Brazil in World War II

Brazil officially entered World War II on August 22, 1942, when it declared war against the Axis powers, including Germany and Italy. On February 8, 1943, Brazil formally joined the Allies upon signing the Declaration by United Nations. Although Brazil was considered a secondary Allied power, it was the largest contributor from South America.^[1] The country played a significant role in the war effort by providing essential natural resources, hosting strategic air and naval bases, participating significantly in the Battle of the Atlantic, and deploying an expeditionary force to the Italian Campaign. Notably, Brazil was the only South American country, and one of the few outside the direct theaters of war, to send combat troops overseas during the conflict.^[2]

Leading up to the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Brazil adhered to a policy of strict neutrality and maintained positive commercial and diplomatic relations with both Allied and Axis powers. Brazilian President Getúlio Vargas, whose administration was ideologically sympathetic to fascism, initially aimed to leverage Brazil's strategic importance to secure favorable trade agreements from both sides. Despite Brazil's traditionally strong ties with the United States, by 1940 the country had become Germany's leading export market outside Europe and its ninth largest trading partner. Additionally, Brazil hosted significant and influential German, Italian, and Japanese diaspora communities.

Brazil's Foreign policy progressed through three different phases. Brazil had the most freedom during the first phase (1935–1940) when they played Germany and the United States against one another. It stopped German political infiltration by using its domestic and commercial strategies. Brazil was unable to employ the implicit threat of joining or assisting the Axis to deal with the United States during the second phase (1940–1942). Brazil's options continued to dwindle at this time, and it was unsure of its goals. Brazil confronted a United States that was unconcerned with Brazilian pretenses and implementing policies meant to maintain a united front against the Axis in the third phase (1943–1945), with its goals clearly established. These measures extended American supremacy in Brazil and negated Brazilian efforts. Brazilian policies appear to have helped, rather than hindered, American penetration, particularly during this time. ^[3]

As the conflict progressed, Brazil's trade with the Axis powers led to increased diplomatic and economic pressure from the Allies. Following the entry of the United States into the war in December 1941, the Joint Brazil-U.S. Defense Commission was established to strengthen bilateral military ties and minimize Axis influence.^[4] In pursuit of economic assistance from the United States, Brazil severed diplomatic relations with Germany, Japan, and Italy in January 1942, and allowed the establishment of U.S. air bases on Brazilian soil to counter Axis naval activities.^[5] Despite its formal stance of neutrality and reluctance to engage in direct conflict, these actions provoked immediate reprisals from the Axis powers.^[6] By mid-August, 36 Brazilian merchant vessels had been sunk and nearly 2,000 Brazilian sailors had lost their lives, prompting Brazil to formally declare war.^[7]

Although Brazil's economy and military were relatively underdeveloped, the country fully committed its industrial capacity and armed forces to the war effort, supported by significant U.S. investment. From mid-1942 until the conclusion of World War II, the Brazilian Navy and Air Force actively contributed to protecting Allied shipping. Brazil's northeast region became a fortified base for projecting Allied air power across the Atlantic. Between September 1944 and May 1945, Brazil deployed 25,700 troops to the Italian front. During the conflict, Brazil incurred losses including 1,889 soldiers and sailors, 31 merchant vessels, three warships, and 22 fighter aircraft. Brazil's participation in the war enhanced its global prestige and marked its emergence as a significant international power.

Brazil's maritime losses were a significant factor in its decision to declare war on Germany and Italy.^[8] The country's traditional isolationist stance naturally positioned it against "disturbers of the international order and trade." Public sentiment and government actions culminated in Brazil's declaration of war on Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in August 1942. That same year, American incentives and diplomatic pressure led to the establishment of airbases along the northeastern coast of Brazil.^[9][10]

At the time, Brazil's population was predominantly rural and faced high levels of illiteracy, with an economy centered on commodity exports. The country lacked the industrial, medical, and educational infrastructure necessary to fully support the war effort.^[9][10] The Brazilian Expeditionary Force, which was planned following the Potenji River Conference and the Casablanca Conference, was not formally established until a year after the declaration of war.

The Brazilian Expeditionary Force was deployed to the front in July 1944, nearly two years after Brazil's declaration of war, and was integrated into the Allied 15th Army Group. Of the 100,000 troops originally planned, approximately 25,000 were sent to Italy. Upon arrival, the Brazilian Expeditionary Force, trained and equipped by American forces, carried out the primary missions assigned by the Allied command.^[11][12]

In February 1942, German and Italian submarines began targeting Brazilian vessels in the Atlantic Ocean. This was influenced by Brazil’s adherence to the Atlantic Charter, which mandated automatic alignment with any American continent nation attacked by a foreign power.^[13][14]

Brazil’s gradual alignment with the United States was significant for its government, especially in light of German and Italian attempts to interfere in Brazilian internal affairs. The implementation of the Estado Novo made it increasingly difficult to maintain stable trade relations with these countries, particularly due to British and later American naval pressure. An element of this pressure was President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor policy, which included economic and commercial incentives such as financing the construction of the Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional (CSN).^[15][16][17] Reports at the time stated that the United States had planned to invade the northeast of Brazil (Plan Rubber) if Getúlio Vargas insisted on maintaining Brazil's neutrality.^[18][19]

In 1942, following the U.S. proposal to finance the CSN, American forces established aircraft bases along Brazil's North-Northeast coast. The most notable of these was in Parnamirim, near Natal in the state of Rio Grande do Norte, known as the "Trampoline of Victory" ("Trampolim da Vitória" in Portuguese). This base played a crucial role in the Allied war effort, particularly before the Anglo-American landing in North Africa in November 1942 during Operation Torch. With the stabilization of the Italian front and the diminishing German submarine threat by late 1943, the American bases in Brazil were gradually deactivated in 1944-45. However, the U.S. maintained a presence on Fernando de Noronha until 1960.^[15]

Attacks by Axis submarines on Brazilian ships between 1941 and 1944 resulted in the deaths of over a thousand individuals and were a key factor in Brazil's entry into World War II. Until that point, Brazil had maintained a neutral stance. During this period, thirty-five Brazilian ships were targeted, with thirty-two being sunk.^{[note 1]} The frequency of attacks increased markedly after Brazil severed diplomatic relations with the Axis powers on January 28, 1942. The situation escalated dramatically in August 1942, when six ships were sunk within just two days, resulting in over 600 casualties. This surge in attacks prompted Brazil to officially declare war on the Axis on August 21, 1942.

In 1943, despite significant enhancements in patrolling and anti-submarine warfare measures through joint Brazilian and American operations, Axis submarines continued their assaults in the South Atlantic, particularly off the coasts of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The majority of the targeted vessels were merchant or mixed cargo and passenger ships, primarily belonging to major shipping companies such as Lloyd Brasileiro, Lloyd Nacional, and Costeira.^{[note 2]} Smaller shipping companies and regional shipowners were also affected,^{[note 3]} as well as vessels owned by regional shipowners and seafarers, including the barge Jacira and the fishing boat Shangri-lá. Lloyd Brasileiro, the largest of these companies, suffered the greatest losses, with 21 of its vessels attacked and 19 sunk.

The Brazilian Navy experienced the loss of three warships during World War II:

• Vital de Oliveira: An auxiliary ship torpedoed by U-861 on July 19, 1944, while en route to Rio de Janeiro after stops in the Northeast and Espírito Santo. It was the last Brazilian ship to be torpedoed in the war;^[20]
• Camaquã: A corvette that capsized in a storm on July 21, 1944, resulting in the deaths of 23 crew members;^[20]
• Bahia: A cruiser that sank on July 4, 1945, after accidentally detonating its own depth charges during gunnery practice, with 333 casualties;^[20]Additionally, the ships Cabedelo and Shangri-lá did not survive the conflict.

The "Atlantic Belt", the narrowest stretch between South America and Africa, was fortified to disrupt the flow of raw materials to the Axis powers, particularly along the 1,700-mile route from Natal to Dakar. This strategic corridor was referred to by the Allies as the "Northeast Ridge".^[21] To secure this area, the Allies began establishing bases in Brazil in mid-June 1941. Task Force No. 3 arrived, and the ports of Recife and Salvador were prepared for use by the US Navy. In response, the Axis powers sought to obstruct the shipment of raw materials to the United States and the United Kingdom, leading to attacks on merchant vessels navigating the Atlantic.^[22]

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On March 22, 1942, the Brazilian merchant ship Taubaté was attacked by a German aircraft in the Mediterranean, off the coast of Egypt. This incident marked Brazil's first wartime casualty, with gate clerk José Francisco Fraga losing his life.^[23] On June 13, 1942, a German submarine intercepted the Brazilian merchant ship Siqueira Campos near the Cape Verde archipelago. The submarine fired on the vessel and only allowed it to proceed after conducting an inspection.^[24] Since 1940, Brazilian ships had been seized on three occasions—Siqueira Campos, Buarque, and Itapé—by British authorities. These seizures were conducted under various pretexts, primarily related to the transportation of goods and/or passengers of German origin. On January 18, 1941, the British captured the French merchant ship Mendoza in the safety zone off the Brazilian coast. This event prompted the Brazilian government to issue a formal protest to the British government.^{[note 4]}

The rupture of diplomatic relations and the establishment of American bases in Brazil's Northeast positioned the country as a hostile entity from the perspective of Germany and Italy. As noted by German Ambassador Pruefer, Brazil was considered to be "in a state of latent war" with the Axis powers.^[22][25] Consequently, Brazilian ships began to be targeted in the American coast and the Caribbean. The initial attacks occurred on February 15 and 18, 1942, with the merchant vessels Buarque (one casualty) and the Olinda (no casualties), respectively. The most notable and tragic incident was the disappearance of the Cabedelo. This ship vanished in the Atlantic, east of the Caribbean, after departing from the United States on February 14, during the peak of the submarine offensive. Fifty-four men lost their lives, and the exact cause of the sinking remains uncertain. The most likely suspect is the Italian submarine Da Vinci, although definitive proof is lacking. Other possibilities include attacks by the Italian submarines Torelli or Capellini.^[26][27] The precise date of the sinking is debated, with some sources citing February 14, the date of departure from the United States, while others suggest February 25.^{[20][24][27][21][22]}

By the end of July, Brazil had also lost:

• The SS Arabutan (one casualty).
• The Cairu (fifty-three casualties).
• The Parnaíba (seven casualties).
• The Gonçalves Dias (six casualties).
• The Alegrete (no casualties).
• The Paracuri (no information on number of passengers or casualties).
• The Pedrinhas (no casualties).
• The Tamandaré (four casualties).
• The Barbacena (six casualties).
• The Piave (one casualty).

These attacks occurred far from the Brazilian coast, and aside from the Cairu, the casualties were relatively limited. Many of these incidents involved interrogations of shipwrecked crews by German U-boat commanders, who sought information on other vessels' routes and cargoes bound for the United States.

On May 18, the Italian submarine Barbarigo launched the first attack in the South Atlantic basin near Brazil's national waters, targeting the freighter Commander Lira. The ship, en route from Recife to New Orleans, was torpedoed 180 nautical miles off the Fernando de Noronha archipelago. After the torpedo hit, the crew sent out an SOS signal and abandoned the vessel, which was also subjected to shelling. The Barbarigo left the scene, believing the ship would soon sink. However, the SOS signal was intercepted by American ships. The next morning, the American light cruiser USS Omaha arrived at the scene, boarded the Commander Lira and extinguished the fire. The crew needed to steer the ship was taken back on board, and the vessel was towed by the American minesweaper USS Thrush and the Brazilian Navy tug Heitor Perdigão to Fortaleza, where it arrived on May 25.^[28] This incident proved to be a diplomatic victory for the United States and contributed to shifting Brazilian sentiment against the Axis powers.

Two days after the attack on the Commander Lira, the Barbarigo engaged what its commander believed to be an American battleship, reporting its sinking. In reality, the target was the cruiser USS Milwaukee, which was not hit.^[21]

Following these incidents, the Italian submarine Barbarigo was targeted by a B-25 Mitchell bomber of the newly created Brazilian Air Force (FAB). This mission marked the first combat engagement in the history of the FAB. The bomber was part of the Adaptation Aircraft Grouping, a training unit organized to integrate aircraft received from the United States. The crew included a mix of American and Brazilian personnel: Captain Affonso Celso Parreiras Horta and Captain Oswaldo Pamplona Pinto from Brazil, and First Lieutenant Henry B. Schwane from the US Army Air Force.^[21]

Simultaneously, three other Italian submarines—Archimede, Cappellini, and Bagnolini—operated off the Brazilian coast. The Archimede targeted the convoy of the Commander Lira. Although this attack did not cause any damage, the submarine’s captain mistakenly believed he had sunk a heavy cruiser, likely confusing the detonation of a depth charge from the destroyer USS Moffett with a torpedo hit. The week's events were widely covered in the press, and US President Roosevelt congratulated Brazilian President Vargas for the nation's actions against the submarines.^[21]

By July 1942, Brazil had lost 14 ships (excluding the Taubaté, which had been machine-gunned the previous year). On August 7, 1942, the German submarine command, Befehlshaber der U-Boote, issued orders for submarines in the South Atlantic, including U-507 under Captain Harro Schacht, to attack all ships entering Brazilian waters, except those from Argentina and Chile.^[21] Despite Brazil’s continued neutrality, significant U.S. military forces had already established a presence in Northeast Brazil by this time.

Between August 15 and 19, U-507, operating off the coasts of Bahia and Sergipe, sank five coasting vessels and a small boat, resulting in 607 casualties, including many women and children.^[25] This spate of attacks incited widespread outrage and shock among the Brazilian public, leading to Brazil’s formal declaration of war against the Axis powers at the end of August. Subsequently, other attacks by enemy forces also resulted in significant loss of life, including those on the Baependi (270 dead), Araraquara (131 dead), Aníbal Benévolo (150 dead), Itagiba (36 dead), and Arará (20 dead).^[21][25][29]

In a matter of days, the number of casualties had more than quadrupled compared to the beginning of the year (607 versus 135). The publication of photographs depicting the dead on the beaches, along with accounts from survivors, made it evident to the population that the war had indeed reached Brazil. The headline of O Globo on August 18 read, "Challenge and Outrage to Brazil." By that time, the number of victims had already surpassed six hundred. This escalation sparked widespread panic, particularly among those needing to travel between states. The country lacked highways or railroads connecting its regions, civil aviation was in its early stages, and airports were virtually nonexistent.^[25]

For many people, especially those traveling between states, the ship was one of the few and most affordable options available. Merchant vessels often carried passengers, and stopovers were common, making any journey by sea a potential risk of encountering submarine attacks. For residents of the Northeast coast, the war seemed particularly immediate compared to other regions of Brazil. As the initial panic subsided, it was replaced by widespread outrage. In Rio de Janeiro, public sentiment manifested in a series of marches and rallies in 1942, where citizens demanded retaliation. Protesters converged on the Itamaraty Palace, the headquarters of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, to voice their demands to Chancellor Oswaldo Aranha, who exclaimed to the people:^[25]

The situation created by Germany, practicing belligerent, barbaric and inhumane acts against our peaceful and coastal navigation, imposes a reaction at the level of the processes and methods employed by them against Brazilian officers, soldiers, women, children, and ships. I can assure the Brazilians who are listening to me, as to all Brazilians, that, compelled by the brutality of the aggression, we will oppose a reaction that will serve as an example to the aggressor and barbaric peoples, who violate the civilization and the life of peaceful peoples.

The National Union of Students (UNE) also organized demonstrations in major Brazilian cities, advocating for Brazil's entry into the war alongside the Allies.^[27] This public pressure compelled the hesitant government of Getúlio Vargas to act. On August 22, following a ministerial meeting, Brazil declared a "state of belligerency" against Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy,^{[note 5]} status formally established by Decree-Law 10,508, issued on August 31.

In the wake of the sinking of Brazilian ships and the resulting casualties, there was a surge of violent public demonstrations against immigrants from Axis countries, particularly Germans, Japanese, and Italians. These demonstrations included the destruction of commercial establishments owned by immigrants from Axis nations and attempts to lynch individuals suspected of having Axis affiliations.^[27] Following Brazil's entry into the war, the government intensified scrutiny of these immigrants as part of broader wartime security measures. Many immigrants, particularly those who did not speak Portuguese, were regarded with suspicion and monitored for potential espionage activities.^[30][31]

During this period, the Brazilian government imposed bans on newspapers and radio programs published in Axis languages. Additionally, it established detention facilities for foreigners suspected of anti-Brazilian activities, including those captured from German vessels that had been damaged or seized off the Brazilian coast. The government was concerned about the potential for Axis powers to exploit their connections with immigrants and their Brazilian descendants, seeking to influence and mobilize them in support of their war efforts.^[30][31] In the Japanese community, this period of tension and suspicion continued even after the war. Post-war surveys indicated that a significant portion of the approximately 200,000 Japanese immigrants and their descendants residing in São Paulo still believed that Japan had won the conflict.^[32]

During World War II, German and Italian immigrant groups in Brazil circulated false rumors suggesting that American submarines were responsible for the attacks on Brazilian ships, in an attempt to provoke Brazil’s entry into the war. Historians have identified these claims as part of Axis propaganda efforts, orchestrated by collaborators known as the "Fifth Columns", who sought to influence public perception and decision-making in Brazil.^[27]

Documentation and historical records indicate that, in reality, German submarines were primarily responsible for the torpedoing of Brazilian vessels. Throughout the war, the Brazilian Navy conducted 66 recorded attacks on German submarines in the South Atlantic. These actions resulted in damage to or the sinking of 18 German submarines off the Brazilian coast. Among these, nine submarines—the U-128, U-161, U-164, U-199, U-513, U-590, U-591, U-598, and U-662—were officially confirmed by the German Navy as having been sunk by Brazilian naval forces.^[33] Additionally, the German Navy’s records acknowledge the sinking of Brazilian submarines during this period.

Before the war began the estimated military force strength in Brazil ranged from 66'000 to 95,000 troops, between 1939 and 1942, these troops were often distributed in the regimental size units which were typically under-strengthened among the ten military districts. Of the total, over 62,000 were based in the triangle of Rio de Janeiro, Belo Horizonte, and São Paulo.3. The surrounding territory of each regiment was a common source of enlisted personnel. Most joined as draftees to fulfill their mandatory one-year service, and the army reported that half of them remained after their first tour. This is conceivable, despite the absence of statistics, because the troops were typically individuals who were unable to avoid service in the first place. Duty may be avoided by those who could afford to join the army-sponsored, semi-military shooting clubs, were enrolled in a university course, or had family ties. ^[34]

The military pay at this time in Brazil is as follows. For both officers and troops, military life was simple, even austere. Neither had high salaries. The equivalent of $2.80 USD was paid to a private in I942, $II.40 USD to a second corporal, $30.00 USD to a first sergeant, $65.oo USD to a second lieutenant, $I30.00 USD to a major, $I75.00 USD to a colonel, and $250.00 USD to a major-general. In contrast, the cost of living at the time was about $I.00 a month, and the minimum pay for a worker in São Paulo or Rio de Janeiro was approximately $0.48 (cents) per day, or $14.40 for a thirty-day work month. This allowed the Brazilian fighters to support their families in some extent just before the countries' entrance into the Second World War. ^[35]

Brazil formally entered World War II with the issuance of Decree No. 10,358 on August 31, 1942.^[36]

The deployment of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force (FEB) to the front lines began in July 1944, nearly two years after Brazil's declaration of war. The country's involvement in the war had significant repercussions, contributing to the eventual end of the Estado Novo regime.^[8]

In comparison to its participation in World War I, Brazil's involvement in World War II was notably more significant. The geopolitical dynamics of the war, marked by intense competition between American and German interests for Brazilian support, underscored Brazil's tactical and strategic contributions. Brazil's engagement in World War II can be viewed as more substantial than Japan's role in World War I. While Brazil's numerical and tactical contributions were greater during World War II, Japan was able to leverage its participation in World War I more effectively for political and strategic gains during the interwar years.^[8][10]

The support provided by Brazil to the Allies through the 1st Fighter Aviation Group, established on December 18, 1943, was of considerable importance. Following their training in Aguadulce, Panama, where they participated in the Panama Canal defense campaign, the Brazilian pilots, all volunteers, went to Suffolk, New York where they were introduced to the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt. The group, which became known as Senta a Pua!, was sent to northern Italy.^[37]

Operations began on October 31, 1944, at the Tarquinia airfield and later relocated to Pisa, closer to action, closer to the frontlines. There, the group operated under the 350th Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) and was designated "Jambock". On February 10, 1945, a squadron from the 1st G.Av.Ca. targeted a large concentration of trucks, destroying 80 vehicles and three buildings. On February 20, the group assisted the Brazilian Expeditionary Force (FEB) in capturing Monte Castello. On March 21, they achieved another success by attacking a railroad repair shop in the Po Valley, directly hitting four buildings and destroying three Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 at Galarate Field.^[37]

Initially composed of four squadrons, the group eventually operated with three. Their missions primarily involved attacking bridges, ammunition depots, and transport vehicles. While air superiority in the region was maintained by the Allies, anti-aircraft artillery presented a significant threat. Of the 48 pilots who served in the group, 22 were killed in action, and an additional four officers died in aviation accidents.^[37]

A little over a month after the most tragic sinking and less than a month after Brazil's declaration of war, three more ships were targeted by U-boats: the Osório (5 casualties), the Lajes (3 casualties), and the Antonico (16 casualties). Following these attacks, Brazil attempted, albeit unsuccessfully, to extradite Captain Lieutenant Gerhard Wiebe and Lieutenant Markle of U-516, who were implicated in war crimes, to face justice in Brazil. On November 3, the Porto Alegre was sunk off the Indian coast of South Africa, resulting in one fatality. The year ended with the sinking of the Apalóide on November 22, west of the Lesser Antilles, which caused five additional deaths.^[38]

In 1943, the U-507, responsible for the August massacre the previous year, was sunk on January 13, approximately 100 miles off the coast of Ceará, with all 54 crew members perishing. However, other ships continued to fall victim to U-boats operating off the Brazilian coast. On February 18, the Brasilóide was torpedoed by U-518 off the coast of Bahia, but no fatalities occurred. The following day, on March 2, the Afonso Pena was sunk by the Italian submarine Barbarigo off Porto Seguro, resulting in the deaths of 125 people.^[38]

On March 2, the Natal Air Base (BANT) was established at Parnamirim Field, later known as "Trampoline of Victory" ("Trampolim da Vitória"). Although the base's activities began only on August 7 of that year, it played a crucial role in the defense of the region.^[38]

Other Brazilian vessels hit during the war included:

• Tutoia, on the first of July (7 casualties).
• Pelotaslóide (5 casualties), hit by the U-590 on 4 July.
• Shangri-la, on the 22nd of July (10 casualties).
• Bagé, on the 31st of July (28 casualties).
• Itapagé, on the 26th of September (22 casualties).
• Cisne Branco, on the following day (4 casualties).
• Campos on the 23rd of October (12 casualties).

By this time, U-Boats were experiencing heavy losses not only along the Brazilian coast but also elsewhere. The South Atlantic Force was established, with headquarters in Recife and support bases in Natal and Fernando de Noronha. Air patrols became more effective by the end of December 1942, thanks to American and Brazilian Air Force (FAB) aircraft. Additionally, the naval fleet was bolstered by American vessels. On July 20, 1944, Brazil suffered the loss of the Vital de Oliveira off the coast of Rio de Janeiro, the only military ship sunk by enemy action during the war, resulting in the deaths of 99 personnel.^[38]

The submarines sunk in Brazilian territorial waters were U-590; U-662; U-507; U-164; U-598; U-591; U-128; U-161; U-199; U-513 and Archimede.^[39][40]

According to historian Frank McCann,^[41] Brazil was invited to join the Allied occupation forces in Austria after World War II.^[42] However, the Brazilian government was concerned that the FEB might gain political leverage from its contributions to the Allied victory, however modest. Consequently, the government decided to officially demobilize the FEB as soon as the war ended, even while the troops were still stationed in Italy.^[43]

Upon their return to Brazil, former members of the FEB faced various restrictions. Non-military veterans, who were discharged upon their return, were prohibited from wearing their decorations or expeditionary uniforms in public. Professional military veterans were reassigned to frontier regions or areas far from major urban centers.^[44]

In 1988, a pension was established for surviving Brazilian World War II veterans, granting them special compensation equivalent to the pension of a second lieutenant in the army.^[45] This benefit was extended to all surviving veterans, regardless of whether they had served in the Italian or Atlantic campaigns or had been stationed in continental Brazil during the war.^[46]

Between the end of the war and the introduction of this pension, veterans secured several modest victories. Notable achievements included the extension of civil service access to those who were illiterate (although this did not benefit a significant number of veterans) and the construction of a Housing Complex for ex-combatants in the Benfica neighborhood of Rio de Janeiro, which was inaugurated in the early 1960s.^[47] Many veterans who struggled to reintegrate into civilian life often became reliant on veterans' associations for support.^[43][46]

• Brazil in World War I
• Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional

• Sander, Roberto (2007). O Brasil na mira de Hitler: a história do afundamento de navios brasileiros pelos nazistas [Brazil in Hitler's sights: the story of the sinking of Brazilian ships by the Nazis] (in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva.

• Bonalume Neto, Ricardo (1995). A Nossa Segunda Guerra: Os brasileiros em combate [Our Second War: Brazilians in combat] (in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: Expressão e Cultura.
• Monteiro, Marcelo (2012). U-507 - O submarino que afundou o Brasil na Segunda Guerra Mundial [U-507 - The submarine that sank Brazil in World War II] (in Portuguese). Salto: Schoba.