Canadian Pacific 3

Specifications
Specifications
Configuration:;
• Whyte	4-4-0
Gauge	1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in)
Wheel diameter	56 in (1.422 m)
Loco weight	825,000 lb (374,000 kg)
Fuel type	Coal
Water cap.	2,270 gal
Boiler:;
• Diameter	50 in (1.270 m)
Cylinder size	17 in × 24 in (430 mm × 610 mm)

Type and origin
Type and origin
Power type	Steam
Builder	Dubs and Company
Serial number	1572
Build date	April 1882
Rebuild date	March 2, 2002 – May 10, 2009

Canadian Pacific No. 3
Canadian Pacific No. 3
	No. 3 at the Prairie Dog Central Railway, Winnipeg.
Power type
Type and origin
Power type	Steam
Builder	Dubs and Company
Serial number	1572
Build date	April 1882
Rebuild date	March 2, 2002 – May 10, 2009
Configuration:;
Specifications
Configuration:;
• Whyte	4-4-0
Gauge	1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in)
Wheel diameter	56 in (1.422 m)
Loco weight	825,000 lb (374,000 kg)
Fuel type	Coal
Water cap.	2,270 gal
Boiler:;
• Diameter	50 in (1.270 m)
Cylinder size	17 in × 24 in (430 mm × 610 mm)
Numbers
Career
Numbers	Canadian Pacific 22; Canadian Pacific 133; Canadian Pacific 63; Canadian Pacific 86; City of Winnipeg Hydro 3; Prairie Dog Central 3
Delivered	April 1882
First run	April 1882
Retired	1962
Restored	May 10, 2009
Disposition	Operational

Canadian Pacific Railway No. 3 is a class A2-L 4-4-0 " type steam locomotive built in 1882 by Dubs & Co. of Glasgow, Scotland for the Canadian Pacific Railway, and was numbered #22. For 20 years, it did duty as a passenger locomotive between Thunder Bay and Kenora, Ontario on CP, and the engine's service included nearly 10 years of working out West in the Canadian Rockies, from 1898 to 1908. After a stint in BC, and now numbered 133, the locomotive came back east in 1909 and was rebuilt and modernized in the Winnipeg shops. In 1923, the engine was renumbered 3 and later served the City of Winnipeg Hydro company's railway system. Some time around October 1959, the engine was given a snowplow. The tender was re-lettered "City of Winnipeg Hydro" when it operated. In 1986, The engine was a guest appearance at Expo 86's spin-off, Steam Expo. After sitting for a few years she was acquired by the Vintage Locomotive Society and renovated as a Centennial project. In 2009, the locomotive received it's third boiler after a major rebuild. When the engine was restored by the Prairie Dog Central Railway, the tender was re-lettered "City of Winnipeg Hydro" and today it is lettered as "Prairie Dog Central". Every year in the summer, she operates on Canada Day. The engine is now at the Prairie Dog Central Railway, carrying passenger excursions for them along their short ex-CN branchline. No. 3 is the oldest operating steam locomotive in Canada.

History[edit]

In his book Van Home's Road, Lavallee wrote that "the backbone of Western Division motive power was a number of clean and well-balanced passenger engines and Dubs and Company built the locomotive in the spring of April 1882 after being delivered by Dübs and Company Glasgow, Scotland. Finding the numbers "86" and "133" on various components of the running gear, a search of the records when they returned to Montreal, the CPR took delivery of No. 3 that was originally Canadian Pacific Railway No. 22 from Dubs & Company, with cost of $12,755, including $2,555 of duty. Completed under builder's plate number 1572, it was one of several locomotives built by Dubs for the CPR. When No. 22 arrived in North America in April 1882, it was sent to Winnipeg (then the CPR's Western Division headquarters) via Chicago, St. Paul, and Emerson, Manitoba because the line around Lake Superior was not completed until 1885. It was put into service upon arrival, along with other Dubs engines received at that time. Upon the CPR assuming custody of the last section of the government-built section between the Lakehead and Winnipeg in 1883, many were assigned to passenger service on what would eventually become the Kenora Division. Some of No. 22's working history is known and was made available through the helpful assistance of Omer Lavallee. While no assignment records exist for No. 22 during the period of 1882 to 1902, based on available information, it likely spent many of those years working in CPR's Western Division, probably out of the Lakehead. The only known photograph of No. 22 in that period shows it at Rat Portage (now Kenora, Ontario) in 1886. Sometime between June 1897 and June 1898, No. 22 was sent out to Western Canada, and worked there until November 1908 when it was returned to Winnipeg. While out there, it was renumbered to No. 133. In 1905 it was renumbered 133, it was rebuilt in 1907, and in 1912 it received its final CPR number, 86, of class A-2. No. 22 was renumbered to No. 133 on 10 December 1907. In July 1909, it was equipped with a new non-superheated boiler, the original boiler having lasted some 27 years. By that time, the size of locomotives on the CPR had increased considerably since 1882, with larger locomotives now handling most of the freight and passenger trains. Generally speaking, the usefulness of a 4-4-0 locomotive was by then becoming limited on most large railways, but a new boiler was considered a good investment since these former all-purpose locomotives could still fill out an essential part of CPR's motive power requirements. Then to No. 63 on September 5, 1912, and finally to No. 86 on October 5, 1913.Following the installation of a new boiler and the conversion from wood to coal for fuel, No. 133 was assigned to Fort William, Kenora and Ignace until June 1916 when it was sent to Winnipeg and put into service there. During this period, No. 133 had been renumbered twice—first as No. 63 for about a year, and then to No. 86, its last CPR number. In September 1916, No. 86 was laid up in Winnipeg where it remained in storage until April 1917 when it was leased to the City of Winnipeg's "Winnipeg River Railway" at $10 per day for use on their line. About halfway over the line, they rounded a curve in the road, where it parallels the railway, just in time to see the railway roadbed blown high in the air by a dynamite charge—the section men were doing some right-of-way work and the appearance of a flagman in the road after the explosion seemed anti-climactic, to say the least. Nothing daunted, they pressed on to Pointe du Bois. Near the town, smoke could be seen above the trees and as we rounded a curve, anticipating the sight of an 0-4-0 tank at any moment, our surprise can well be more imagined than described to see the fabled 4–4–0, under steam and sitting quietly beside a well-maintained engine house and station. The inscription "City of Winnipeg Hydro" appears on the tender, and the engine carries the road number 3, but its Canadian Pacific identity was unmistakable, despite a large steel wedge-plow mounted permanently on the front end, and other non-CPR refinements.

It remained on lease through to October 1918 and was sold to them On November 1, 1918, No. 86 was sold to the City of Winnipeg and apparently has been on the Pointe du Bois railway ever since. This locomotive was equipped with a new boiler (not superheated) in July 1910. This locomotive was famously found decades ago hidden away on an isolated line in Manitoba after being sold for the Canadian Pacific Railway, numbered as No. 22 and later sold for the City of Winnipeg Hydro in November 1918 by the CPR. For 20 years it did duty as a passenger locomotive between Thunder Bay and Kenora, Ontario on CP, and the engine's service included nearly 10 years of working out West in the Canadian Rockies, from 1898 to 1908. After a stint in BC, and was numbered 133, the locomotive came back east in 7/1909 and was rebuilt and modernized in the Winnipeg shops by the CPR. In 1923, the engine was renumbered 3 and later served the City of Winnipeg Hydro company's railway system. The tender was re-lettered "City of Winnipeg Hydro" when it operated.However, No. 3 held—and still holds—the distinction of being the oldest operating steam locomotive in Canada, and is among the oldest regularly operating steam locomotives in North America. It never received much in the way of modernization. For example, its main rods and valve stem rods still carry the Dubs builder number 1572. The new boiler it received in 1909 was not superheated, unlike all new boilers that CPR installed on locomotives shortly after that time. Neither did it receive new spool valves, retaining its slide valves to this day. When sold, No. 86 was later renumbered to No. 3 by the Winnipeg River Railway. Life for this somewhat obscure 4-4-0 became simpler since the pace on the Winnipeg River Railway was less demanding—and decidedly less uncertain. No. 3 worked between Pointe du Bois and Lac du Bonnet, Manitoba on the line servicing the Pointe du Bois Generating Station. In the ensuing years between the Depression and the Second World War, 4-4-0s on the CPR became virtually extinct, other than Nos. 29,136, and 144, which also found a refuge of sorts working in Chipman, New Brunswick. These three locomotives survived because the light rails and bridges could not accommodate larger locomotives, and all three saw service right to the end of steam on the CPR. Today all are preserved, with No. 136 operating on the South Simcoe Railway in Tottenham, Ontario, No. 144 on display at the Canadian Railway Historical Association in Delson, Quebec, and No. 29 on display outside CPR's Ogden Shop in Calgary, Alberta. The American Railroad Historical Association in St. Louis, Missouri offered the city $10,000, which it increased to $20,000. The city declined both offers. Decisions now had to be made. Should No. 3 be made a permanent static display? Are there alternative steam locomotives? What would it take to have a new boiler constructed? The Society's Board considered the immediate options, and a decision was taken to first explore what it would take to have a new boiler constructed before looking elsewhere. It did receive a snowplow pilot in 1937 (which was removed in 1967), and a new steel cab in early 1944 following a near disastrous fire at the Pointe du Bois engine house in December 1943. Throughout its active life at a new home railway, major work on No. 3 was handled by CPR's Weston Shops in Winnipeg, with running repairs handled at Pointe du Bois. In December 1943, No. 3 was damaged after a fire at Pointe du Bois. One such operation was the City of Winnipeg Hydro railway which was hidden away at Pointe du Bois. Rumours started that the locomotive still operating there was a sister to the Countess of Dufferin. These rumours persisted to the point that Omer Lavallee, then Corporate Historian for the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), decided to stop in Winnipeg on his way back from western Canada in July 1959 to investigate. As Lavallee wrote in the July–August 1959 newsletter of the Canadian Railroad Historical Association: The uncovering of this engine by the Association came about in this fashion: Mr. Douglas Brown of our Association read a report to the June meeting from a correspondent in the midwestern United States, who himself had obtained his information second-hand, that a locomotive described as a "sister engine to the Countess of Dufferin" was working on the private railway of Winnipeg Hydro, which extends some twenty-five miles from a connection with the Canadian Pacific Railway at Lac du Bonnet, Manitoba, to Pointe du Bois, in the forest reserve. In view of the imminent departure of [Past President] Mr. Chivers and myself for the west, it was decided to allow time at Winnipeg on the return trip to Montreal, to investigate what we thought to be a rather "wild" rumour. Upon arrival, therefore, in Winnipeg on July 3 (rd), we went to Lac du Bonnet by automobile in the company of associate member R. S. Ritchie, presently working in Winnipeg. Upon arrival at Lac du Bonnet, we saw the interchange between the CPR and the Hydro railway, but without evidence of motive power or rolling stock. We had previously been advised by local CPR officials that the Hydro had a small, four-drivered engine, and an initial impression that the elusive engine must be an 0-4-0 saddle tank of some description was heightened by the finding of a small enginehouse about a mile from the CPR connection, of a size which could only accommodate a small machine of this description. In spite of what seemed to us to be irrefutable evidence of the type of engine, it was decided to press on to Pointe du Bois as a good gravel road extends between the two points and shares bridges at two locations with the railway. As it developed, it was just as well that we did. The 1959 discovery that No. 3 was the oldest operating steam locomotive in Canada created a celebrity status and a profile not only in Canada but also in the United States. Due to No. 3's heritage status as Canada's oldest operating steam locomotive, the Canadian Railroad Historical Association formally requested that the City of Winnipeg donate it when it was no longer needed for any further operations. No.3 with its snowplow operating for Winnipeg Hydro, October 1959. Steam on CPR and CNR came to an end in 1960. No. 3, though, continued working on the City of Winnipeg Hydro railway line out of Pointe du Bois until 1961 when it was removed from service and stored. City of Winnipeg Hydro 3 at the Greater Winnipeg Water District railway after recently being relocated there from its isolated line at Pointe du Bois. Discussions with Ray Graves, President of Saskatoon Boiler, then resulted in a call to John Corby, the retired Curator of the National Archives in Ottawa, to see what drawings existed when CPR transferred all of its steam drawings to the Archives in the early 1960s. John searched for any drawings that could be used for constructing a new boiler, and although he found some related drawings, ultimately he could not locate the exact drawings for No. 3's 1909 boiler. Every drawing that John located was shipped to Graves for his review. In the early 1960s, the City of Winnipeg was slated to host the 1967 Pan Am Games. One of the city's Aldermen, Leonard Claydon, knew about No. 3 and envisaged it doing train ride tours around the city during the Games. Interest in the venture developed, and No. 3 (along with combination coach #103) were moved by flatbed truck to Winnipeg in February 1967. Ultimately, this idea did not materialize but the seed for starting a vintage steam train had been planted and some interest had been generated through the promotion of this idea. The people who had worked with Claydon on the Pan Am Games plan formed The Vintage Locomotive Society Inc. on 4 April 1968 to establish a proper custodian group. The Society was established as an all-volunteer non-profit charitable organization, which it continues to be today. The new plan was to get No. 3 back into operation for Manitoba's centenary in 1970. First excursions was operated On July 1, 1970, it made a historic trip to Lower Fort Garry carrying Canada's then-Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau and members of the Manitoba Legislature as part of the centennial celebrations. Funds became available to re-tube No. 3, refurbish it and put it back into operation.This event launched No. 3's third career as the prime motive power for the Prairie Dog Central vintage train for the then-88-year-old survivor. Regular operations of the Prairie Dog Central started on 11 July 1970 and, from 1970 to 1974, the train pulled by No. 3 operated on the abandoned CN Cabot Subdivision (formerly CN's Harte Subdivision). Since the Prairie Dog began regular operations in July 1970, it had been stored at CN's East Yard located in downtown Winnipeg. In 1971, operations were cut back to Sundays and Holiday Mondays because of poor crowds experienced on Saturdays in 1970. Departure times remained the same as in 1970. The train, however, was limited to running to West Winnipeg (just south of Headingly) at CN's request, a distance of about 29 km. (18 miles). The train operated until September 19, 1971. In 1972, further operating changes were made: the train operated only two trips per operating day, with departures at 12:30 p.m. and 3:00 p.m. Holiday Monday operations were discontinued due to poor crowds on those days. The train operated until September 24, 1972. In 1974, the Society was advised by CN that the Cabot Subdivision was being abandoned, and that the Prairie Dog would no longer be able to operate on that line. September 29, 1974 was the last trip the train made on the Cabot Sub. During the winter of 1974–5, arrangements were concluded with CN for the train to operate out of the St. James Station on the Oak Point Subdivision to Grosse Isle. Operations continued on the Oak Point Subdivision with the two Sunday trips starting at the end of May and finishing on the last Sunday in September. Beginning in 1975, operations moved to CN's Oak Point Subdivision where the train operated weekend excursions and charters from St. James to Grosse Isle, Manitoba from 1975 to 1996. Charters had been run as far back as 1971, although these were sporadic until the late 1980s. In the early 1990s, charter work picked up significantly, and by 1996 the train was being chartered 10 times per season or more. In July 1976, the PDC operated over the CN Oak Point Subdivision from St James station, located 2.4 miles from St James Junction.^[1] In July 1979, the engine was west bound just north of Winnipeg Stadium. After 1979, the departure time for the first trip was moved to 11:00 am. During these years through to the end of the 1996 season, there was no variation to the operating schedule.On August 26, 1980, and October 1, 1980, the locomotive was on display at the Inkerstation Junction. In 1980, the first of what has become an annual Fall Supper charter was organized. The Fall Foliage trip to Grosse Isle was first run on Saturday October 4, 1980. This proved to be so popular that a second similar trip, called the Harvest Special, was added in the late 1980s. This trip was run to the Hitch’n Post.

In May 1986 the engine participated in the SteamExpo 86 in Vancouver, British Columbia alongside with V&T 22 Inyo, CP 374, ERM&L Co. 1 Falk, Dunrobin (2nd), PL Co. 12, GW 51, AP 2, CN 1392, UP 4466, HL Co. Ltd. 1, MB 1077, QRR 2, Tom Thumb (1927 Replica), Best Friend of Charleston (1928 Replica), MRSR 91, John Bull (1939 Replica), CP 2860, CP 1201, CN 6060, John Molson (1970 Replica), and Stephenson's Rocket (1979 Replica).^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5] In 1987, the Society was advised by CN that East Yard was being closed to make way for the development of The Forks area. During the winter of 1987–8, the train and other equipment was stored at the Greater Winnipeg Water District Railway. No. 3, however, found its way to Canada Safeway's Grocery Warehouse after an arrangement had been made following a public search for new quarters. In early 1988, arrangements were made with CN for the train to be stored and maintained by the Society at Transcona Shops. Operationally, this meant that the train was stored and serviced at Transcona Shops. On August 4, 1991, Prairie Dog Central no. 3 was at Winnipeg, Manitoba.^[6]

This company had been contracted by CN in 1992 when CN was re-tubing No. 3 and was also replacing the front tube sheet and was the nearest company that had the equipment to flange the tube sheet.^[7] With No. 3's boiler off, the project team then was able to focus on several tasks, which were only possible with the boiler gone. One major task was to drop the driving wheels out of the frames to permit work on the driving wheel boxes, wedges, and pedestal shoes, as well as to re-tram the engine. Several other refurbishing projects were commenced, all of which were being done by volunteer members in the Society's small shop facility. Unbeknownst to anyone at that time, the sale of No. 86 to the Winnipeg River Railway (later named Winnipeg Light & Power Company and then Winnipeg Hydro) secured an amazing second lease on life for this locomotive at a time when others in its class were spending their twilight years waiting on their next assignment or their trip to the scrap yard. As the years passed, the numbers of the once-predominant 4-4-0 locomotives dwindled with the purchase of larger locomotives by CPR to meet their ever-increasing tonnage demands. By the 1930s, the 4-4-0 was something of a rarity on Class 1 railways.

Initial inquiries resulted in contacting the Saskatoon Boiler Manufacturing Company in Saskatchewan. In June 1996, the Society was advised by CN that the Oak Point Subdivision was being abandoned and that the train could no longer be operated on the mainline after the 1996 season. This meant that operations could not continue. The train last operated out of St. James Station on Sunday October 6, 1996 on a special charter. After 1996, the Society was faced with the daunting task of raising money to purchase the Oak Point Subdivision, construct a storage facility and necessary trackage, and move the St. James Station following CN's announcement that the Subdivision was to be abandoned. From that time forward, the Society turned its complete attention to the matter of fund raising and finding a new home for the Prairie Dog Central. Between October 1996 and November 1998, Work commenced following the November 1998 confirmation that the Province and Federal Government – through the Economic Development Partnership Agreement – were contributing $600,000 to the project. The City of Winnipeg, through Winnipeg Hydro, contributed $100,000. Because the Society had already raised nearly $600,000 itself, the announcement enabled the sale of 16.5 miles of the CN Oak Point Subdivision to be finalized, and the necessary engineering and construction work to begin for a major fund raising drive was undertaken in an effort to purchase a portion of CN's Oak Point Subdivision and establish a new operating base.

It is an interesting observation about the Society and the dedication During the winter months, No. 3, one of the coaches and one of the service cars were moved into Safeway for winter works restoration and maintenance. From 1997 through to late 1998, a major fundraising campaign was conducted, resulting in donations of $i.2-million, with half raised by the Society (including $100,000 from Winnipeg Hydro) and the balance through federal and provincial funding. These arrangements with Canada Safeway and CN continued until October 1998 and June 1999, respectively.of its committed volunteers that they could not accept the idea that the train might no longer operate. After following the two-season hiatus, the Prairie Dog Central re-commenced regular public operations that started on July 3, 1999, and the official grand opening for the new operation took place on Saturday September 11, 1999. Part of the re-location project included moving the CN St. James Station. Because it was declared a historic structure in 1991, application to acquire and move the Station had to be made through Parks Canada – Heritage. The approval process prevented the Station from being moved until February 2000. In December 2001, following the end of a successful season, routine ultrasound testing of No. 3's firebox and boiler shell was conducted. The results yielded extremely bad news: There were thin spots spread over large areas of both the firebox and the boiler shell, and therefore the boiler had to be condemned. In December 2001 it failed its inspection which resulted in a brand new one being made in 2002 Funding and technical problems delayed completion for years. He knew about the Society and the Prairie Dog Central and felt that this would be the right project for his company. On 2 March 2002, Graves travelled to Winnipeg to inspect No. 3 and get a first-hand view. He and key Society members spent a full day examining No. 3 and discussing construction details, as well as reviewing regulatory requirements. Because no drawings of No. 3's boiler had been found, an essential construction requirement was to ship the old boiler to Saskatoon so it could be used as a template for the extensive engineering work that would be necessary to produce a new set of drawings and manufacture a duplicate boiler based upon current engineering standards.

One month later, Graves provided a written estimate of what would be involved. All that would really be needed was the money to complete the project—and faith that it could be found. But, given what the Society had done a few short years before when it raised $1.2-million, nothing seemed impossible. The decision was then made: accept Saskatoon Boiler's estimate but raise the money before placing the order. It is the only steam locomotive in Canada with a new boiler. City of Winnipeg 3 with Prairie Dog Central sublettering in early view. Both are non-common carrier railways owned by the city of Winnipeg. c.1960's Vlad Kedrovsky 11/1918 . It was a real find. A fourth 4-4-0 in Canada when only three (CPR 29, 136 and 144) in New Brunswick were thought to exist.The Prairie Dog Central, with No. 3 at the headend, was back in action. Graves expressed interest in undertaking this project as his company had previously produced a boiler for a steam traction engine. With this decision made, all other options were then ruled out, and a plan for the disassembly of No. 3 was developed. A select team was established, and they adopted one overriding rule: nothing was to be removed without it being fully documented. One aspect of volunteer organizations is that pure enthusiasm can be both a blessing and a curse—a double-edged sword. With this project, no one wanted enthusiasm to create a future problem. Work began, carefully to be sure, since it was imperative that everything be carefully documented with digital photos and deconstruction notes so that no problems would arise when everything was ultimately put back together.

After much hard work, one year later, on 5 April 2003, sufficient money had been raised to officially order the new boiler. By then, most of the disassembly had been completed, except for some work around the cab and firebox. A complete deconstruction record of well over two hundred digital photos had been made, with copies printed in a large binder along with the deconstruction notes. Parts had been carefully tagged and stored on shelving for re-assembly. On 31 May 2003, No. 3's cab was removed. Arrangements were then made with the help of a local crane company and a local trucking company—both of whom donated their services—to have No. 3's boiler removed from its frames and shipped to Saskatoon. On 28 August 2003, No. 3's boiler was lifted straight out of its frames in a precision move that would rival a space program launch. With only one-eighth-inch clearance on either side between the firebox and the frames, when the cables were properly secured and the lifting began, the boiler came straight up without even snagging the frames. At 30,000 pounds registered on the crane scale, the boiler was carefully placed on cribbing on a flatbed truck. From the start of the lift to the time the flatbed truck drove away to Saskatoon, the entire operation took four hours.Because no drawings of No. 3's boiler existed, Saskatoon Boiler had to start from zero to produce a complete set of new drawings for a boiler being constructed to 2004 engineering standards for an 1882 locomotive.

All of this took considerable time and energy, and numerous conference calls between Saskatoon Boiler and the Society took place to deal with a multitude of details. Society officials made two trips to Saskatoon and spent time with their engineers reviewing drawings over the next ten months. The new boiler was shipped back to Winnipeg and installed in the frames on 8 October 2004, after which work progressed with only one setback. In August 2008, following the time-consuming re-fitting of appliances, installation of new piping and other parts, arrangements were made for the second hydrostatic test. While the boiler was hydrostatically tested and certified before it left Saskatoon Boiler, a second test was required to confirm the integrity of all the new piping and fittings, which are under boiler pressure. At this test, the steam dome cover failed. The integrity of the metal had deteriorated and leaked under pressure. Arrangements were then made with Saskatoon Boiler to engineer a new dome cover, which was delivered in early November 2008. From 2004 to February 2009, it underwent a complete frame-off overhaul, including the manufacture of a new boiler. The engine is now at the Prairie Dog Central Railway, carrying passenger excursions for them along their short ex-CN branchline. No. 3 finally returned to active service on 10 May 2009 when it hauled the Mother's Day Special, and there was considerable fanfare to celebrate the return to service of the oldest operating steam locomotive in Canada. Newly refurbished No. 3 with its coal tender and authentic rail cars, travels along the tracks north of the Inkster Junction station, 2011.^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19] As of 2024, the locomotive is still operational.^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27]^[28]