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Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

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Overview[edit | edit source]

Emil Adolf von Behring was the first person to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for his work on the treatment of diphtheria.

Below is a list of the winners of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Swedish: Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin) from 1901 to the present, administered by the Nobel Foundation, in Stockholm, Sweden.[1]

In some instances, the national status (nation state) of some countries changed after a Nobel laureate lived in the country and became a Nobel Laureate.

The flag that precedes the country of citizenship reflects the earlier of the following circumstances:

  1. the state of the country when the Nobel Laureate emigrated; or
  2. the state of the country when he/she became a Nobel Laureate.

Some laureates obtained additional citizenships during their lifetime.

For those with multiple citizenships, the year they obtained an additional citizenship, when known, precedes the country of citizenship.

For Nobel Laureates who obtained additional citizenships after winning the Nobel Prize, the flag that precedes the country of citizenship reflects the earlier of the following two circumstances:

  1. the state of the country at their death; or
  2. the current state of the country.

Laureates[edit | edit source]

Year Name Nationality Motivation
1901 Emil Adolf von Behring Template:Flagcountry "for his work on serum therapy, especially its application against diphtheria, by which he has opened a new road in the domain of medical science and thereby placed in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths"[2]
1902 Ronald Ross Template:Flagcountry "for his work on malaria, by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it"[3]
1903 Niels Ryberg Finsen Template:Flagcountry "in recognition of his contribution to the treatment of diseases, especially lupus vulgaris, with concentrated light radiation, whereby he has opened a new avenue for medical science"[4]
1904 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov Template:Flagcountry "in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged"[5]
1905 Robert Koch Template:Flagcountry "for his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis"[6]
1906 Camillo Golgi
Santiago Ramón y Cajal 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system"[7]
1907 Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran Template:Flagcountry "in recognition of his work on the role played by protozoa in causing diseases"[8]
1908 Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov
Paul Ehrlich 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"in recognition of their work on immunity"[9]
1909 Emil Theodor Kocher Template:Flagcountry "for his work on the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland"[10]
1910 Albrecht Kossel Template:Flagcountry "in recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances"[11]
1911 Allvar Gullstrand Template:Flagcountry "for his work on the dioptrics of the eye"[12]
1912 Alexis Carrel Template:Flagcountry "in recognition of his work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs"[13]
1913 Charles Robert Richet Template:Flagcountry "in recognition of his work onanaphylaxis"[14]
1914 Robert Bárány Template:Flagcountry "for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus"[15]
1915 [No award]
1916 [No award]
1917 [No award]
1918 [No award]
1919 Jules Bordet Template:Flagcountry "for his discoveries relating to immunity"[16]
1920 Schack August Steenberg Krogh Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the capillary motor regulating mechanism" (for showing that the gas exchange in the lungs is ordinary diffusion)[17]
1921 [No award]
1922* Archibald Vivian Hill Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery relating to the production of heat in the muscle"[18]
1922* Otto Fritz Meyerhof Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the fixed relationship between the consumption of oxygen and the metabolism of lactic acid in the muscle"[18]
1923 Frederick Grant Banting
John James Richard Macleod 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for the discovery of insulin"[19]
1924 Willem Einthoven Template:Flagcountry "for the discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram"[20]
1925 [No award]
1926 Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the Spiroptera carcinoma"[21]
1927 Julius Wagner-Jauregg Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the therapeutic value of malaria inoculation in the treatment of dementia paralytica"[22]
1928 Charles Jules Henri Nicolle Template:Flagcountry "for his work on typhus"[23]
1929* Christiaan Eijkman Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the antineuritic vitamin"[24]
1929* Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the growth-stimulating vitamins"[24]
1930 Karl Landsteiner Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of human blood groups"[25]
1931 Otto Heinrich Warburg Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme"[26]
1932 Sir Charles Scott Sherrington
Edgar Douglas Adrian 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons"[27]
1933 Thomas Hunt Morgan Template:Flagcountry "for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity"[28]
1934 George Hoyt Whipple
George Richards Minot
William Parry Murphy, 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia"[29]
1935 Hans Spemann Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the organizer effect in embryonic development"[30]
1936 Sir Henry Hallett Dale
Otto Loewi 		Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry 1903: Template:Flagcountry 1946: Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses"[31]
1937 Albert Szent-Györgyi von Nagyrapolt Template:Flagcountry "for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes, with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid"[32]
1938 Corneille Jean François Heymans Template:Flagcountry "for the discovery of the role played by the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the regulation of respiration"[33]
1939 Gerhard Domagk Template:Flagcountry "for the discovery of the antibacterial effects of prontosil"[34]
1940 [No award]
1941 [No award]
1942 [No award]
1943* Carl Peter Henrik Dam Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of vitamin K"[35]
1943* Edward Adelbert Doisy Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the chemical nature of vitamin K"[35]
1944 Joseph Erlanger
Herbert Spencer Gasser 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres"[36]
1945 Sir Alexander Fleming
Ernst Boris Chain
Sir Howard Walter Florey, 		Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry 		"for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases"[37]
1946 Hermann Joseph Muller Template:Flagcountry "for the discovery of the production of mutations by means of X-ray irradiation"[38]
1947* Carl Ferdinand Cori
Gerty Theresa Cori, née Radnitz 		Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen"[39]
1947* Bernardo Alberto Houssay Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the part played by the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe in the metabolism of sugar"[39]
1948 Paul Hermann Müller Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods"[40]
1949* Walter Rudolf Hess Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the functional organization of the interbrain as a coordinator of the activities of the internal organs"[41]
1949* Antonio Caetano De Abreu Freire Egas Moniz Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses"[41]
1950 Edward Calvin Kendall
Tadeusz Reichstein
Philip Showalter Hench 		Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects"[42]
1951 Max Theiler Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry "for his discoveries concerning yellow fever and how to combat it"[43]
1952 Selman Abraham Waksman Template:Flagcountry, 1916: Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis"[44]
1953* Hans Adolf Krebs Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the citric acid cycle"[45]
1953* Fritz Albert Lipmann Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of co-enzyme A and its importance for intermediary metabolism"[45]
1954 John Franklin Enders
Thomas Huckle Weller
Frederick Chapman Robbins 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue"[46]
1955 Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell Template:Flagcountry "for his discoveries concerning the nature and mode of action of oxidation enzymes"[47]
1956 André Frédéric Cournand
Werner Forssmann
Dickinson W. Richards 		Template:Flagcountry, 1941: Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system"[48]
1957 Daniel Bovet Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry "for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles"[49]
1958* George Wells Beadle
Edward Lawrie Tatum 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discovery that genes act by regulating definite chemical events"[50]
1958* Joshua Lederberg Template:Flagcountry "for his discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organization of the genetic material of bacteria"[50]
1959 Severo Ochoa
Arthur Kornberg 		Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid"[51]
1960 Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet
Peter Brian Medawar 		Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry 		"for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance"[52]
1961 Georg von Békésy Template:Flagcountry "for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea"[53]
1962 Francis Harry Compton Crick
James Dewey Watson
Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins 		Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material"[54]
1963 Sir John Carew Eccles
Alan Lloyd Hodgkin
Andrew Fielding Huxley 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane"[55]
1964 Konrad Bloch
Feodor Lynen 		Template:Flagcountry, Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism"[56]
1965 François Jacob
André Lwoff
Jacques Monod 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis"[57]
1966* Peyton Rous Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of tumour-inducing viruses"[58]
1966* Charles B. Huggins Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry "for his discoveries concerning hormonal treatment of prostatic cancer"[58]
1967 Ragnar Granit
Haldan Keffer Hartline
George Wald 		Template:Flagcountry 1940: Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye"[59]
1968 Robert W. Holley
Har Gobind Khorana
Marshall W. Nirenberg 		Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry 1966: Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis"[60]
1969 Max Delbrück
Alfred Hershey
Salvador E. Luria 		Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses"[61]
1970 Sir Bernard Katz
Ulf von Euler
Julius Axelrod 		Template:Flagcountry 1941: Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation"[62]
1971 Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. Template:Flagcountry "for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the action of hormones"[63]
1972 Gerald M. Edelman
Rodney R. Porter 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies"[64]
1973 Karl von Frisch
Konrad Lorenz
Nikolaas Tinbergen 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns"[65]
1974 Albert Claude
Christian de Duve
George E. Palade 		Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry 1952: Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell"[66]
1975 David Baltimore
Renato Dulbecco
Howard Martin Temin 		Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell"[67]
1976 Baruch S. Blumberg
D. Carleton Gajdusek 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases"[68]
1977* Roger Guillemin
Andrew Wiktor Schally 		Template:Flagcountry 1965: Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain"[69]
1977* Rosalyn Yalow Template:Flagcountry "for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones"[69]
1978 Werner Arber
Daniel Nathans
Hamilton O. Smith 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics"[70]
1979 Allan M. Cormack
Godfrey N. Hounsfield 		Template:Flagcountry 1966: Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry 		"for the development of computer assisted tomography"[71]
1980 Baruj Benacerraf
Jean Dausset
George D. Snell 		Template:Flagcountry 1943: Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions"[72]
1981* Roger W. Sperry Template:Flagcountry "for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres"[73]
1981* David H. Hubel
Torsten N. Wiesel 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system"[73]
1982 Sune Bergström
Bengt I. Samuelsson
John R. Vane 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances"[74]
1983 Barbara McClintock Template:Flagcountry "for her discovery of mobile genetic elements"[75]
1984 Niels K. Jerne
Georges J.F. Köhler
César Milstein 		Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry 		"for theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies"[76]
1985 Michael S. Brown
Joseph L. Goldstein 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the regulation of cholesterol metabolism"[77]
1986 Stanley Cohen
Rita Levi-Montalcini 		Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries of growth factors"[78]
1987 Susumu Tonegawa Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of the genetic principle for generation of antibody diversity"[79]
1988 Sir James W. Black
Gertrude B. Elion
George H. Hitchings 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment"[80]
1989 J. Michael Bishop
Harold E. Varmus 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes"[81]
1990 Joseph E. Murray
E. Donnall Thomas 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease"[82]
1991 Erwin Neher
Bert Sakmann 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells"[83]
1992 Edmond H. Fischer
Edwin G. Krebs 		Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism"[84]
1993 Richard J. Roberts
Phillip A. Sharp 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries of split genes"[85]
1994 Alfred G. Gilman
Martin Rodbell 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells"[86]
1995 Edward B. Lewis
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
Eric F. Wieschaus 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development"[87]
1996 Peter C. Doherty
Rolf M. Zinkernagel 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell mediated immune defence"[88]
1997 Stanley B. Prusiner Template:Flagcountry "for his discovery of Prions - a new biological principle of infection"[89]
1998 Robert F. Furchgott
Louis J. Ignarro
Ferid Murad 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system"[90]
1999 Günter Blobel Template:Flagcountry 1987: Template:Flagcountry "for the discovery that proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell"[91]
2000 Arvid Carlsson
Paul Greengard
Eric R. Kandel 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system"[92]
2001 Leland H. Hartwell
R. Timothy (Tim) Hunt
Sir Paul M. Nurse 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle"[93]
2002 Sydney Brenner
H. Robert Horvitz
John E. Sulston 		Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry 2003: Template:Flagcountry[94] (honorary);
Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning 'genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'"[95]
2003 Paul Lauterbur
Sir Peter Mansfield 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging"[96]
2004 Richard Axel
Linda B. Buck 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system"[97]
2005 Barry J. Marshall
J. Robin Warren 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease"[98]
2006 Andrew Z. Fire
Craig C. Mello 		Template:Flagcountry
Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing by double-stranded RNA"[99]
2007 Mario Capecchi
Sir Martin Evans
Oliver Smithies 		Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry;
Template:Flagcountry Template:Flagcountry 		"for their discoveries for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells."[100]

* Years with multiple motivations for a Nobel Prize.

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ "All Nobel Laureates in Medicine". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-27.
  2. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1901". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  3. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1902". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  4. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1903". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  5. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1904". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  6. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  7. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  8. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1907". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  9. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1908". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  10. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1909". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  11. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1910". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  12. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1911". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  13. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1912". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  14. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1913". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  15. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1914". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  16. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1919". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  17. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1920". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1922". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  19. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1923". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  20. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1924". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  21. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1926". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  22. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1927". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  23. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1928". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1929". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  25. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1930". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  26. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1931". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  27. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1932". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  28. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1933". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  29. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1934". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  30. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1935". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  31. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1936". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  32. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1937". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  33. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1938". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  34. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1939". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1943". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  36. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1944". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  37. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  38. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1946". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1947". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  40. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1948". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1949". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  42. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1950". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  43. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1951". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  44. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1952". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1953". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  46. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1954". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  47. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1955". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  48. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1956". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  49. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1957". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1958". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  51. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1959". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  52. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1960". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  53. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1961". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  54. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  55. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1963". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  56. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1964". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  57. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1965". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1966". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  59. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1967". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  60. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1968". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  61. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1969". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  62. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  63. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1971". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  64. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1972". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  65. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  66. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1974". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  67. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1975". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  68. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1976". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  70. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1978". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  71. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1979". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  72. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1980". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1981". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  74. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1982". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  75. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1983". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  76. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1984". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  77. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1985". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  78. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1986". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  79. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1987". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  80. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1988". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  81. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1989". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  82. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1990". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  83. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1991". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  84. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1992". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  85. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1993". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  86. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1994". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  87. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1995". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  88. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1996". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  89. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1997". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  90. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1998". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  91. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1999". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  92. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2000". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  93. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2001". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  94. ↑ "Sydney Brenner, PhD: Biography". 2005 IEEE Computational Systems Bioinformatics Conference. Retrieved 2007-08-14.
  95. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  96. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2003". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  97. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  98. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2005". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  99. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2006". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  100. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2007". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-10-08.

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