Categories
  Encyclosphere.org ENCYCLOREADER
  supported by EncyclosphereKSF

Chicken

From Wikipedia - Reading time: 24 min
For the culinary use of chickens, see Chicken as food. For other uses, see Chicken (disambiguation).
"Rooster" and "Roosters" redirect here. For other uses, see Rooster (disambiguation).
"Cockerel" redirects here. For the Fabergé egg, see Cockerel (Fabergé egg).

Chicken
Male (left) and female chickens
Domesticated
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Galliformes
Family: Phasianidae
Genus: Gallus
Species:
G. g. domesticus
Binomial name
Gallus gallus domesticus
Chicken distribution
Synonyms

Gallus domesticus L.

The chicken (Gallus domesticus) is a large and round short-winged bird, domesticated from the red junglefowl of Southeast Asia around 8,000 years ago. Most chickens are raised for food, providing meat and eggs; others are kept as pets or for cockfighting.

Chickens are common and widespread domestic animals, with a total population of 26.5 billion as of 2023, and an annual production of more than 50 billion birds. A hen bred for laying can produce over 300 eggs per year. There are numerous cultural references to chickens in folklore, religion, and literature.

Nomenclature

[edit]

Terms for chickens include:

  • Biddy: a chicken, or a newly hatched chicken[1][2]
  • Capon: a castrated or neutered male chicken[a]
  • Chick: a young chicken[3]
  • Chook /tʃʊk/: a chicken (Australia/New Zealand, informal)[4]
  • Cock: a fertile adult male chicken[5][6]
  • Cockerel: a young male chicken[7]
  • Hen: an adult female chicken[8]
  • Pullet: a young female chicken less than a year old.[9] In the poultry industry, a pullet is a sexually immature chicken less than 22 weeks of age.[10]
  • Rooster: a fertile adult male chicken, especially in North America. Originated in the 18th century, possibly as a euphemism to avoid the sexual connotation of the word cock.[11][12][13]
  • Yardbird: a chicken (southern United States, dialectal)[14]

Chicken can mean a chick, as in William Shakespeare's play Macbeth, where Macduff laments the death of "all my pretty chickens and their dam".[15] The usage is preserved in placenames such as the Hen and Chicken Islands.[16] In older sources, and still often in trade and scientific contexts, chickens as a species are described as common fowl or domestic fowl.[17]

Description

[edit]
Comb of male
Comb of female, generally smaller

Chickens are relatively large birds, active by day. The body is round, the legs are unfeathered in most breeds, and the wings are short.[18] Wild junglefowl can fly; chickens and their flight muscles are too heavy to allow them to fly more than a short distance.[19] Size and coloration vary widely between breeds.[18] Adult chickens of both sexes have a fleshy crest on their heads called a comb or cockscomb, and hanging flaps of skin on either side under their beaks called wattles; combs and wattles are more prominent in males. Some breeds have a mutation that causes extra feathering under the face, giving the appearance of a beard.[20]

Chickens are omnivores.[21] In the wild, they scratch at the soil to search for seeds, insects, and animals as large as lizards, small snakes,[22] and young mice.[23] A chicken may live for 5–10 years, depending on the breed.[24] The world's oldest known chicken lived for 16 years.[25]

Chickens are gregarious, living in flocks, and incubate eggs and raise young communally. Individual chickens dominate others, establishing a pecking order; dominant individuals take priority for access to food and nest sites. The concept of dominance, involving pecking, was described in female chickens by Thorleif Schjelderup-Ebbe in 1921 as the "pecking order".[26][27] Male chickens tend to leap and use their claws in conflicts.[28] Chickens are capable of mobbing and killing a weak or inexperienced predator, such as a young fox.[29]

Crowing (with audio)

A male's crowing is a loud and sometimes shrill call, serving as a territorial signal to other males,[30] and in response to sudden disturbances within their surroundings. Hens cluck loudly after laying an egg and to call their chicks. Chickens give different warning calls to indicate that a predator is approaching from the air or on the ground.[31]

Reproduction and life-cycle

[edit]

To initiate courting, some roosters may dance in a circle around or near a hen (a circle dance), often lowering the wing which is closest to the hen.[32] The dance triggers a response in the hen[32] and when she responds to his call, the rooster may mount the hen and proceed with the mating. Mating typically involves a sequence in which the male approaches the female and performs a waltzing display. If the female is unreceptive, she runs off; otherwise, she crouches, and the male mounts, treading with both feet on her back. After copulation the male does a tail-bending display.[33]

Sperm transfer occurs by cloacal contact between the male and female, in an action called the 'cloacal kiss'.[34] As with all birds, reproduction is controlled by a neuroendocrine system, the Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone-I neurons in the hypothalamus. Reproductive hormones including estrogen, progesterone, and gonadotropins (luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone) initiate and maintain sexual maturation changes. Reproduction declines with age, thought to be due to a decline in GnRH-I-N.[35]

Newly hatched chicks

Hens often try to lay in nests that already contain eggs and sometimes move eggs from neighbouring nests into their own. A flock thus uses only a few preferred locations, rather than having a different nest for every bird.[36] Under natural conditions, most birds lay only until a clutch is complete; they then incubate all the eggs. This is called "going broody". The hen sits on the nest, fluffing up or pecking defensively if disturbed. She rarely leaves the nest until the eggs have hatched.[37]

Eggs of chickens from the high-altitude region of Tibet have special physiological adaptations that result in a higher hatching rate in low oxygen environments. When eggs are placed in a hypoxic environment, chicken embryos from these populations express much more hemoglobin than embryos from other chicken populations. This hemoglobin has a greater affinity for oxygen, binding oxygen more readily.[38]

Fertile chicken eggs hatch at the end of the incubation period, about 21 days; the chick uses its egg tooth to break out of the shell.[32] Hens remain on the nest for about two days after the first chick hatches; during this time the newly hatched chicks feed by absorbing the internal yolk sac.[39] The hen guards her chicks and broods them to keep them warm. She leads them to food and water and calls them towards food. The chicks imprint on the hen and subsequently follow her continually. She continues to care for them until they are several weeks old.[40]

Inbreeding of White Leghorn chickens tends to cause inbreeding depression expressed as reduced egg number and delayed sexual maturity.[41] Strongly inbred Langshan chickens display obvious inbreeding depression in reproduction, particularly for traits such as age when the first egg is laid and egg number.[42]

Origin

[edit]

Phylogeny

[edit]
Red junglefowl, the wild ancestor of the chicken

Water or ground-dwelling fowl similar to modern partridges, in the Galliformes, the order of bird that chickens belong to, survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that killed all tree-dwelling birds and their dinosaur relatives.[43] Chickens are descended primarily from the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) and are scientifically classified as the same species.[44] Domesticated chickens freely interbreed with populations of red junglefowl.[44] The domestic chicken has subsequently hybridised with grey junglefowl, Sri Lankan junglefowl and green junglefowl;[45] a gene for yellow skin, for instance, was incorporated into domestic birds from the grey junglefowl (G. sonneratii).[46] It is estimated that chickens share between 71 and 79% of their genome with red junglefowl.[45]

Domestication

[edit]
Further information: Domestication
Chicken domestication and dispersal;[45] possibility of early arrival in Americas[47][48]

According to one early study, a single domestication event of the red junglefowl in present-day Thailand gave rise to the modern chicken with minor transitions separating the modern breeds.[49] The red junglefowl is well adapted to take advantage of the vast quantities of seed produced during the end of the multi-decade bamboo seeding cycle, to boost its own reproduction.[50] In domesticating the chicken, humans took advantage of the red junglefowl's ability to reproduce prolifically when exposed to a surge in its food supply.[51]

Exactly when and where the chicken was domesticated remains controversial. Genomic studies estimate that the chicken was domesticated 8,000 years ago[45] in Southeast Asia and spread to China and India 2,000 to 3,000 years later. Archaeological evidence supports domestic chickens in Southeast Asia well before 6000 BC, China by 6000 BC and India by 2000 BC.[45][52][53] A landmark 2020 Nature study that fully sequenced 863 chickens across the world suggests that all domestic chickens originate from a single domestication event of red junglefowl whose present-day distribution is predominantly in southwestern China, northern Thailand and Myanmar. These domesticated chickens spread across Southeast and South Asia where they interbred with local wild species of junglefowl, forming genetically and geographically distinct groups. Analysis of the most popular commercial breed shows that the White Leghorn breed possesses a mosaic of divergent ancestries inherited from subspecies of red junglefowl.[54][55][56]

Dispersal

[edit]

Austronesia

[edit]
Prehistoric introduction of domesticated chickens into Oceania from the Philippines via Neolithic Austronesian expansion (starting at c. 4000 BP), inferred from genetic markers on ancient and modern chicken DNA (Thomson et al., 2014)[57]

A word for the domestic chicken (*manuk) is part of the reconstructed Proto-Austronesian language, indicating they were domesticated by the Austronesian peoples since ancient times. Chickens, together with dogs and pigs, were carried throughout the entire range of the prehistoric Austronesian maritime migrations to Island Southeast Asia, Micronesia, Island Melanesia, Polynesia, and Madagascar, starting from at least 3000 BC from Taiwan.[57][58][59][60] These chickens might have been introduced during pre-Columbian times to South America via Polynesian seafarers, but evidence for this is still putative.[61]

Americas

[edit]

The possibility that domestic chickens were in the Americas before Western contact is debated by researchers, but blue-egged chickens, found only in the Americas and Asia, suggest an Asian origin for early American chickens. A lack of data from Thailand, Russia, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa makes it difficult to lay out a clear map of the spread of chickens in these areas; better description and genetic analysis of local breeds threatened by extinction may also help with research into this area.[62] Chicken bones from the Arauco Peninsula in south-central Chile were radiocarbon dated as pre-Columbian, and DNA analysis suggested they were related to prehistoric populations in Polynesia.[47][48] However, further study of the same bones cast doubt on the findings.[63][64]

Eurasia

[edit]

Chicken remains have been difficult to date, given the small and fragile bird bones; this may account for discrepancies in dates given by different sources. Archaeological evidence is supplemented by mentions in historical texts from the last few centuries BC, and by depictions in prehistoric artworks, such as across Central Asia.[65] Chickens were widespread throughout southern Central Asia by the 4th century BC.[65]

Middle Eastern chicken remains go back to a little earlier than 2000 BC in Syria.[62] Phoenicians spread chickens along the Mediterranean coasts as far as Iberia. During the Hellenistic period (4th–2nd centuries BC), in the southern Levant, chickens began to be widely domesticated for food.[66] The first pictures of chickens in Europe are found on Corinthian pottery of the 7th century BC.[67][68]

Breeding increased under the Roman Empire and reduced in the Middle Ages.[62] Genetic sequencing of chicken bones from archaeological sites in Europe revealed that in the High Middle Ages chickens became less aggressive and began to lay eggs earlier in the breeding season.[69]

Africa

[edit]

Chickens reached Egypt via the Middle East for purposes of cockfighting about 1400 BC and became widely bred in Egypt around 300 BC.[62] Three possible routes of introduction into Africa around the early first millennium AD could have been through the Egyptian Nile Valley, the East Africa Roman-Greek or Indian trade, or from Carthage and the Berbers, across the Sahara. The earliest known remains are from Mali, Nubia, East Coast, and South Africa and date back to the middle of the first millennium AD.[62]

Diseases

[edit]
Main article: Poultry disease
8 day old chick with avian influenza

Chickens are susceptible both to parasites such as mites, and to diseases caused by pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. The parasite Dermanyssus gallinae feeds on blood, causing irritation and reducing egg production, and acts as a vector for bacterial diseases such as salmonellosis and spirochaetosis.[70] Viral diseases include avian influenza.[71]

Use by humans

[edit]

Farming

[edit]
Main article: Poultry farming

Chickens are common and widespread domestic animals, with a total population of 23.7 billion as of 2018.[72] More than 50 billion chickens are reared annually as a source of meat and eggs.[73] In the United States alone, more than 8 billion chickens are slaughtered each year for meat,[74] and more than 300 million chickens are reared for egg production.[75] The vast majority of poultry is raised in factory farms. According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74% of the world's poultry meat and 68% of eggs are produced this way.[76] An alternative to intensive poultry farming is free-range farming. Friction between these two main methods has led to long-term issues of ethical consumerism. Opponents of intensive farming argue that it harms the environment, creates human health risks and is inhumane towards sentient animals.[77] Advocates of intensive farming say that their efficient systems save land and food resources owing to increased productivity, and that the animals are looked after in a controlled environment.[78] Chickens farmed for meat are called broilers. Broiler breeds typically take less than six weeks to reach slaughter size,[79] some weeks longer for free range and organic broilers.[80]

A commercial chicken house with open sides raising broiler pullets for meat

Chickens farmed primarily for eggs are called layer hens. The UK alone consumes more than 34 million eggs per day.[81] Hens of some breeds can produce over 300 eggs per year; the highest authenticated rate of egg laying is 371 eggs in 364 days.[82] After 12 months of laying, the commercial hen's egg-laying ability declines to the point where the flock is commercially unviable. Hens, particularly from battery cage systems, are sometimes infirm or have lost a significant amount of their feathers, and their life expectancy has been reduced from around seven years to less than two years.[83] In the UK and Europe, laying hens are then slaughtered and used in processed foods, or sold as 'soup hens'.[83] In some other countries, flocks are sometimes force moulted rather than being slaughtered to re-invigorate egg-laying. This involves complete withdrawal of food (and sometimes water) for 7–14 days[84] or sufficiently long to cause a body weight loss of 25 to 35%,[85] or up to 28 days under experimental conditions.[86] This stimulates the hen to lose her feathers but also re-invigorates egg-production. Some flocks may be force-moulted several times. In 2003, more than 75% of all flocks were moulted in the US.[87]

As pets

[edit]

Keeping chickens as pets became increasingly popular in the 2000s[88] among urban and suburban residents.[89] Many people obtain chickens for their egg production but often name them and treat them as any other pet like cats or dogs. Chickens provide companionship and have individual personalities. While many do not cuddle much, they will eat from one's hand, jump onto one's lap, respond to and follow their handlers, as well as show affection.[90][91] Chickens are social, inquisitive, intelligent[92] birds, and many people find their behaviour entertaining.[93] Certain breeds, such as silkies and many bantam varieties, are generally docile and are often recommended as good pets around children with disabilities.[94]

Cockfighting

[edit]
Main article: Cockfight
A cockfight in Tamil Nadu, India, 2011

A cockfight is a contest held in a ring called a cockpit between two cocks. Cockfighting is outlawed in many countries as involving cruelty to animals.[95] The activity seems to have been practised in the Indus Valley civilisation from 2500 to 2100 BC.[96] In the process of domestication, chickens were apparently kept initially for cockfighting, and only later used for food.[97]

In science

[edit]

Chickens have long been used as model organisms to study developing embryos. Large numbers of embryos can be provided commercially; fertilized eggs can easily be opened and used to observe the developing embryo. Equally important, embryologists can carry out experiments on such embryos, close the egg again and study the effects later in development. For instance, many important discoveries in limb development have been made using chicken embryos, such as the discovery of the apical ectodermal ridge and the zone of polarizing activity.[98]

The chicken was the first bird species to have its genome sequenced.[99] At 1.21 Gb, the chicken genome is similarly sized compared to other birds, but smaller than nearly all mammals: the human genome is 3.2 Gb.[100] The final gene set contained 26,640 genes (including noncoding genes and pseudogenes), with a total of 19,119 protein-coding genes, a similar number to the human genome.[101] In 2006, scientists researching the ancestry of birds switched on a chicken recessive gene, talpid2, and found that the embryo jaws initiated formation of teeth, like those found in ancient bird fossils.[102]

In culture, folklore, and religion

[edit]

Main article: Cultural references to chickens

Chickens are featured widely in folklore, religion, literature, and popular culture. The chicken is a sacred animal in many cultures and deeply embedded in belief systems and religious practices.[103] Roosters are sometimes used for divination, a practice called alectryomancy. This involves the sacrifice of a sacred rooster, often during a ritual cockfight, used as a form of communication with the gods.[104] In Gabriel García Márquez's Nobel-Prize-winning 1967 novel One Hundred Years Of Solitude, cockfighting is outlawed in the town of Macondo after the patriarch of the Buendia family murders his cockfighting rival and is haunted by the man's ghost.[105] Chicken jokes have been made at least since The Knickerbocker published one in 1847.[106] Chickens have been featured in art in farmyard scenes such as Adriaen van Utrecht's 1646 Turkeys and Chickens and Walter Osborne's 1885 Feeding the Chickens.[107] The nursery rhyme "Cock a doodle doo", its chorus line imitating the cockerel's call, was published in Mother Goose's Melody in 1765.[108] The 2000 animated adventure comedy film Chicken Run, directed by Peter Lord and Nick Park, featured anthropomorphic chickens with many chicken jokes.[109][110][111]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The surgical and chemical castration of chickens is now illegal in some parts of the world.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Definition of biddy". Dictionary.com. Archived from the original on May 7, 2021. Retrieved May 7, 2021.
  2. ^ "Biddy definition and meaning". Collins English Dictionary. Archived from the original on May 7, 2021. Retrieved May 7, 2021.
  3. ^ "Chick". Cambridge Dictionary. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015.
  4. ^ "Chook". Cambridge Dictionary. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved March 4, 2021.
  5. ^ "Cock". Cambridge Dictionary. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved March 4, 2021.
  6. ^ "Hen". Cambridge Dictionary. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved March 4, 2021.
  7. ^ Cockerel. Dictionary Reference. Archived from the original on March 7, 2016. Retrieved August 29, 2010.
  8. ^ "Hen noun". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved February 2, 2024.
  9. ^ Pullet. Dictionary Reference. Archived from the original on November 9, 2010. Retrieved August 29, 2010.
  10. ^ "Overview of the Poultry Industry" (PDF). Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education. p. 8. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 23, 2020.
  11. ^ "Definition of Rooster". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on April 22, 2021. Retrieved March 6, 2021.
  12. ^ Hugh Rawson Archived July 1, 2017, at the Wayback Machine "Why Do We Say...? Rooster", American Heritage, August–September 2006.
  13. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary Archived November 11, 2020, at the Wayback Machine Entry for rooster (n.), May 2019
  14. ^ Berhardt, Clyde E. B. (1986). I Remember: Eighty Years of Black Entertainment, Big Bands. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-8122-8018-0. OCLC 12805260.
  15. ^ Shakespeare, William, Macbeth, Act 4 Scene 3, lines 217–229.
  16. ^ "Chicken". Merriam Webster Dictionary. Archived from the original on August 21, 2008. Retrieved March 4, 2021.
  17. ^ Stevens, Lewis (1991). Genetics and evolution of the domestic fowl. Cambridge University Press. pp. 11 and throughout. ISBN 978-0-521-40317-7.
  18. ^ a b "Chicken". Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute. Archived from the original on February 2, 2024. Retrieved February 2, 2024.
  19. ^ Geggel, Laura (December 8, 2016). "Forget About the Road. Why Are Chickens So Bad at Flying?". Live Science. Archived from the original on April 4, 2024. Retrieved February 3, 2024.
  20. ^ Ying Guo, Xiaorong Gu, Zheya Sheng, Yanqiang Wang, Chenglong Luo, Ranran Liu, Hao Qu, Dingming Shu, Jie Wen, Richard P. M. A. Crooijmans, Örjan Carlborg, Yiqiang Zhao, Xiaoxiang Hu, Ning Li (2016). A Complex Structural Variation on Chromosome 27 Leads to the Ectopic Expression of HOXB8 and the Muffs and Beard Phenotype in Chickens Archived November 5, 2021, at the Wayback Machine. PLoS Genetics. 12 (6): e1006071. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006071.
  21. ^ "Info on Chicken Care". Ideas-4-pets.co.uk. 2003. Archived from the original on June 25, 2015. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
  22. ^ D Lines (July 27, 2013). "Chicken Kills Rattlesnake". YouTube. Archived from the original on December 11, 2021. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
  23. ^ Gerard P.Worrell AKA "Farmer Jerry". "Frequently asked questions about chickens & eggs". Gworrell.freeyellow.com. Archived from the original on September 16, 2008. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
  24. ^ "The Poultry Guide – A to Z and FAQs". Ruleworks.co.uk. Archived from the original on November 28, 2010. Retrieved August 29, 2010.
  25. ^ Smith, Jamon (August 6, 2006). "World's oldest chicken starred in magic shows, was on 'Tonight Show'". Tuscaloosa News. Alabama, USA. Archived from the original on February 20, 2019. Retrieved May 18, 2020.
  26. ^ Perrin, P. G. (1955). "'Pecking order' 1927–54". American Speech. 30 (4): 265–268. doi:10.2307/453561. ISSN 0003-1283. JSTOR 453561.
  27. ^ Schjelderup-Ebbe, T. (1975). "Contributions to the social psychology of the domestic chicken [Schleidt M., Schleidt, W. M., translators]". In Schein, M. W. (ed.). Social Hierarchy and Dominance. Benchmark Papers in Animal Behavior. Vol. 3. Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross. pp. 35–49. (Reprinted from Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 1922, 88:225–252.)
  28. ^ Rajecki, D. W. (1988). "Formation of leap orders in pairs of male domestic chickens". Aggressive Behavior. 14 (6): 425–436. doi:10.1002/1098-2337(1988)14:6<425::AID-AB2480140604>3.0.CO;2-#. S2CID 141664966.
  29. ^ AFP (March 12, 2019). "Chickens 'teamed up to kill fox' at Brittany farming school". Theguardian.com. Archived from the original on March 13, 2019. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
  30. ^ "Top cock: Roosters crow in pecking order". Phys.org. Archived from the original on January 15, 2018. Retrieved January 14, 2018.
  31. ^ Evans, Christopher S.; Evans, Linda; Marler, Peter (July 1993). "On the meaning of alarm calls: functional reference in an avian vocal system". Animal Behaviour. 46 (1): 23–38. doi:10.1006/anbe.1993.1158. S2CID 53165305.
  32. ^ a b c Grandin, Temple; Johnson, Catherine (2005). Animals in Translation. New York City: Scribner's. pp. 69–71. ISBN 978-0-7432-4769-6.
  33. ^ Cheng, Kimberly M.; Burns, Jeffrey T. (August 1988). "Dominance Relationship and Mating Behavior of Domestic Cocks: A Model to Study Mate-Guarding and Sperm Competition in Birds". The Condor. 90 (3): 697–704. doi:10.2307/1368360. JSTOR 1368360.
  34. ^ Briskie, J. V.; R. Montgomerie (1997). "Sexual Selection and the Intromittent Organ of Birds". Journal of Avian Biology. 28 (1): 73–86. doi:10.2307/3677097. JSTOR 3677097.
  35. ^ Bain, M. M.; Nys, Y.; Dunn, I.C. (May 3, 2016). "Increasing persistency in lay and stabilising egg quality in longer laying cycles. What are the challenges?". British Poultry Science. 57 (3). Taylor & Francis: 330–338. doi:10.1080/00071668.2016.1161727. PMC 4940894. PMID 26982003. S2CID 17842329.
  36. ^ Sherwin, C.M.; Nicol, C.J. (1993). "Factors influencing floor-laying by hens in modified cages". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 36 (2–3): 211–222. doi:10.1016/0168-1591(93)90011-d.
  37. ^ "Why Do Chickens Puff up Their Feathers? I 4 Reasons Explained". August 8, 2020. Archived from the original on June 18, 2021. Retrieved June 16, 2021.
  38. ^ Zhang, H.; Wang, X.T.; Chamba, Y.; Ling, Y.; Wu, C.X. (October 2008). "Influences of Hypoxia on Hatching Performance in Chickens with Different Genetic Adaptation to High Altitude". Poultry Science. 87 (10): 2112–2116. doi:10.3382/ps.2008-00122. PMID 18809874.
  39. ^ Ali, A.; Cheng, K.M. (1985). "Early egg production in genetically blind (rc/rc) chickens in comparison with sighted (Rc+/rc) controls". Poultry Science. 64 (5): 789–794. doi:10.3382/ps.0640789. PMID 4001066.
  40. ^ Edgar, Joanne; Held, Suzanne; Jones, Charlotte; Troisi, Camille (January 5, 2016). "Influences of Maternal Care on Chicken Welfare". Animals. 6 (1): 2. doi:10.3390/ani6010002. PMC 4730119. PMID 26742081.
  41. ^ Sewalem, A.; Johansson, K.; Wilhelmson, M.; Lillpers, K. (1999). "Inbreeding and inbreeding depression on reproduction and production traits of White Leghorn lines selected for egg production traits". British Poultry Science. 40 (2): 203–208. doi:10.1080/00071669987601. PMID 10465386.
  42. ^ Xue, Qian; Li, Guohui; Cao, Yuxia; Yin, Jianmei; Zhu, Yunfen; Zhang, Huiyong; Zhou, Chenghao; Shen, Haiyu; Dou, Xinhong; Su, Yijun; Wang, Kehua; Zou, Jianmin; Han, Wei (June 1, 2021). "Identification of genes involved in inbreeding depression of reproduction in Langshan chickens". Animal Bioscience. 34 (6): 975–984. doi:10.5713/ajas.20.0248. ISSN 2765-0189. PMC 8100482. PMID 33152217.
  43. ^ Pennisi, Elizabeth (May 24, 2018). "Quaillike creatures were the only birds to survive the dinosaur-killing asteroid impact". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aau2802.
  44. ^ a b Wong, G. K.; Liu, B.; Wang, J.; Zhang, Y.; Yang, X.; Zhang, Z.; et al. (December 9, 2004). "A genetic variation map for chicken with 2.8 million single nucleotide polymorphisms". Nature. 432 (7018): 717–722. Bibcode:2004Natur.432..717B. doi:10.1038/nature03156. PMC 2263125. PMID 15592405.
  45. ^ a b c d e Lawal, Raman Akinyanju; Martin, Simon H.; Vanmechelen, Koen; Vereijken, Addie; Silva, Pradeepa; Al-Atiyat, Raed Mahmoud; et al. (December 2020). "The wild species genome ancestry of domestic chickens". BMC Biology. 18 (1): 13. doi:10.1186/s12915-020-0738-1. PMC 7014787. PMID 32050971.
  46. ^ Eriksson, Jonas; Larson, Greger; Gunnarsson, Ulrika; Bed'hom, Bertrand; Tixier-Boichard, Michele; Strömstedt, Lina; et al. (February 29, 2008). "Identification of the Yellow Skin Gene Reveals a Hybrid Origin of the Domestic Chicken". PLOS Genetics. 4 (2): e1000010. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000010. PMC 2265484. PMID 18454198.
  47. ^ a b Borrell, Brendan (June 1, 2007). "DNA reveals how the chicken crossed the sea". Nature. 447 (7145): 620–621. Bibcode:2007Natur.447R.620B. doi:10.1038/447620b. PMID 17554271. S2CID 4418786.
  48. ^ a b Storey, A. A. (June 19, 2007). "Radiocarbon and DNA evidence for a pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (25). et al.: 10335–10339. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10410335S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0703993104. PMC 1965514. PMID 17556540.
  49. ^ Fumihito, A.; Miyake, T.; Sumi, S.; Takada, M.; Ohno, S.; Kondo, N. (December 20, 1994), "One subspecies of the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus gallus) suffices as the matriarchic ancestor of all domestic breeds", PNAS, 91 (26): 12505–12509, Bibcode:1994PNAS...9112505F, doi:10.1073/pnas.91.26.12505, PMC 45467, PMID 7809067
  50. ^ King, Rick (February 24, 2009), "Rat Attack", Nova and National Geographic Television, archived from the original on August 23, 2017, retrieved August 25, 2017
  51. ^ King, Rick (February 1, 2009), "Plant vs. Predator", NOVA, archived from the original on August 21, 2017, retrieved August 25, 2017
  52. ^ West, B.; Zhou, B.X. (1988). "Did chickens go north? New evidence for domestication". J. Archaeol. Sci. 14 (5): 515–533. Bibcode:1988JArSc..15..515W. doi:10.1016/0305-4403(88)90080-5.
  53. ^ Al-Nasser, A.; Al-Khalaifa, H.; Al-Saffar, A.; Khalil, F.; Albahouh, M.; Ragheb, G.; Al-Haddad, A.; Mashaly, M. (June 1, 2007). "Overview of chicken taxonomy and domestication". World's Poultry Science Journal. 63 (2): 285–300. doi:10.1017/S004393390700147X. S2CID 86734013.
  54. ^ Wang, Ming-Shan; Thakur, Mukesh; Peng, Min-Sheng; Jiang, Yu; Frantz, Laurent Alain François; Li, Ming; et al. (2020). "863 genomes reveal the origin and domestication of chicken". Cell Research. 30 (8): 693–701. doi:10.1038/s41422-020-0349-y. PMC 7395088. PMID 32581344. S2CID 220050312.
  55. ^ Liu, Yi-Ping; Wu, Gui-Sheng; Yao, Yong-Gang; Miao, Yong-Wang; Luikart, Gordon; Baig, Mumtaz; et al. (January 2006). "Multiple maternal origins of chickens: Out of the Asian jungles". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 38 (1): 12–19. Bibcode:2006MolPE..38...12L. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.09.014. PMID 16275023.
  56. ^ Zeder, Melinda A.; Emshwiller, Eve; Smith, Bruce D.; Bradley, Daniel G. (March 2006). "Documenting domestication: the intersection of genetics and archaeology". Trends in Genetics. 22 (3): 139–155. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2006.01.007. PMID 16458995.
  57. ^ a b Thomson, Vicki A. (April 2014). "Using ancient DNA to study the origins and dispersal of ancestral Polynesian chickens across the Pacific". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (13). et al.: 4826–4831. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.4826T. doi:10.1073/pnas.1320412111. PMC 3977275. PMID 24639505.
  58. ^ Piper, Philip J. (2017). "The Origins and Arrival of the Earliest Domestic Animals in Mainland and Island Southeast Asia: A Developing Story of Complexity". In Piper, Philip J.; Matsumura, Hirofumi; Bulbeck, David (eds.). New Perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific Prehistory. terra australis. Vol. 45. ANU Press. ISBN 9781760460945. Archived from the original on November 28, 2022. Retrieved May 5, 2023.
  59. ^ Meleisea, Malama (March 25, 2004). The Cambridge History of the Pacific Islanders. Cambridge University Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780521003544. Archived from the original on September 13, 2016. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
  60. ^ Crawford, Michael H. (March 13, 2019). Anthropological Genetics: Theory, Methods and Applications. Cambridge University Press. p. 411. ISBN 9780521546973. Archived from the original on September 13, 2016. Retrieved March 13, 2019 – via Google Books.
  61. ^ Neumann, Scott (March 18, 2014). "Study: The Chicken Didn't Cross The Pacific To South America". The Two Way. NPR. Archived from the original on May 5, 2023. Retrieved May 5, 2023.
  62. ^ a b c d e The Cambridge History of Food, 2000, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 1, pp. 496-499
  63. ^ Gongora, Jaime (2008). "Indo-European and Asian origins for Chilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA". PNAS. 105 (30). et al.: 10308–10313. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10510308G. doi:10.1073/pnas.0801991105. PMC 2492461. PMID 18663216.
  64. ^ Thomson, Vicki A. (April 1, 2014). "Using ancient DNA to study the origins and dispersal of ancestral Polynesian chickens across the Pacific". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (13). et al.: 4826–4831. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.4826T. doi:10.1073/pnas.1320412111. PMC 3977275. PMID 24639505.
  65. ^ a b Peters, Carli (April 2, 2024). "Archaeological and molecular evidence for ancient chickens in Central Asia". Nature Communications. 15 (1). et al.: 2697. Bibcode:2024NatCo..15.2697P. doi:10.1038/s41467-024-46093-2. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 10987595. PMID 38565545.
  66. ^ Perry-Gal, Lee; Erlich, Adi; Gilboa, Ayelet; Bar-Oz, Guy (August 11, 2015). "Earliest economic exploitation of chicken outside East Asia: Evidence from the Hellenistic Southern Levant". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (32): 9849–9854. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.9849P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1504236112. PMC 4538678. PMID 26195775.
  67. ^ Karayanis, Dean; Karayanis, Catherine (March 13, 2019). Regional Greek Cooking. Hippocrene Books. p. 176. ISBN 9780781811460. Archived from the original on September 13, 2016. Retrieved March 13, 2019 – via Google Books.
  68. ^ Chiffolo, Anthony F.; Hesse, Rayner W. (March 13, 2019). Cooking with the Bible: Biblical Food, Feasts, and Lore. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 207. ISBN 9780313334108. Archived from the original on September 13, 2016. Retrieved March 13, 2019 – via Google Books.
  69. ^ Brown, Marley (September–October 2017). "Fast Food". Archaeology. 70 (5): 18. ISSN 0003-8113. Archived from the original on July 25, 2019. Retrieved July 25, 2019.
  70. ^ Schiavone, Antonella; Pugliese, Nicola; Otranto, Domenico; Samarelli, Rossella; Circella, Elena; De Virgilio, Caterina; Camarda, Antonio (January 20, 2022). "Dermanyssus gallinae: the long journey of the poultry red mite to become a vector". Parasites & Vectors. 15 (1): 29. doi:10.1186/s13071-021-05142-1. ISSN 1756-3305. PMC 8772161. PMID 35057849.
  71. ^ Barjesteh, Neda; O'Dowd, Kelsey; Vahedi, Seyed Milad (March 2020). "Antiviral responses against chicken respiratory infections: Focus on avian influenza virus and infectious bronchitis virus". Cytokine. 127: 154961. doi:10.1016/j.cyto.2019.154961. PMC 7129915. PMID 31901597.
  72. ^ "Number of chickens worldwide from 1990 to 2018". Statista. Archived from the original on November 27, 2020. Retrieved February 23, 2020.
  73. ^ "About chickens". Compassion in World Farming. Archived from the original on April 26, 2017. Retrieved April 25, 2017.
  74. ^ Fereira, John. "Poultry Slaughter Annual Summary". usda.mannlib.cornell.edu. Archived from the original on April 26, 2017. Retrieved April 25, 2017.
  75. ^ Fereira, John. "Chickens and Eggs Annual Summary". usda.mannlib.cornell.edu. Archived from the original on April 26, 2017. Retrieved April 25, 2017.
  76. ^ "Towards Happier Meals In A Globalized World". Worldwatch Institute. Archived from the original on May 29, 2014. Retrieved May 29, 2014.
  77. ^ Ilea, Ramona Cristina (April 2009). "Intensive Livestock Farming: Global Trends, Increased Environmental Concerns, and Ethical Solutions". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. 22 (2): 153–167. Bibcode:2009JAEE...22..153I. doi:10.1007/s10806-008-9136-3. S2CID 154306257.
  78. ^ Tilman, David; Cassman, Kenneth G.; Matson, Pamela A.; Naylor, Rosamond; Polasky, Stephen (August 2002). "Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices". Nature. 418 (6898): 671–677. Bibcode:2002Natur.418..671T. doi:10.1038/nature01014. PMID 12167873. S2CID 3016610.
  79. ^ "Broiler Chickens Fact Sheet". Animals Australia. Archived from the original on July 12, 2010. Retrieved August 29, 2010.
  80. ^ "Chickens Farmed for Meat". Compassion in World Farming. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024. Retrieved February 2, 2024.
  81. ^ "UK Egg Industry Data". Official Egg Info. Archived from the original on December 30, 2016. Retrieved April 25, 2017.
  82. ^ Glenday, Craig (April 26, 2011). Guinness World Records 2011. Jim Pattison Group. p. 286. ISBN 978-0440423102.
  83. ^ a b Browne, Anthony (March 10, 2002). "Ten weeks to live". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on May 16, 2008. Retrieved April 28, 2010.
  84. ^ Patwardhan, D.; King, A. (2011). "Review: feed withdrawal and non feed withdrawal moult". World's Poultry Science Journal. 67 (2): 253–268. doi:10.1017/s0043933911000286. S2CID 88353703.
  85. ^ Webster, A.B. (2003). "Physiology and behavior of the hen during induced moult". Poultry Science. 82 (6): 992–1002. doi:10.1093/ps/82.6.992. PMID 12817455.
  86. ^ Molino, A.B.; Garcia, E.A.; Berto, D.A.; Pelícia, K.; Silva, A.P.; Vercese, F. (2009). "The Effects of Alternative Forced-Molting Methods on The Performance and Egg Quality of Commercial Layers". Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science. 11 (2): 109–113. doi:10.1590/s1516-635x2009000200006. hdl:11449/14340.
  87. ^ Yousaf, M.; Chaudhry, A.S. (March 1, 2008). "History, changing scenarios and future strategies to induce moulting in laying hens" (PDF). World's Poultry Science Journal. 64 (1): 65–75. doi:10.1017/s0043933907001729. S2CID 34761543. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 24, 2020. Retrieved October 23, 2020.
  88. ^ Fly, Colin (July 27, 2007). "Some homeowners find chickens all the rage". Chicago Tribune.[dead link‍]
  89. ^ Pollack-Fusi, Mindy (December 16, 2004). "Cooped up in suburbia". Boston Globe. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved June 4, 2020.
  90. ^ Kreilkamp, Ivan (November 25, 2020). "How Caring for Backyard Chickens Stretched My Emotional Muscles". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 25, 2020.
  91. ^ Boone, Lisa (August 27, 2017). "Chickens will become a beloved pet — just like the family dog". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on April 2, 2019. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
  92. ^ Barras, Colin. "Despite what you might think, chickens are not stupid". www.bbc.com. Archived from the original on June 5, 2021. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
  93. ^ United Poultry Concerns. "Providing a Good Home for Chickens". Archived from the original on June 5, 2009. Retrieved May 4, 2009.
  94. ^ "Choosing Your Chickens". Clucks and Chooks. Archived from the original on July 30, 2009.
  95. ^ Raymond Hernandez (April 11, 1995). "A Blood Sport Gets in the Blood; Fans of Cockfighting Don't Understand Its Outlaw Status". The New York Times. New York City Metropolitan Area. Retrieved May 10, 2014.
  96. ^ Crawford, R. D. (1990). Poultry Breeding and Genetics. Elsevier. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-0444885579. OL 2207173M. Archived from the original on April 18, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2024.
  97. ^ Lawler, Andrew; Adler, Jerry (June 2012). "How the Chicken Conquered the World". Smithsonian Magazine (June 2012). Archived from the original on October 31, 2019. Retrieved February 2, 2024.
  98. ^ Young, John J.; Tabin, Clifford J. (September 2017). "Saunders's framework for understanding limb development as a platform for investigating limb evolution". Developmental Biology. 429 (2): 401–408. doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.11.005. PMC 5426996. PMID 27840200.
  99. ^ International Chicken Genome Sequencing Consortium (December 9, 2004). "Sequence and comparative analysis of the chicken genome provide unique perspectives on vertebrate evolution". Nature. 432 (7018): 695–716. Bibcode:2004Natur.432..695C. doi:10.1038/nature03154. PMID 15592404.
  100. ^ Gregory, T. Ryan (September 2005). "Synergy between sequence and size in Large-scale genomics". Nature Reviews Genetics. 6 (9): 699–708. doi:10.1038/nrg1674. PMID 16151375. S2CID 24237594.
  101. ^ Warren, Wesley C.; Hillier, LaDeana W.; Tomlinson, Chad; Minx, Patrick; Kremitzki, Milinn; Graves, Tina; et al. (January 2017). "A New Chicken Genome Assembly Provides Insight into Avian Genome Structure". G3. 7 (1): 109–117. doi:10.1534/g3.116.035923. PMC 5217101. PMID 27852011.
  102. ^ Scientists Find Chickens Retain Ancient Ability to Grow Teeth Archived June 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine Ammu Kannampilly, ABC News, February 27, 2006. Retrieved October 1, 2007.
  103. ^ Adler, Jerry; Lawler, Andrew (June 2012). "How the Chicken Conquered the World". Smithsonian. Archived from the original on November 3, 2012. Retrieved May 24, 2012.
  104. ^ Encyclopædia Perthensis; Or Universal Dictionary of the Arts, Sciences, Literature, &c. Intended to Supersede the Use of Other Books of Reference. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). John Brown. 1816. p. 394. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024. Retrieved February 2, 2024.
  105. ^ "Love and Immolation in Argentina". Washington Post. August 16, 1981. Archived from the original on August 27, 2017. Retrieved February 2, 2024.
  106. ^ The Knickerbocker, or The New York Monthly, March 1847, p. 283.
  107. ^ Kellogg, Diane M. (May 22, 2020). "Chickens in Art History". Painting World Magazine. Archived from the original on February 2, 2024. Retrieved February 2, 2024.
  108. ^ Opie, Iona; Opie, Peter (1997) [1951]. The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 128.
  109. ^ Corliss, Richard (December 4, 2000). "Run, Chicken Run!". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on January 24, 2023. Retrieved March 23, 2023.
  110. ^ "AFI|Catalog". Archived from the original on August 17, 2018. Retrieved August 17, 2018.
  111. ^ "'Chicken' Recipe Simply Divine / Action comedy blends great story, animation". SFGate. June 21, 2000. Archived from the original on June 2, 2021. Retrieved June 2, 2021.
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chickens.
Listen to this article (18 minutes)
Spoken Wikipedia icon
This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 22 February 2024 (2024-02-22), and does not reflect subsequent edits.
(Audio help · More spoken articles)
Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 | Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken
20 views |
↧ Download as ZWI file
Encyclosphere.org EncycloReader is supported by the EncyclosphereKSF