Categories
  Encyclosphere.org ENCYCLOREADER
  supported by EncyclosphereKSF

Air pollution in Turkey

From Wikipedia - Reading time: 25 min

Smog in Istanbul in the early 21st century

In Turkey, air pollution is the most lethal of the nation's environmental issues, with almost everyone across the country exposed to more than World Health Organization guidelines.[1]: 7  Over 30,000 people die each year from air pollution-related illnesses;[2] over 8% of the country's deaths. Air pollution is particularly damaging to children's health.[3] Researchers estimate that reducing air pollution to World Health Organization limits would save seven times the number of lives that were lost in traffic accidents in 2017.

Road transport in Turkish cities and coal in Turkey are major polluters, but the main factor affecting air pollution levels is vehicle density.[4] The number of vehicles traversing Turkey's roads has increased from 4 million in 1990 to 25 million in 2020.[4] Additionally, ambient air quality and national emissions ceilings do not meet EU standards, and unlike other European countries, many air pollution indicators are not available in Turkey. There is no limit on very small airborne particles (PM2.5), which cause lung diseases and, as of 2021 they have not been completely inventoried and are not officially reported.[5]: 11 

Cars and lorries emit diesel exhaust, particulates, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and other fumes in cities, but the first of several Turkish national electric cars is planned to start production in 2022. Low-quality lignite coal, burnt in cities and the oldest of the country's coal-fired power stations, is also a big part of the problem.[6] As of 2023 health impact assessment is not done in Turkey.[7]: 50 

In early 2020 air pollution in major cities fell significantly due to COVID-19 restrictions, but it started to rise again by the middle of the year. Right to Clean Air Platform Turkey and the Chamber of Environmental Engineers are among organisations campaigning for cleaner air.

Sources of air pollution

[edit]

Traffic

[edit]
See also: Vehicle emission standard § Turkey
Electric buses were introduced to Samsun in the early 2020s

In 2019 Istanbul had a dangerously high level of NO2 (over three times WHO guidelines).[8]: 11  Although Istanbul's urban smog had cleared by early 2020[9] air pollution in the city increased again once COVID-19 restrictions had been eased.[10] Increasing Turkey's proportion of electric cars in use to 10% by 2030 would also reduce greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey.[11] There are high purchase taxes on new cars[12] and in 2019 about 45% of cars were over 10 years old and energy-inefficient.[13] Continued electrification of the rail network and more high-speed line is one countermeasure being taken.[14] In 2020 strict enforcement of diesel truck emissions was suggested by Sabancı University as a way to get old, polluting vehicles off the road: also in that year tractors have a legal exemption to burn 1000 ppm sulfur diesel.[15]

Heating and cooking

[edit]

As of 2018, Turkish coal is still burnt for home heating in low-income districts of Ankara and some other cities,[16] which is bad because Turkish coal is very low-quality.[17]

Coal-fired power stations

[edit]
Health effects of coal-fired power stations in Turkey 2019[18]
See also: Coal in Turkey § Air pollution
Yeniköy Power Plant in Muğla

Emissions from coal-fired power stations cause severe impacts on public health. A report from the Health and Environment Alliance (HEAL) estimates that in 2019, there were almost 5,000 premature deaths caused by pollution from coal-fired power stations in Turkey, and over 1.4 million work-days lost to illness. The Director for Strategy and Campaigns said:[19]

Pollution from coal power plants puts everyone at risk of cardiovascular diseases, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer as well as acute respiratory infections. But it particularly affects those most vulnerable – pregnant women, children, the elderly, those already ill or poor.

The HEAL report estimates that the health costs of illness caused by coal-fired power stations make up between 13 and 27 percent of Turkey's total annual health expenditure (including both public and private sectors).[18]

Greenpeace Mediterranean say that the coal-fired power plants in Afşin-Elbistan are the power plants with the highest health risk in a European country, followed by Soma power station.[20][21]

Flue gas emission limits

[edit]
See also: Air quality law and Health and environmental impact of the coal industry § Air pollution

Since January 2020 flue gas emission limits in mg/Nm3 (milligrams per cubic metre) have been:[22][23]

Installed capacity of power plant Particulates SO2 NO2 CO
0.5 megawatt (MW) ≤ capacity < 5 MW 200 Desulfurisation system not required if the sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3) emissions are below 2000 mg/Nm3 . If the 2000 mg/Nm3 limit is exceeded, then SO2 emissions must be reduced to 10%. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions should be reduced by technical measures such as reducing the flame temperature by recirculating the flue gas. 200
5 MW ≤ capacity < 50 MW 150 200
50 MW ≤ capacity < 100 MW 50 850 400 150
capacity ≥ 100 MW 30 200 200 200

These limits allow more pollution than the EU Industrial Emissions Directive.[24][25] In China (which has a similar income per person), the limits for particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and NOx emissions are 10, 35, and 50 mg/m3, respectively.[26]

Passive smoking

[edit]
See also: Indoor air quality

More than a quarter of adults smoke in Turkey,[27] and secondhand smoking,[28] also known as passive smoking, is a danger in itself[29] and increases the risk of respiratory infection.[30]

Industry and construction

[edit]

Air pollution from cement production is one of the environmental impacts of concrete.[31] Although asbestos was completely banned in 2010, it can still be a risk when older buildings are demolished,[32] in dumps,[33] and in buildings in some rural areas where it occurs naturally.[34]

Types and levels

[edit]

Levels across the country are above World Health Organization guidelines.[35][36] There is no limit on PM2.5 and limits for other pollutants (except SO2) are above WHO guidelines:

Pollutant (μg/m3) Averaging time World Health Organization guideline[37] Turkey limit[38][39][40]
PM2.5 Annual 5 no limit: draft legislation proposes 30 decreasing to 25 by 2029
24 hour 15 no limit
PM10 Annual 15 40
24 hour 45 50
O3 Peak Season 60
8 hour 100 120
NO2 Annual 10 40
24 hour 25
Hourly 250
SO2 24 hour 40 20
Hourly 350
CO 24 hour 4000
8 hour 10000

Although there is some monitoring of air pollution, many air pollution indicators are not available.[41][42] The air quality index in Turkey does not include particles smaller than 2.5 microns (PM 2.5), but does include nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, tropospheric ozone and particles between 10 and 2.5 microns in diameter (PM10).[43] According to the OECD Turkey plans to meet EU limits by 2024.[44]

Particulates

[edit]

Like in other countries, particulates, such as from tyre wear of vehicles in cities, are a danger to people's lungs. Regulations in Turkey do not contain restrictions on particles less than 2.5 microns in diameter (PM 2.5), which cause lung diseases.[45] As of 2016 average PM2.5 concentration was 42μg/m3,[46] whereas 10 μg/m3 is the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline,[47] and is at dangerous levels in Batman, Hakkari, Siirt, Iğdır, Afyon, Gaziantep, Karaman, and Isparta.[48]

Nitrogen oxides

[edit]

Asthma is expensive to treat[49] and can be caused by nitrogen oxides. NO2 in cities such as Ankara is visible from satellites.[50] Existing diesel vehicles emit diesel exhaust NOx and other air pollutants in cities[51] but the first model of Turkish national electric car is planned to start production in 2022.[52]

Sulfur dioxide

[edit]

Emissions are mostly from coal-fired power stations, and rose 14% in 2019 to over a megatonne of the world total of 29 megatonnes: Kemerköy power station and the Afşin-Elbistan power stations polluted the surrounding areas with 300 kilotonnes each in 2019.[53]

Volatile organic compounds

[edit]

As of 2014 levels of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in Istanbul were on average similar to those in London and Paris but more variable, with maxima usually exceeding 10 ppb.[54]

Persistent organic pollutants

[edit]

The emission levels of persistent organic pollutants are regulated,[55] but totals for these emissions were not reported in 2019.[56]

Greenhouse gases

[edit]
Main article: Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey

As of 2018 Turkey emits one percent of the world's greenhouse gas emissions.[57] Because most of the air pollution is caused by burning fossil fuels, greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey would also be reduced by, for example, low emission zones for city traffic, and replacing the distribution of free coal with a different support for poor families.[58] In other words, helping to limit climate change would be a co-benefit of the main health benefits, and health improvement would be a co-benefit of climate change mitigation.

Monitoring and reporting

[edit]

In 2018 air quality data was available on the website of the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization for 16% of districts and the ministry plans for it to be available for all districts by 2023, increasing the number of monitoring stations to 380.[59] In 2023 the Right to Clean Air Platform said that half of the 360 monitoring stations were not working properly.[60] The Chamber of Environmental Engineers publishes a report every year based on this data. The ministry also continuously monitors smokestack emissions from 305 power plants and industrial sites to ensure they do not surpass the limits,[61] but this data is not published as Turkey has not ratified the Gothenburg Protocol on air pollution.[62] There are hourly, daily and yearly average limits for various pollutants in the area around a coal-fired power station, defined as a radius 50 times the chimney height:[63]

Pollutant Duration Unit Limit
SO2 Hourly (not to be exceeded more than 24 times in a year) μg/m3 350
24 hours 125
Long-term limit 60
Yearly and winter (1 Oct - 31 Mar) 20
NO2 Hourly (not to be exceeded more than 18 times in a year) 250 (200 from 2024)
Yearly 40
PM10 Hourly (not to be exceeded more than 35 times in a year) 50
Yearly 40
Pb Yearly 0.5
CO Maximum daily 8-hour average mg/m3 10
Cd Long-term limit μg/m3 0.02
HCI Short-term limit 150
Long-term limit 60
HF Hourly 30
Short-term limit 5
H2S Hourly 100
Short-term limit 20
Total organic compounds Hourly 280
Short-term limit 70
Settling dust Short-term limit mg/m2/day 390
Long-term limit 210
In settling dust Pb and compounds Long-term limit 250
Cd and compounds Long-term limit 3.75
Tl and compounds Long-term limit 5

[64]

Some industrial companies reach Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) 305 emissions standard.[65] There is a pollutant release and transfer register, but as of September 2024 no years are publicly searchable because it is not yet technically complete, and it is not known what exemptions will be granted.(see FAQ).[66]

Medical dangers

[edit]

About 8% of all deaths have been estimated to be due to air pollution.[67] However estimates of annual excess mortality vary between 37,000[68] and 60,000.[69]: 7  The Right to Clean Air Platform estimates at least 48,000 early deaths in 2021.[60] Air pollution is a health risk mainly due to burning fossil fuels, such as coal and diesel.[70][71] Researchers estimate that reducing air pollution to World Health Organization limits would save seven times the number of lives that were lost in traffic accidents in 2017.[72] Although in many places the health effects of air pollution cannot be estimated, because there is not enough monitoring of PM10 and PM2.5 particulates,[67][73] average excess loss of life (compared to how many would be lost if WHO air pollution guidelines were followed) is estimated to be 0.4 years per person[74] but this will vary by location because, as of 2019, air pollution is severe in some cities.[75] In general it increases the risk from respiratory infections, such as COVID-19,[76] especially in highly polluted cities such as Zonguldak,[77] but this is disputed for some places and more research is needed.[78]

Cities

[edit]
See also: List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration
Coal and wood are still burnt to heat some older buildings in some cities, although the yellow plaque shows that natural gas is available in the street.

Many cities in Turkey are more polluted than typical European cities.[79] For example the capital of neighbouring Bulgaria is introducing a low emission zone and restricting coal and wood burning.[80]

Istanbul

[edit]

Pollution has lessened since the 1990s.[81] But as of 2019, measured with the air quality index, Istanbul's air affects the hearts and respiratory systems even of healthy individuals during busy traffic.[82] NO2 is visible in measurements by Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3.[83]

Bursa

[edit]

As of 2020, industry located within the city of Bursa is a particular problem,[84] and it is said to have the worst air pollution in the country.[85] Breathing the air there is equivalent to smoking 38 packs of cigarettes a year.[85] NO2 is visible in satellite measurements.[86]

Ereğli

[edit]

A higher rate of multiple sclerosis may be related to local industry in Ereğli.[87]

Relationship to climate change

[edit]

Some of the sulphur compounds emitted from Turkey's coal-fired power station chimneys become stratospheric sulfur aerosols, which are the type of short-lived climate forcers which reflect sunlight back into space. However this cooling effect is temporary, as short-lived climate forcers are almost all gone from the atmosphere after 30 years.[88]: 7  Significant amounts of coal were burnt over 30 years ago, so the effect of that on global warming is dominated by CO2,[88]: 7  even though there were no limits on sulphur compounds until 2004.[89] Between 2004 and 2020, the limit on concentrations of sulphur compounds in flue gas was greatly reduced.[90]

Politics

[edit]

The Climate Change and Air Management Coordination Board is responsible for coordination between government departments. As of 2019, however, according to the EU, better coordinated policies need to be established and implemented.[75]

Economics

[edit]

The impact of air pollution on the economy via damage to health may be billions of dollars, and an attempt to estimate this more precisely began in 2019.[91] A study of 2015-16 hospital admissions in Erzincan estimated direct costs of air pollution as 2.5% of the total health-related expenditures for the 15–34 and over 65 age groups, but stated that the total cost is likely much higher:[92] for example, the economic costs of the reductions in the intelligence of adults[93] and children[94] have not been estimated. According to medical group Health and Environment Alliance (HEAL), reducing PM 2.5 air pollution in the country would substantially increase GDP.[95] According to the OECD, in 2019 bitumen's exemption from special consumption tax was a subsidy of 5.9 billion lira.[96] Bitumen, also known as asphalt, is used for road surfaces and in hot weather releases secondary organic aerosols, which can damage people's health in cities.[97]

International

[edit]

As of 2019, ambient air quality and national emissions ceilings are not up to EU standards.[75] As of 2020 Turkey has not ratified the Gothenburg Protocol,[98] although it has ratified the original Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution[99] and those reports are public.[5] Pollution affects neighbouring countries.[100][101] The Armenian Nuclear Power Plant, 16 km over the border, is old and said to be insufficiently earthquake proof[102][103] and vulnerable to military attack.[104]

Proposed solutions

[edit]

In the Constitution of Turkey, Article 56 reads, "Everyone has the right to live in a healthy and balanced environment. It is the duty of the State and citizens to improve the natural environment, to protect the environmental health and to prevent environmental pollution."[105]

According to the Eleventh Development Plan (2019-2023), all districts will be monitored by 2023 and:

Air quality management practices will be enabled to prevent air pollution from production, heating and traffic, and air quality will be improved by controlling emissions.

Air quality action plans will be prepared at local level and legislation on pollution and emission control will be updated.

Air quality management capacity will be improved by strengthening regional clean air centres.

Research on air quality modelling and monitoring will be conducted and infrastructure will be developed.[59]

Quitting coal[106] is said to be essential, and the market share of diesel cars is falling.[107] Strengthening environmental laws is said to benefit the economy of Turkey.[108] The Ministry of the Environment has drafted a law limiting PM 2.5 but it has not yet been passed.[109] According to the HEAL, over 500 premature deaths could be avoided per year by shutting down three power stations in Muğla.[110]

Electric ferryboats have been proposed for the Bosphoros.[111][112][113] A low-emission zone for road traffic has been suggested for Istanbul[114] and it has been suggested that Turkey's vehicle tax system should be changed to better charge for pollution.[115] More green space is suggested for cities.[116] Seven regional clean air centers have been created and the deputy environment minister said in 2020 that low-emissions areas will be created and bike lanes increased.[61]

History

[edit]

Lead was first smelted around 5000 BC in Anatolia and in 535 AD Justinian I acknowledged the importance of clean air.[117] In the 19th century air pollution was thought of in terms of miasma, the idea that foul smells could cause disease.[118] Due to the high cost of oil after the 1970s oil crisis, cities burnt more lignite for residential heating. An Air Pollution Control Regulation was issued in the 1980s and air quality monitoring began in that decade.[119] In early 2020 most air pollution in major cities fell significantly due to the COVID-19 restrictions,[120] but tropospheric ozone (a leading cause of smog) increased as there were fewer particles to block the sunlight.[121] Air pollution started to rise again by the middle of the year.[36]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Regional Outlook 2021" (PDF). OECD. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-10-27. Retrieved 2021-10-28.
  2. ^ "Air and climate - Air pollution effects - OECD Data". theOECD. Retrieved 2022-07-30.
  3. ^ Harvey, Fiona (2023-04-23). "Europe 'failing its children' on air pollution, EEA says". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-04-24.
  4. ^ a b Birpınar, Mehmet Emin (2020-10-27). "New green space trend in city centers: Vertical gardens". Daily Sabah. Archived from the original on 2020-11-09. Retrieved 2020-11-09.
  5. ^ a b Turkey's Informative Inventory Report (IIR) 2021 (PDF). Çevre Yönetimi Genel Müdürlüğü (Report).
  6. ^ TMMOB (2020).
  7. ^ "Implementation of health impact assessment and health in environmental assessment across the WHO European Region". www.who.int. Retrieved 2024-07-22.
  8. ^ Air Pollution and Health in Cities (PDF). State of Global Air (Report). 2022. ISSN 2578-6881.
  9. ^ "Coronavirus aftermath: Going back to old habits threatens strides made in clean air, expert says". Daily Sabah. 2020-03-25. Archived from the original on 2020-12-04. Retrieved 2020-09-17.
  10. ^ "Air pollution returns in Turkey's 'new normal'". Daily Sabah. 2020-07-07. Archived from the original on 2020-09-03. Retrieved 2020-09-17.
  11. ^ "Transport sector transformation: Integrating electric vehicles into Turkey's distribution grids" (PDF). p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-08-01. Retrieved 2019-12-26.
  12. ^ Bloomberg (2020-08-31). "Turkey raises taxes to discourage car imports amid virus slump". CarSifu. Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-10-23.
  13. ^ SaygınTörTeimourzadehKoç (2019), p. 16.
  14. ^ "Halkalı Kapıkule High Speed Train Project will Reduce Accidents and Air Pollution". Archived from the original on 2020-09-19. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  15. ^ "Turkey Energy Outlook" (PDF). Sabancı University Istanbul International Center for Energy and Climate. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-06-01. Retrieved 2020-12-08.
  16. ^ Kadılar, Gamze Özel; Kadılar, Cem (2018). "Air pollution analysis for Ankara by air pollution index highly correlated with meteorological variables". American Institute of Physics Conference Series. AIP Conference Proceedings. 1991 (1): 020014. Bibcode:2018AIPC.1991b0014K. doi:10.1063/1.5047887.
  17. ^ "Turkey". Euracoal. 2020-02-16. Archived from the original on 2018-10-27. Retrieved 2020-09-23.
  18. ^ a b Gacal, Funda; Stauffer, Anne (January 2021). "Chronic coal pollution Turkey. The health burden caused by coal power in Turkey and how to stop the coal addiction" (PDF). Health and Environment Alliance. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-06-07. Retrieved 2021-07-20.
  19. ^ Gacal, Funda; Stauffer, Anne (2021-02-04). "Pollution from coal power costs Turkey as much as 27% of its total health expenditure – new report Turkey". Health and Environment Alliance. Archived from the original on 2021-05-09.
  20. ^ Üzüm, İpek (28 May 2014). "Greenpeace warns about threat of Turkey's coal-fired power plants". Today's Zaman. Istanbul: Feza Publications. Archived from the original on 26 December 2015. Retrieved 25 December 2015.
  21. ^ Tuna, Banu (11 September 2014). "Greenpeace activists detained in Turkey for protesting thermal power plant". Hürriyet Daily News. Doğan Media Group. Archived from the original on 26 December 2015. Retrieved 25 December 2015.
  22. ^ "Sanayi̇ Kaynaklı Hava Ki̇rli̇li̇ği̇ni̇n Kontrolü Yönetmeli̇ği̇nde Deği̇şi̇kli̇k Yapılmasına Dai̇r Yönetmeli̇k" [Regulation Amending the Regulation on Control of Industrial Air Pollution]. Resmî Gazete (29211): Appx 1 page 15. 20 December 2014. Archived from the original on 27 February 2019. Retrieved 22 February 2019.
  23. ^ "Emission standards: Turkey" (PDF). International Energy Agency. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-10-09. Retrieved 2019-11-25.
  24. ^ Aytaç (2020), p. 241.
  25. ^ "Level of ambition with respect to SO2, Dust and NOx emission levels in the LCPD, the IPPCD and the IED — European Environment Agency". www.eea.europa.eu. 12 December 2018. Archived from the original on 2020-08-04. Retrieved 2020-08-23.
  26. ^ Tang, Ling; Qu, Jiabao (2019). "Substantial emission reductions from Chinese power plants after the introduction of ultra-low emissions standards". ResearchGate. Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  27. ^ "Turkey bans sale of hand-rolled cigarettes, sellers to be sentenced". Daily Sabah. 2020-07-01. Archived from the original on 2021-01-07. Retrieved 2020-09-23.
  28. ^ "More restrictions, inspections next step in fight against smoking". Daily Sabah. 2019-10-03. Archived from the original on 2019-10-04. Retrieved 2020-09-23.
  29. ^ Kose, Elif; Ozcebe, Hilal (2017-12-01). "Tobacco Epidemic Keeps Spreading Among Turkish Youth". Eurasian Journal of Pulmonology. 19 (3): 139–146. doi:10.5152/ejp.2017.27880. Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-09-23.
  30. ^ Sonmez, Ozlem; Taşdemir, Zeynep Atam; Kara, H. Volkan; Akçay, Sule (2020-08-01). "Tobacco and COVID-19". Eurasian Journal of Pulmonology. 22 (4): 12. doi:10.4103/ejop.ejop_52_20. ISSN 2148-5402. S2CID 221462954. Archived from the original on 2021-01-16. Retrieved 2020-09-23.
  31. ^ Bildirici, Melike E. (2020-01-01). "The relationship between cement production, mortality rate, air quality, and economic growth for China, India, Brazil, Turkey, and the USA: MScBVAR and MScBGC analysis". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 27 (2): 2248–2263. doi:10.1007/s11356-019-06586-w. ISSN 1614-7499. PMID 31776902. S2CID 208329667.
  32. ^ "Asbestos continues to threaten public health in Turkey". www.duvarenglish.com. 30 December 2019. Archived from the original on 2021-01-23. Retrieved 2020-10-23.
  33. ^ "Asbestos Hill: a cover-up". theblacksea.eu. Archived from the original on 2020-12-30. Retrieved 2020-10-23.
  34. ^ Metintas, Selma; Ak, Guntulu; Metintas, Muzaffer (2020-11-16). "Potential years of life and productivity loss due to malignant mesothelioma in Turkey". Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health. 75 (8): 464–470. doi:10.1080/19338244.2020.1747380. ISSN 1933-8244. PMID 32282287. S2CID 215758099.
  35. ^ IEA (2021), p. 44.
  36. ^ a b "Air pollution increases in Turkey as researchers struggle to access vital data - Turkey News". Hürriyet Daily News. 2020-08-15. Archived from the original on 2020-08-16. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  37. ^ "WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 2021-09-23. Retrieved 2021-09-23.
  38. ^ "Konsantrasyon: Ulusal Sınır Değer". Archived from the original on 2020-10-12. Retrieved 2021-09-23.
  39. ^ "Air Pollution in Istanbul" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-04-15. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
  40. ^ "'Turkey should comply with WHO's new air quality limit values'".
  41. ^ "Air Pollution Report 2018". www.cmo.org.tr. TMMOB Çevre Mühendisleri Odası. Archived from the original on 2020-06-28. Retrieved 2020-09-17.
  42. ^ "Turkey - state of the environment reporting — European Environment Agency". www.eea.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 2020-12-29. Retrieved 2020-09-17.
  43. ^ "Sürekli İzleme Merkezi" [Continuous Monitoring Center]. www.havaizleme.gov.tr. Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning (Turkey). Archived from the original on 2019-08-20. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  44. ^ OECD (2021), p. 61.
  45. ^ "Covid-19 Quarantine has Cleaned the Air of Turkey, What Should be Done Next?". Bianet. 22 April 2020. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 21 August 2020.
  46. ^ "GHO | By category | Exposure - Country average". WHO. Archived from the original on 2020-10-27. Retrieved 2020-10-24.
  47. ^ EEA (2019), p. 199.
  48. ^ "World Health Organization report raises alarm about bad air in Turkish cities". Hürriyet Daily News. 15 February 2017. Archived from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 10 April 2019.
  49. ^ Bavbek, S.; Malhan, S.; Mungan, D.; Misirligil, Z.; Erdinc, M.; Gemicioglu, B.; Oguzulgen, K.; Oksuz, E.; Yıldız, F.; Yorgancioglu, A. (2020). "Economic burden of severe asthma in Turkey: a cost of illness study from payer perspective". European Annals of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 53 (3): 128–137. doi:10.23822/EurAnnACI.1764-1489.149. ISSN 1764-1489. PMID 32372589.
  50. ^ "Plots | OCO-3 SAM". ocov3.jpl.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2021-03-22. Retrieved 2020-11-18.
  51. ^ Tezel-Oguz, Melike Nese; Sari, Deniz; Ozkurt, Nesimi; Keskin, S. Sinan (2020-06-22). "Application of reduction scenarios on traffic-related NOx emissions in Trabzon, Turkey". Atmospheric Pollution Research. 11 (12): 2379–2389. doi:10.1016/j.apr.2020.06.014. ISSN 1309-1042. S2CID 225739363. Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-09-13.
  52. ^ "Turkey Starts New Journey in Automotive Industry" (PDF). Investment Office. February 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-01-12. Retrieved 2020-08-21.
  53. ^ "Ranking the World's Sulfur Dioxide Hotspots: 2019-2020" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-10-29.
  54. ^ Thera, Bayetoulaye; Borbon, Agnès; Gaimoz, Cécile; Sauvage, Stéphane; Salameh, Thérèse; Afif, Charbel; Öztürk, Fatma; Keleș, Melek; Çetin, Banu; Ünal, Alper (2018). "Gaseous organic pollution in Istanbul megacity: composition and source apportionment during the TRANSEMED/ChArMEx experiment" (PDF). EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts: 17257. Bibcode:2018EGUGA..2017257T. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-04-10. Retrieved 2019-04-10.
  55. ^ "Kalıcı Organi̇k Ki̇rleti̇ci̇ler Hakkında Yönetmeli̇k" [Regulation of Persistent Organic Pollutants]. www.resmigazete.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 2021-04-10. Retrieved 2020-08-23.
  56. ^ EEA (2019), p. 241.
  57. ^ "Turkey's greenhouse gas emissions fall for second year in a row". Daily Sabah. 2020-03-31. Archived from the original on 2020-04-02. Retrieved 2020-08-21.
  58. ^ HALİSÇELİK, Ergül (2017). "How to Deliver Free Coal to the Poor Families? Turkey Case". Yönetim ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi / Journal of Management and Economics Research: 40–57. doi:10.11611/yead.373439. Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  59. ^ a b Eleventh Development Plan (2019-2023) (PDF) (Report). Presidency of Strategy and Budget. 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-09-25. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
  60. ^ a b "Temiz Hava Hakkı Platformu: Türkiye'nin tüm illeri kirli hava soluyor, deprem bölgesinde kirlilik, kılavuz değerlerin 7,5 katı". BBC News Türkçe (in Turkish). 2023-03-23. Retrieved 2023-03-24.
  61. ^ a b Kızıl, Nurbanu (2020-01-02). "2019 was year of policy, 2020 to be year of action for greener Turkey, deputy environment minister says". Daily Sabah. Archived from the original on 2020-03-22. Retrieved 2020-10-23.
  62. ^ "United Nations Treaty Collection". treaties.un.org. Archived from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  63. ^ Aytaç (2020), p. 239.
  64. ^ Aytaç (2020), p. 240.
  65. ^ Hoştut, Sibel; Deren van het Hof, Seçil (2020-01-01). "Greenhouse gas emissions disclosure: comparing headquarters and local subsidiaries". Social Responsibility Journal. 16 (6): 899–915. doi:10.1108/SRJ-11-2019-0377. ISSN 1747-1117. S2CID 219069970.
  66. ^ "Pollutant Release and Transfer Register".
  67. ^ a b Kara Rapor 2020: Hava Kirliliği ve Sağlık Etkileri [Black Report 2020: Air Pollution and Heath Effects] (Report) (in Turkish). Right to Clean Air Platform Turkey. August 2020. Archived from the original on 2020-11-26. Retrieved 2020-08-12.
  68. ^ Akyuz, Ezgi; Samavati, Mehrdad; Kaynak, Burcak (2020-08-14). "Spatial distribution of health risks associated with PM2.5 in Turkey and Iran using satellite and ground observations". Atmospheric Pollution Research. 11 (12): 2350–2360. doi:10.1016/j.apr.2020.08.011. ISSN 1309-1042. S2CID 225477420. Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-10-25.
  69. ^ "Still Not Getting Energy Prices Right: A Global and Country Update of Fossil Fuel Subsidies". Archived from the original on 2021-10-17. Retrieved 2021-10-17.
  70. ^ "Six coal-fired plants continue to emit thick smoke after end of suspension". bianet. 2 July 2020. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
  71. ^ "Turkey: Air Pollution | IAMAT". www.iamat.org. Archived from the original on 2020-07-04. Retrieved 2020-07-04.
  72. ^ Hava Kirliliği ve Sağlık Etkileri Kara Rapor (PDF). 11 May 2019. p. 56. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 June 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
  73. ^ "Report: Air pollution becoming more lethal in Turkey while scientists struggle to access data". Bianet. 13 August 2020. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2020.
  74. ^ "The Air Quality Life Index (AQLI)". AQLI. Archived from the original on 2020-08-20. Retrieved 2020-08-21.
  75. ^ a b c EC (2019), p. 93.
  76. ^ "Science in 5 - Episode #9 - Air pollution & COVID-19". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 2020-10-23. Retrieved 2020-11-18.
  77. ^ Ugurtas, Selin (2020-04-17). "Coronavirus outbreak exposes health risks of coal rush". Al-Monitor. Archived from the original on 2020-04-21. Retrieved 2020-04-18.
  78. ^ Coşkun, Hamit; Yıldırım, Nazmiye; Gündüz, Samettin (2021). "The spread of COVID-19 virus through population density and wind in Turkey cities". Science of the Total Environment. 751: 141663. Bibcode:2021ScTEn.75141663C. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141663. PMC 7418640. PMID 32866831.
  79. ^ "Pant by numbers: the cities with the most dangerous air – listed". The Guardian. 13 February 2017. Archived from the original on 23 February 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2019.
  80. ^ "Eastern European cities welcome first low-emission zones - Eurocities". 4 May 2023.
  81. ^ Sevi̇moğlu, Orhan (2020-04-01). "Assessment of Major Air Pollution Sources in Efforts of Long Term Air Quality Improvement in İstanbul". Sakarya Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi. 24 (2): 389–405. doi:10.16984/saufenbilder.586655. ISSN 1301-4048. Archived from the original on 2020-12-13. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
  82. ^ "Understanding Vehicular Pollution – AQI, Harmful Effects and How to Reduce It?". News18. 1 March 2019. Archived from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 10 April 2019.
  83. ^ "Plots | OCO-3 SAM". ocov3.jpl.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2021-03-22. Retrieved 2020-11-18.
  84. ^ Caliskan, Burak; Özengin, Nihan; Cindoruk, S. Sıddık (2020-05-25). "Air quality level, emission sources and control strategies in Bursa/Turkey". Atmospheric Pollution Research. 11 (12): 2182–2189. doi:10.1016/j.apr.2020.05.016. ISSN 1309-1042. S2CID 219734716. Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-08-23.
  85. ^ a b DHA, Daily Sabah with (2020-01-06). "Air pollution in big cities as harmful as smoking". Daily Sabah. Archived from the original on 2020-10-31. Retrieved 2020-08-23.
  86. ^ "Plots | OCO-3 SAM". ocov3.jpl.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2021-03-22. Retrieved 2020-11-18.
  87. ^ Börü, Ülkü Türk; Bölük, Cem; Taşdemir, Mustafa; Gezer, Tuğçe; Serim, Vedat Ataman (2020). "Air pollution, a possible risk factor for multiple sclerosis". Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 141 (5): 431–437. doi:10.1111/ane.13223. ISSN 1600-0404. PMID 31954069. S2CID 210715563.
  88. ^ a b Naik, Vaishali; Szopa, Sophie; Adhikary, Bhupesh; Artaxo Netto, Paulo Eduardo; et al. (2021). "Chapter 6:Short-lived climate forcers" (PDF). AR6 Climate Change 2021:The Physical Science Basis. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-08-28. Retrieved 2021-08-26.
  89. ^ "Emission standards: Turkey" (PDF). International Energy Agency. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-10-09. Retrieved 2019-11-25.
  90. ^ Şimşek, Barış (2021-05-31). "Turkey's cities with thermal power plants breath 46% cleaner now". Daily Sabah. Archived from the original on 2021-06-10. Retrieved 2021-08-26.
  91. ^ Ozdemir, Huseyin; et al. "Quantification of the Impact of Air Pollution on Human Health and Economy in Turkey using the EVA System" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-10-25.
  92. ^ Unver, Edhem (2019). "The Effect of Air Pollution on Respiratory System Disease Admissions and Health Expenditures". Eurasian Journal of Medical Investigation. doi:10.14744/ejmi.2019.56609. S2CID 86515826.
  93. ^ "Air pollution linked to "huge" reduction in intelligence". UN Environment. 2018-10-11. Archived from the original on 2019-07-01. Retrieved 2019-07-01.
  94. ^ Trasande, Leonardo (2019-06-25). "Banning dangerous chemicals could save the US billions | Leonardo Trasande". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2019-07-01. Retrieved 2019-07-01.
  95. ^ "Air Pollution and Health in Turkey Facts, Figures and Recommendations" (PDF). Health and Environment Alliance (HEAL). Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
  96. ^ "Fossil Fuel Support - TUR". stats.oecd.org. Archived from the original on 2020-11-12. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
  97. ^ Newburger, Emma (2020-09-02). "As Earth overheats, asphalt is releasing harmful air pollutants in cities". CNBC. Archived from the original on 2020-11-03. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
  98. ^ "United Nations Treaty Collection". treaties.un.org. Archived from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  99. ^ "United Nations Treaty Collection". treaties.un.org. Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  100. ^ Triantafyllou, E.; Diapouli, E.; Korras-Carraca, Μ. Β.; Manousakas, M.; Psanis, C.; Floutsi, A. A.; Spyrou, C.; Eleftheriadis, K.; Biskos, G. (2020-04-01). "Contribution of locally-produced and transported air pollution to particulate matter in a small insular coastal city". Atmospheric Pollution Research. 11 (4): 667–678. doi:10.1016/j.apr.2019.12.015. ISSN 1309-1042. S2CID 213971565. Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-08-23.
  101. ^ "Transboundary air pollution by sulphur, nitrogen, ozone and particulate matter in 2018: Turkey" (PDF). Norwegian Meteorological Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-12-03. Retrieved 2021-07-21.
  102. ^ Mersom, Daryl. "The city in the shadow of an ageing nuclear reactor". www.bbc.com. Archived from the original on 2020-08-24. Retrieved 2020-09-17.
  103. ^ "The Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant: A time bomb at Turkey's eastern border". www.duvarenglish.com. 13 January 2020. Archived from the original on 2020-08-08. Retrieved 2020-09-17.
  104. ^ "Baku, Yerevan exchange statements on possibility of striking critical infrastructure". TASS. Archived from the original on 2020-08-04. Retrieved 2020-09-17.
  105. ^ "Constitution of Turkey" (PDF). global.tbmm.gov.tr. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-02-09. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
  106. ^ Kara, Orkide Nur (2018). "Air pollution in Istanbul" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-04-15. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
  107. ^ Sandık, Ufuk (2020-08-10). "Diesel cars lose market share in EU, Turkey". Daily Sabah. Archived from the original on 2020-09-18. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
  108. ^ Mert, Mehmet; Caglar, Abdullah Emre (2020). "Testing pollution haven and pollution halo hypotheses for Turkey: a new perspective". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 27 (26): 32933–32943. doi:10.1007/s11356-020-09469-7. PMC 7283984. PMID 32524397.
  109. ^ "Coronavirus Clings to Solid Particles Causing Air Pollution". Archived from the original on 2020-07-13. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
  110. ^ Jensen (2018), p. 14.
  111. ^ Kara, Orkide Nur (2018). "Air pollution in Istanbul" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-04-15. Retrieved 2020-09-21. When operating at a short distance, a ferry needs a battery that can be charged in the time they are in port. The charging time for short distance ferries is short and therefore the service of transport can stay optimal.
  112. ^ "Why cities must make more of their rivers". Financial Times. 3 September 2020. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
  113. ^ "Istanbul ferries to run 24/7 once plan gets green light from city council". Duvar. 2020-01-27. Archived from the original on 2020-08-01. Retrieved 2020-12-02. Dedetaş also said that among their future plans is to put electric ferries into operation due to environmental purposes.
  114. ^ ALPHAN, Melis (20 February 2017). "Yetti artık İstanbul'un trafiği!". www.hurriyet.com.tr (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2020-12-03. Retrieved 2020-09-14.
  115. ^ Kaynak, Mert. "Motorlu Taşıtlar Vergisine Yeni Bir Model Önerisi: Mesafe Temelli Motorlu Taşıtlar Vergisi". Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-09-14.
  116. ^ Çetin, Ç; Karafakı, F. C. (2019). "The influence of green areas on city-dwellers' perceptions of air pollution: The case of Nigde city center" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
  117. ^ Mosley, Stephen (2014). "Environmental History of Air Pollution and Protection" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-10-28. Retrieved 2020-09-14. By the law of nature these things are common to mankind – the air, running water, [and] the sea
  118. ^ Özeren, Deni̇z (October 2019). "The Dirt of Istanbul: Coping With Pollution in the 19th Century" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
  119. ^ Atimtay, Aysel T; Incecik, Selahattin. "Air Pollution Problem in Istanbul, Turkey and Strategical Efforts in Air Quality Management". Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2020-09-22.
  120. ^ "Turkey: Air clears up due to measures to fight virus". Archived from the original on 2020-07-23. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  121. ^ Aydın, Serdar; Nakiyingi, Betina Assumpta; Esmen, Cengiz; Güneysu, Sinan; Ejjada, Meena (2020-08-13). "Environmental impact of coronavirus (COVID-19) from Turkish perceptive". Environment, Development and Sustainability. 23 (5): 7573–7580. doi:10.1007/s10668-020-00933-5. ISSN 1573-2975. PMC 7424131. PMID 32837285.

Sources

[edit]
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Air pollution in Turkey.
Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 | Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution_in_Turkey
7 views |
↧ Download as ZWI file
Encyclosphere.org EncycloReader is supported by the EncyclosphereKSF