoropoulos J, Vlachogiannakos J, Kougioumtzan A, Papatheodoridis G, Tzourmakliotis D, Karamanolis D, Burroughs AK, Archimandritis A, Raptis S, Avgerinos A (2009). "Antiviral therapy reduces portal pressure in patients with cirrhosis due to HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B and significant portal hypertension". J. Hepatol. 51 (3): 468–74. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2009.05.031. PMID19616339.
↑Villeneuve JP, Condreay LD, Willems B, Pomier-Layrargues G, Fenyves D, Bilodeau M, Leduc R, Peltekian K, Wong F, Margulies M, Heathcote EJ (2000). "Lamivudine treatment for decompensated cirrhosis resulting from chronic hepatitis B". Hepatology. 31 (1): 207–10. doi:10.1002/hep.510310130. PMID10613747.
↑Fontana RJ, Hann HW, Perrillo RP, Vierling JM, Wright T, Rakela J, Anschuetz G, Davis R, Gardner SD, Brown NA (2002). "Determinants of early mortality in patients with decompensated chronic hepatitis B treated with antiviral therapy". Gastroenterology. 123 (3): 719–27. PMID12198698.
↑Ginès P, Cárdenas A, Arroyo V, Rodés J (2004). "Management of cirrhosis and ascites". N. Engl. J. Med. 350 (16): 1646–54. doi:10.1056/NEJMra035021. PMID15084697.
↑Runyon BA (2009). "Management of adult patients with ascites due to cirrhosis: an update". Hepatology. 49 (6): 2087–107. doi:10.1002/hep.22853. PMID19475696.
↑Hernández-Gea V, Aracil C, Colomo A, Garupera I, Poca M, Torras X, Miñana J, Guarner C, Villanueva C (2012). "Development of ascites in compensated cirrhosis with severe portal hypertension treated with β-blockers". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 107 (3): 418–27. doi:10.1038/ajg.2011.456. PMID22334252.
↑Angeli P, Fasolato S, Mazza E, Okolicsanyi L, Maresio G, Velo E, Galioto A, Salinas F, D'Aquino M, Sticca A, Gatta A (2010). "Combined versus sequential diuretic treatment of ascites in non-azotaemic patients with cirrhosis: results of an open randomised clinical trial". Gut. 59 (1): 98–104. doi:10.1136/gut.2008.176495. PMID19570764.
↑"EASL clinical practice guidelines on the management of ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis". J. Hepatol. 53 (3): 397–417. 2010. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2010.05.004. PMID20633946.
↑Ginès P, Titó L, Arroyo V, Planas R, Panés J, Viver J, Torres M, Humbert P, Rimola A, Llach J (1988). "Randomized comparative study of therapeutic paracentesis with and without intravenous albumin in cirrhosis". Gastroenterology. 94 (6): 1493–502. PMID3360270.
↑Runyon BA (2013). "Introduction to the revised American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases Practice Guideline management of adult patients with ascites due to cirrhosis 2012". Hepatology. 57 (4): 1651–3. doi:10.1002/hep.26359. PMID23463403.
↑Morando F, Maresio G, Piano S, Fasolato S, Cavallin M, Romano A, Rosi S, Gola E, Frigo AC, Stanco M, Destro C, Rupolo G, Mantoan D, Gatta A, Angeli P (2013). "How to improve care in outpatients with cirrhosis and ascites: a new model of care coordination by consultant hepatologists". J. Hepatol. 59 (2): 257–64. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2013.03.010. PMID23523582.
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↑Groszmann RJ, Garcia-Tsao G, Bosch J, Grace ND, Burroughs AK, Planas R, Escorsell A, Garcia-Pagan JC, Patch D, Matloff DS, Gao H, Makuch R (2005). "Beta-blockers to prevent gastroesophageal varices in patients with cirrhosis". N. Engl. J. Med. 353 (21): 2254–61. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa044456. PMID16306522.
↑Hwang JH, Shergill AK, Acosta RD, Chandrasekhara V, Chathadi KV, Decker GA, Early DS, Evans JA, Fanelli RD, Fisher DA, Foley KQ, Fonkalsrud L, Jue T, Khashab MA, Lightdale JR, Muthusamy VR, Pasha SF, Saltzman JR, Sharaf R, Cash BD (2014). "The role of endoscopy in the management of variceal hemorrhage". Gastrointest. Endosc. 80 (2): 221–7. doi:10.1016/j.gie.2013.07.023. PMID25034836.
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↑Groszmann RJ, Garcia-Tsao G, Bosch J, Grace ND, Burroughs AK, Planas R, Escorsell A, Garcia-Pagan JC, Patch D, Matloff DS, Gao H, Makuch R (2005). "Beta-blockers to prevent gastroesophageal varices in patients with cirrhosis". N. Engl. J. Med. 353 (21): 2254–61. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa044456. PMID16306522.
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↑Lewis JH, Stine JG (2013). "Review article: prescribing medications in patients with cirrhosis - a practical guide". Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 37 (12): 1132–56. doi:10.1111/apt.12324. PMID23638982.